Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
REVISION GUIDE
EDEXCEL
Key Terms
Energy Pathways
Energy Poverty
Energy Security
Energy surplus
Geopolitics
Low-carbon standard
OPEC
Peak Oil
Security Premium
Strategic
Supply shock
Tar Sands
Energy crisis
Environmental impact
assessment
Fossil fuels
Renewable resources
Strategic Petroleum
Reserve
Energy
infrastructure
Energy TNCs
Resource
nationalisation
Carbon credit
Carbon Trading
Coal gasification
Green taxation
Microgeneration
Type
Non-renewable
Natural Gas
Non-renewable
Nuclear
Oil
Non-renewable (may be
recyclable)
Non-renewable
Solar
Renewable
Tidal
Renewable
Wind
Renewable
Biomass
Renewable
Geothermal
Renewable
Hydroelectricity
Issues
Releases large amounts of Co2 contributing to
climate change e.g. 2 billion tonnes from USA
plants per year
Carbon capture technology to remove Co2 is
unproven
Releases Co2 on use
Issues of security of supply
Health risks and accidents e.g. Chernobyl
Disposal of radioactive material an issue
Global supplies may have reached their peak
Release Co2 when burnt
Availability varies across the globe
Expensive compared with fossil fuels
Only certain locations suitable
Technology for large-scale generation unproven
Only certain locations suitable
Wind energy is variable so hard to manage power
supply
Acts as a carbon sink so combustion releases
carbon dioxide
Limited potential for large sale generation
Availability limited to a few locations e.g.
Iceland
Large scale schemes are expensive
Dam building creates wide scale flooding
COAL:
WIND
Germany world
leader at
23.6%
Germany, USA
and Spain
account for
58% globally
HEP:
China, Canada,
Brazil and
USA account
for 46% of
global total
NATURAL GAS:
OIL:
1) Physical:
Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of places
Solar power needs a large number of days a year with strong sunlight
Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations
2) Economic
Onshore deposits of oil and gas are cheaper to develop then offshore deposits
In poor countries foreign direct investment is essential to develop energy resources
Most accessible and low cost deposits of fossil fuels are developed first
3) Political
Countries wanting to develop nuclear power need to gain permission from the
International Atomic Energy Agency
International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can influence energy decisions
HEP schemes on international rivers require the agreement of all countries that share
the river
NICs:
Energy consumption
Developing Countries:
MEDCs:
The USA shows huge demands
for energy resources
Germany and UK have improved
their energy efficiency resulting
in a modest increase in demand
compared with NICs
It is important to note that the use of energy in all countries has changed over time due to:
Changes in price Electricity production in UK switched from coal to gas power stations are
they are cheaper to run
d. Eron used supply and demand to ensure energy prices remained high enough when supply was
good
Therefore the two major power companies in California were forced to shut off electricity supplies
to conserve limited stocks
In 2001, China accounted for 10% of global energy demand, in 2007 it was 15%
Per capita energy demand is still relatively small due to its huge population (e.g. 2006 consumed
less than 7 million barrels/day a 1/3rd of USA)
Controls 3% of world oil reserves (enabled China to be self-sufficient until 1995)
Potential Exam Question: Discuss how far economic development can be affected by energy
security (15 marks)
Energy security demands on resource availability, both domestic and foreign, and security of supply.
It can be affected by geopolitics because there is little excess capacity to ease pressure on energy
supplies if supply becomes disrupted. For example, following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the Arab
nations reduced the supply of oil to the USA and Western Europe to reduce their support for Israel
this created a serious energy shortage.
Since then in 1977 the USA construction a Strategic Petroleum Reserve with the initial aim to store
1 billion barrels of oil which could be used in the event of supply issues.
TransSiberi
an
Pipelin
e
The pipeline project was proposed in 1978 as an export pipeline from Russia to Europe. The pipeline
was constructed in 1982-1984. The pipeline runs from Siberia's gas field to Uzhgorod in Western
Ukraine. From there, the natural gas is transported to Central and Western European countries.
Trans-Alaskan pipeline crosses 3 mountain ranges and several large rivers. In these areas there are
issues of permafrost and to avoid this pipelines are build above ground
In the meantime European countries had to shut down industrial plants and domestic heating
systems, find alternative sources of gas or switch energy plants to oil. Schools were shut and
people had to revert to using log fires to heat their homes.
Yes:
The amount of gas Russia supplies to Europe means that any disruptions have large-scale impacts
No:
Even during the Cold war the supply of Russian gas was stable and the Europe is now looking to
enhance its energy security through:
Reducing its dependence on Russiabuilding of the South Caucasus pipeline supplying gas from
Azerbaijan via Turkey, bypassing Russian territory altogether
Press Russia and Ukraine to sign long-term contracts, with accepted pricing formulae, similar
to those that Gazprom already has with most EU countries.
Diversify its sources of energy, something that it must do anyway if it is to meet its ambitious
climate-change targets.
Potential Exam Question: Russia uses its oil and gas as a political and economic weapon. Discuss
Players involved:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Arctic Oil
This place is estimated to contain up to 25% of the worlds
undiscovered oil and natural gas. Issue regarding who can lay
claim to which parts of the ocean Russia has claimed nearly
half of the Arctic but other interested parties e.g. USA,
Norway failed to uphold their claim.
Problems:
Oil companies have already destroyed large parts of
Alaska and Siberia so should be kept out of the Arctic
New oil rush in the Arctic is only possible because of
the increased shrinking of the polar ice cap due to global warming
The Arctic is a pristine environment containing over 45 species of land and marine animals
Issue over who has the right to claim ownership of the natural resources countries who have
been conflicting over this have now agreed to sign the UN Law of the Sea Convection stating
the 8 Arctic states are allowing to exploit offshore resources within 200 nautical miles of
their territory
Benefits:
At around $70 per barrel it makes drilling in the Arctic viable. (2007 prices reached $100).
Contains up to 25% of the worlds undiscovered oil and natural gas
Players involved:
1. Arctic States USA, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland
2. UN will decide the control of the Arctic by 2020
3. Local people
4. Environmental Pressure groups
Historically the energy industries have been dominated by large TNCs such as Shell but the power of
the TNCs has been challenged by OPEC and recently national energy companies. This is due to the
fact that TNCs have come under attack from environmental groups and companies like BP have
worked hard to establish a positive public image through investments in renewable energies.
Shell consists of a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies with a strategy to reinforce
their position as a leader in the oil and gas industry in order. One of their focuses has been to
explore for new oil and gas reserves.
Key Facts:
Produce 2% amount of worlds oil
Produce 3% amount of worlds gas
3.1 million barrels of gas and oil every day
$2 billion spent on CO2 and renewable energy technologies over the last 5 years.
In 2009 greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 35% below 1990 levels.
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a
permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting
developing nations
OPEC was formed in 1960 to protect the interests of oil-producing
companies and have formed what some view as a CARTEL. Its sets
oil production quotas for its members in response to economic
growth rates and demand-and-supply conditions. It therefore aims to ensure fair and stable prices
for its members.
At the end of 2006, the OPEC members had over 78% of the worlds total oil reserves and they
produce around 45% of the worlds crude oil and 18% of its natural gas.
OPEC is criticised that it controls the price of oil as it is worried that increasing the supply of oil
would mean investors would stop investing causing a collapse in the price.
Nuclear
By 2008, 439 nuclear reactors were supplying 15% of the worlds electricity
Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions
Uranium is relatively cheap to mine and reserves should last around 150 years
Very cost effective to transport as only used in small quantities
Produces 1% of global electricity supply
1986 Chernobyl incident highlights the issues
Very expensive to build several billion pounds
Nuclear waste disposal is an issue as it remains radioactive for 10,000 years
Energy Conservation
a) Combined Heat and Power (CHP) power stations waste 65% of the heat they generate but
CHP plants can be up to 95% efficient as they can use different fuels in the same boiler
including biomass but also cut emissions and reduce fuel dependency
b) Green Taxation aimed at cutting the use of natural resources and encouraging recycling. E.g.
road tax increase in 2010 will see 9.4 million motorists pay more road tax aimed to punishing
heaviest polluting cars. The government will receive more that 1billion in additional revenue.
Emissions controls Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Countries are required to achieve specific reductions in their greenhouse emissions (average of 5%
against 1990 levels by 2012). The USA refused to sign
Emissions trading EU emission Trading Scheme meant that heavy industrial plants have to buy
permits to emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed by government. Under the Kyoto
Protcol carbon emissions are now tracked and traded like a commodity so that any excess reductions
can be sold in the carbon market
Green taxes Taxes on individuals for using air transport and pollution charges on companies. Other
ideas are aimed to reduce energy consumption such as removing stamp duty on carbon neutral homes
Offshore wind turbines Building offshore costs at least 50% more than on land but wind speeds are
generally double those on land so they can generate more electricity.
Carbon storage this involves capturing the carbon dioxide released by burning coal and burying it
deep underground, but it is not proved that the carbon dioxide will actually stay underground and it is
very expensive.
Geothermal In the Philippines 25% of the electricity is generated from underground heat which is
free and available all day. However, the heat is often too deep to be economical.
Bio fuels algae There are 3 main types; crops e.g. grasses, sugar, trees and algae. Algae are hard
to grow but produce oil that requires less refining before it becomes a bio fuel.
Assess the relative importance of named players in the global supply of energy. (15)
The development of alternative energy sources is a possible response to future energy demands.
Assess the possible costs and benefits of this approach. (15)
Explain how the world price of oil has a major impact on oil exploration by TNCs and governments (10)
Assess the potential environmental, economic and political risks in exploiting new energy resources
(15)
Suggest how the contrasting distribution/pattern of major oil exporters and importers shown in
Figure 1 could affect the energy security of some nations. (10)
Study
Figure 1.
Suggest the possible environmental consequences of the changes in electricity consumption shown.
(10 marks)
Assess the degree of uncertainty over future global sources of energy supply (15 marks)
Key Terms
Aquifer
Arid and semi-arid
Desalination
Drought
El Nino
Groundwater
High pressure
Infiltration
Irrigation
La Nina
Percolation
Potential
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
Prevailing
Privatisation
Rain shadow
Relief Rainfall
Riparian
Spatial imbalance
Stream flow
Surface runoff
Urbanisation
Virtual water
Water rights
Water Scarcity
Water Stress
Water wars
World Water Gap
A rock, such as chalk, which will hold water and let it through
Describe conditions where rainfall is less than 250mm and 500mm of
precipitation per year respectively
The conversion of salt water into fresh water
An extended period of abnormally dry weather that causes water shortages and
crop damage. A drought starts when total rainfall is well below average for
several months.
A southerly warm ocean current, which develops off the coast of Ecuador, it is
associated with major variations in tropical climates
All water found under the surface of the ground which is not chemically
combined with any minerals present, but not including underground streams
A region of high atmospheric pressure, otherwise known as an anticyclone
The process of the water entering rocks or soil
The supply of water to the land by means of channels, streams and sprinklers in
order to permit the growth of crops
An extensive cooling of the central and eastern Pacific. Globally La Nina means
that parts of the world that normally experience dry weather will be drier and
those with wet weather will be wetter.
The filtering of water downwards through soil and through bedding planes,
joints and pores of a permeable rock
The amount of evaporation and transpiration that can occur given a sufficient
supply of water
The deposition of moisture from the atmosphere onto the Earths surface in
form of rain, hail, snow, frost or sleet
Most frequent, most common
The sale of a business/industry so that it is no longer owned by the government
An area of relatively low rainfall to the lee side of uplands (sheltered from
winds). The incoming air has been forced to rise over the highlands causing
precipitation on the windward side
This forms when moisture-laden air masses are forced to rise over ground. The
air is cooled, the water vapour condenses, and precipitation occurs
Relating to a river bank. Owners of land crossed or bounded by a river have
riparian rights to use the river
The uneven distribution/location across a landscape or surface of e.g. population
The flow of water in streams, rivers and other channels.
The movement of over ground of rainwater. It occurs when the rainfall is very
heavy and when the rocks and soil can absorb no more
The migration of rural populations into towns and cities.
The amount of water used in the production of a good or service
The legal right of a user to use water from a water source e.g. a river
Can be divided into apparent scarcity which exists when there is plenty of
water but it is used wastefully, and real scarcity which is caused by
insufficient rainfall or too many people relying on a limited resource
Measured as annual water supplies below 1,700m3 per person
International conflict as a result of pressure on water supplies.
The difference between those people, who live in water poverty and those who
have ready and reliable access to water for drinking and sanitation
Industrial and domestic use has to compete with farming needs as a country develops
Daily domestic water use on average is 47 litres per person in Africa, compared with 578
litres in the USA
This has lead to the development of a world water gap with 1.4 billion lacking clean drinking water and
12% of the worlds population consuming 85% of the worlds water.
Agriculture some forms of farming are less water efficient than others e.g. a kg of beef is 10x
more water costly to produce then a kg of rice. 17% of the global area used for growing crops is
irrigated.
Industry 21% used for industry but rapid growth expected since the development of countries
such as India and China. Industry is generally a more efficient user of water then farming.
Domestic Only 10% of worlds water is used for this purpose but this varies from country to
country. Domestic demand seems to be doubling every 20 years.
How Human activity can make water stress worse pollution, over
extraction and salt water incursion
Key factors:
a) Sewage disposal in developing countries is expected to cause 135 million deaths by 2020. In the
UK we add 1,400 million litres of sewage to our rivers daily although most of it has been treated
b) Chemical fertilisers contaminate groundwater as well as river and water supplies. These add
nutrients to the water leading to an increase in the growth of algae downstream.
c) Industrial waste every year the world generate 400 billion tonnes of industrial waste which is
pumped untreated into rivers, seas etc.
d) Dams trap sediment in reservoirs which reduces floodplain fertility and the flow of nutrient
from rivers into seas.
e) Abstraction removing water from rivers and groundwater sources can cause issues that in some
arid areas rainfall can never recharge these underground stores and the removal of freshwater
from aquifers in coastal locations can lead to salt water incursion.
Ethiopia
per day
source
risk of disease
Aral Sea case study role of different key players here and
impacts
Location: north-western part of Uzbekistan and southern
Kazakhstan
Background: Formerly, one of the four largest lakes of the world
with an area of 68,000 square kilometers, the Aral Sea has been
steadily shrinking since the 1960s.
Causes:
In the early 1960's, the Soviet central government decided to make
the Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton and increase rice
production. Government officials ordered the additional amount of needed water to be taken from
the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea. Large dams were built across both rivers, and an 850-mile
central canal with a far-reaching system of "feeder" canals was created.
Impacts:
1) Over 30 years, the Aral Sea experienced a severe drop in water level, its shoreline receded,
and its salt content increased. The water level has dropped by 16 metres and the volume has
been reduced by 75%
2) The marine environment became hostile to the sea life in it, killing the plants and animals. As
the marine life died, the fishing industry suffered. All 20 known fish species in the Aral Sea
are now extinct, unable to survive the toxic, salty sludge.
3) The sea has shrunk to two-fifths of its original size and now ranks about 10th in the world.
4) Drinking water supplies have dwindled, and the water is contaminated with pesticides and
other agricultural chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses.
5) Highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals are blown from the dried-up sea
creating dust containing these toxic chemicals.
6) As the Aral Sea has lost water, the climate has become more extreme.
7) Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis and cancer, digestive disorders and infectious
diseases are common ailments in the region.
8) There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 12
in every 1,000 women.
9) The Aral Sea fishing industry, which use to employ 40,000 and reportedly produced onesixth of the Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been ruined
The stakeholders involved:
The former soviet government began the irrigation scheme designed to develop fruit and cotton
farming
Fishing community use to be a prosperous industry but now huge unemployment
Local residents health problems and highest infant mortality rates in the world
Scientists climate has now changed and extinction of species in the area
International economists people can no longer feed themselves as the land is infertile, could
create 10 million environmental refugees
P
roblems created:
Creation of storage lakes has destroyed wildlife habitats
Snowy River flow has fallen to 1%
Groundwater salinisation results from low flow
Water scarcity has lead to competition between users
Political fallout meant governments had to restore some of the flow in the Snowy River and invest
in water-saving projects
Record droughts due to El Nino have used up the water allocations
Water future s?
The issues of future projections are that climate change is occurring but its exact impact cannot be
predicted. Also continued economic growth may not be inevitable e.g. credit crunch, finally political
and religious conflicts can create further issues.
Alternative scenarios for water by 2025
Water Crisis
Business as usual
Scenario
Wider impacts
hunger
Water
Sustainable
slightly
sustainable farming
Unsustainable pumping of
groundwater would end
Players
Political
Economic (Business)
Costs
Costs
Restoration
At a local scale this can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable
methods to manage watercourses for people and the environment.
Water conservation
This involves reducing the amount of water used (demand) rather than trying to increase water
supplies. In the UK around 22% of water does not reach the end user due to leakage. Examples
include:
1)
2)
Referring to examples, assess the potential for water conflict in areas where demand exceed supply
(15)
Referring to examples, explain why future water supplies for many regions are increasingly insecure
(15)
Referring to examples, assess the validity of the statement that water conflicts are as much to do
with water quality as quantity (15)
Suggest how water resources and human wellbeing might be affected by the data in Figure 2 (10)
Explain how physical and human factors have contributed to the variation in water scarcity shown (10)
Jan 2010
Using named examples, assess the contribution of large scale water management projects in
increasing water security (15) Jan 2010
Study Figure 2.
Explain how human interference in the water cycle can affect water availability. (10)
Using named examples, assess the potential for water supply to become a source of conflict. (15)
Key Terms:
Biomass
Biome
Ecosystem
Succession
conservation
Habitat
Endemic species
Sustainable Yield
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Biodiversity Hotpot
WRI (World Resources
Institute)
MEA (millennium
ecosystem assessment)
Destruction
Degradation
Advantages
Allows accurate picture of
the diversity within a
population
Helps explain how isolated
groups have adapted to new
environments
On a basic level areas can be
compared
Disadvantages
Difficult to assess without
high-level biological skills as
DNA has to be analysed
Altitude
Hunting and direct
exploitation of flora
and fauna
Temperature
Amount of light
Rate of nutrient
cycling
BIODIVERSITY
Human effects
e.g. pollution
Endemism
Found particularly on
islands, species that
are found nowhere
else and
this
Created by Natalie
Garthwaite
2010
increases biodiversity
Humans are in
competition with
other species for
space and resources.
As human population
increases = decrease
in biodiversity
More species
can live and
interact in a
larger area
The level of
recording of species
within the region
Tropical Rainforests:
Found in South and Central America,
Madagascar, Malaysia and Indonesia
Coral Reefs:
Corals with the greatest
species are found in the
Pacific Ocean and eastern
edge of the Indian Ocean
Main patterns:
The top 5 countries with the highest diversity index are found around the EQUATOR or the
TROPICS. Countries with the lowest diversity index are found in either cold countries or ones with
large areas of desert. Greatest biodiversity is found in areas of TROPICAL RAINFOREST with +1/2
the worlds species, although they cover only 7% of the earths surface.
Biodiversity Hotpots
This is an area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. They
cover less than 2% of the earths surface but contain 44% of the worlds planet species and 35% of
the animal species. They are divided into 3 categories:
1) Continental hotspots richest in terms of biodiversity
2) Large island hotspots have distinctive species
3) Small island hotspots low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics
Aquarium trade
Medicine algae and sponges
contain bioactive compounds
used by the pharmaceutical
industry
Building materials coral
reefs are mined for lime and
stone in developing countries
Tourism some Caribbean
countries gain of their
GNP from tourism
Food in the far east, reef
fisheries feed 1 billion
people
Global Factors:
a) Climate Change expected that the climate will change so quickly that species will be unable to
adapt. Recent climate changes have shown impacts on the ecosystems:
- laying and fruiting have been advancing by several days each decade
- Coral bleaching due to warming seas has increased since 1980s
- Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide
- Polewards migration of species by an average of 6km per decade
b) Deforestation clearance of forest cover results in loss of biodiversity and resources but also
has knock-on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling
c) Pollution can cause various issues:
- Ozone depletion due to CFCs
- nitrate pollution of lakes
d) Human population growth this is forcing people to spread into more areas and is encroaching
onto areas with high biodiversity
Local Factors
a) Fire was used widely in Europe and N. America to clear forests for development. Controlled
fire as a management option is useful but large-scale burning for soya bean production causes
loss of biodiversity
b) Habitat change developing natural habitats for agriculture, minerals or urban growth e.g.
overfishing in the North Sea
Nutrient cycling
This occurs alongside the flow of energy through an ecosystem and
involves the feedback of miners from decomposed organic material
back into the plants so that they can grow and continue the cycle. In
hot climates of the tropics there is faster nutrient cycling then in
cold regions. People can impact upon the cycle by adding nutrients via
fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and
deforestation, and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients,
Precipitation
Biomass
Litter
Runoff
Movement of species
Soil
Weathering
Leaching
The movement of species can occur by accident or deliberately but has a serious threat to
ecosystems. Alien or exotic species can become established at any trophic level and often have:
- enhanced survival rates as they are more efficient competitors
- lack any native predator
- Not susceptible to native diseases
Deliberate introductions include:
1) Game species such as pheasant and rainbow trout for hunting
2) Hedgehog was imported from the Scottish mainland to the Outer Hebrides to deal with a
plague of garden slugs but have since effected the populations of ground nesting birds whom
they eat the eggs of
Accidental introductions include:
1) Alien species can arrive by ship e.g. Zebra mussel arrived in North America from the Caspian
Sea by clinging on the sides of ships. These were brought into the Great Lakes where the
multiplied to 70,000 per km2
2) Air transport was responsible for introducing snakes to the Pacific Island of Guam which had
huge impacts on the food web
Nutrient Overload
Excess nutrients are washed into the lakes and rivers but this has been increased by the human use
of fertilisers etc. The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal
blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water
leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses The extra nutrients cause increase growth in
plants but also the growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This
uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses
Eutrophication.
Less development
near pristine
environments in which
indigenous people live
mainly due to lack of
access and technology
little to stop illegal hunting. In 2008 a private organisation called Mara conservation took over
control and runs on a non-profit basis uses 50% of revenue to build roads and anti-poaching patrols
and 50% to the local tribes. This is needed as the local people have to give up cattle grazing land for
tourism but are having a hard time seeing the benefits.
Carrying Capacity
Zone of overharvest
population begins to be
threatened by overharvesting
MSY is halfway between 0 and
the carrying capacity
This was developed in the late 1980s aimed to long-term development, management
and sustainable use of natural resources. The responsibility for the area was
placed in the hands of local people and therefore an example of a bottom-up
approach. Some schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield
levels and this was then fed back into the communities. Environmentalists disagreed
with this approach as how was hunting endangered species helping to protect them?
The scheme was then undermined by the economic collapse of Zimbabwe and lack of
funding.
NATIONAL
Governments:
Regulation establish and
enforce laws to conserve and
protect various areas and
species.
Preservation preserve areas
of biodiversity often through
LOCAL
Communities:
Indigenous groups depend on
biodiversity for basic survival
e.g. spiritual significance
Farmers strong views about
conservation as it conflicts
with their aims
Individual:
In the developed world, ethical
consumerism has led to people
choosing to buy
environmentally friendly
products e.g. dolphin friendly
tuna.
Scientists and researchers
work for variety of
organisations and monitor the
state of the biodiversity
to inspire further conservation e.g. National Parks. Globally the biosphere designation of the
Galapagos Islands helped implement a zoning strategy to solve the problems the area faces.
Restoration this can include recreating wetlands or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce
a large reserve. These can be very expensive and much of the success depends on how readily plants
will reseed and how polluted the land is.
Conservation this can involve ex-situ conservation where an endangered species establish a captive
population away from its natural habitat. This includes captive breeding with release schemes and
biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanical gardens. For example giant
panda
illegal fisheries that apply great pressure on the islands marine resources (until 1990s only a
few hundred fishers were involved but by 1999 660 were registered as global over-fishing
grew due to demand for seafood and speciality products e.g. shark fins)
lack of an adequate legal framework to ensure the long-term preservation of the islands
Tourism since 1969 charter flights began bringing people to the islands and it became the
main economic activity employing 70% of the active population. In 1998 - $75 million was
generated through tourism. However out of this only around 1% is used to support
conservation.
Conservation
1936: the Galapagos National Park (GNP) established
1968: Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began
1984: Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program
1986: The Galpagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established to include all waters
within 15 nautical miles
1992: Zoning plan for Marine Resources reserve included 4 zones:
General Use Zone for sustainable use of the reserve
Recreational Fishing Zones for the benefit of residents
National Marine Park Zones for human activities where natural resources are neither damaged
nor removed
Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted.
2002: Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance
.
Techno garden
Using technology to help provide ecosystem
services
Excellent sharing of ideas at a global level
May become over reliant on technology
Wealth increases in poor countries as
3) Development
- Increased numbers of tourists had lead to the development of Port Douglas changing the
villages character
4) Climate Change a global temperature increase could threaten the distinctive ecosystems
environment
5) Logging the commercial timber industry in began in Daintree in the 1930s. The rainforest acts
as a carbon store so the removal of these releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere adding to the
greenhouse effect
Impacts
Economic
Social
Environmental
Short-term
Money spent by
tourists
Impact on tribes
Local people suffer
from congestion and
overcrowding
Increase in population
Medium-term
$147 million per year
3500 jobs created
Destructive of native
tribes as they lose
their land and move
away
Cultures westernised
Long-term
Infrastructure improved
e.g. tarmac roads
Australian heritage lost
Increase in population =
increase in house prices =
local people move out
Tourism could decline
Breeding patterns
affected
Food web disrupted
Management of Daintree
Key players:
a) Wet tropics Management authority = formed in 1990 to research and monitor the state of
the wet tropics. Looks at developing management agreements with land holders and native
tribes.
b) Cairns Regional council- aimed to gradually reduce population in Daintree. Increased ferry
costs to reduce number of visitors and rejected plans for a bridge across the river as
more people would endanger the rainforest.
c) Australian Rainforest Foundation operation BIG BIRD the cassowary given a wildlife
corridor to protect it. Money given to buy back land from developers and return it to
rainforest
d) Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland community based looking at a sustainable
future for people and wildlife. They are for a ban on development in the area.
e) Australian Tropical Rainforest Foundation build visitor centres and education facilities to
highlight the global importance of the tropical rainforest ecosystems.
f) Rainforest co-operation research council community development allowing up to 1400
people to live in the area but must conserve the land. Looks to identify hotspots for
conservation where no development is allowed. Aims to recognise the rights of native
people to own land and promote their culture in the forest.
Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the hot-spot approach to biodiversity
management (compared with other strategies) (15 marks)
Evaluate the relative importance of global and local threats to one named global ecosystem (15 marks)
Assess the role played by different players in managing areas in which biodiversity is under threat
(15 marks)
How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for development with the need to manage biodiversity
(14 marks)
Referring to examples, discuss the threats to biodiversity hotspots and why these threats could
prove critical (15)
Explain how human activities have contributed to the condition of ecosystem goods and services. (10)
Using named examples, evaluate the success of global actions designed to protect biodiversity. (15)
Explain the pattern of alien species invasions, and suggest the possible impacts of alien species on
ecosystems. (10)
Key Terms
Capitalism
Cold War
Colonialism
Communism
Cultural Imperialism
Dependency theory
Development theory
Direct influence
Disparity
International Monetary
Fund
Market economy
Modernisation theory
NATO
Neo-colonialism
Privatisation
Purchasing Power Parity
Superpower
Tariff
USSR
World Bank
World Trade
Organisation
stops short of full-scale war e.g. US vs. Soviet Union following World
War II
The system or policy in which a country maintains foreign colonies
A form of political development that aims to create equality and a
classless society.
Promoting the culture of one society into another e.g. Tea to India
Notion that resources flow from a periphery of poor and
underdeveloped states into a core of wealthy states
A number of theories outlined how desirable change is best achieved
The power of persons or things to affect others by means of power
based on wealth
The inequality or difference
An international organisation established by the UN to promote monetary
cooperation, international trade and stability
An economy in which prices are determined by buyers and sellers with a
relatively high degree of freedom
The socio-economic development and process that evolves from a
traditional society to modern economies e.g. USA
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation founded in 1949 for the purposes of
opposing communism during the Cold War.
Describes the ways in which rich countries dominate the economy of
poorer countries through economic imperialism rather than political
control
The process of moving from a government controlled system to a
privately run system
The value of gross national income related to local prices
A nation that is able to project its power and influence anywhere in the
world
A government tax on imports or exports
Soviet Union a former communist country in eastern Europe and
Northern Asia established in 1922. Was dissolved in 1991
UN agency created to assist developing nations by issuing loans
Set up in 1995 to open up and ensure fair play in international trade.
USA
USA is the 3rd largest
USSR
Worlds largest country with
World Systems theory would suggest that industrial capitalism was born in Europe and that the rise
of India and china is another stage of the growth and spread of the global economy. Dependency
theory however would see the current growth as a shift back to an older world order when India and
China were powerful economic forces as Frank believed Britain and other European powers were the
first NICs.
Path to development:
China state-led industrialisation and intensification of agriculture but largely cut off from the rest
of the world.
India Home-grown technology with high import tariffs, still however mainly a rural society.
In 1957 Ghana gained independence from British colonial rule and in recent years has been seen to be
making progress in economic and social indicators. For example GNP has risen from $5.7 billion to
$14.9 billion in the last 20 years. However Ghana is still very much influenced by external factors,
perhaps identifying an example of neo-colonialism?
External factors:
1) Commodity markets in London and New York
- Cocoa prices depend on global demand which may vary
- Competition with Ivory Coast for cocoa. If prices in Ghana are too high, buyers will purchase
for lower-priced countries
2) Overseas Tariffs
- EU import tariffs are much higher for processed cocoa than for raw beans. This means
Ghana is better off exporting raw cocoa beans as import costs are lower and they would make
more money
- Means that Ghana is unable to develop its own processing industries as most of this is done in
Europe = loses out on value added
3) WTO
- Before 1995 Ghanaian government subsidised its farmers to encourage them to stay on the
land and grow food for their growing cities
- Ghana then joined the WTO in an attempt to increase its global trade
- WTO imposed joining condition that the Ghanaian farmers could no longer be subsidised
- Farmers could no longer compete with imports of heavily subsidised foreign food e.g. EU
tomatoes are cheaper to buy then home-grown ones
United Nations
(UN)
World Trade
Organisation
(WTO)
North Atlantic
Treaty
Organisation
The G8
Davos Group
Function
Monitors the economic and
financial development of
countries. Lends money to
countries facing difficulties
Gives advice, loans and grants
to reduce poverty and promote
economic development
Prevents war and arbitrates on
international disputes.
Trade policy, agreements and
settling disputes. Promotes
global free trade
Military alliance between
European countries and the
USA
Meetings about global policy
direction for western
democracies
Swiss based non-profit
foundation to discuss business
and profits
Members
44 governments originally now 185. USA = 17%,
EU=25.7%, Africa =1%
Reflects USA concerns so lent to countries
threatened by communism. Can impose conditions
Similar to IMF. USA = 16%. Bad reputation in
1970s for financing projects that caused
environmental damage and created debt. MDGs!
192 members in 2008. Most influential
international alliance in the world
All countries get 1 vote but votes never actually
just through mutual consent with biggest
markets deciding outcome. Allows subsidies for
USA and EU!
Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power?
The WTO established a series of trade agreements since the 1950s which have resulted in huge
growth in trade and wealth:
Removal of taxes and tariffs on imports
Removal of quotas on imports
Removal of subsidies for domestic producers
This has therefore seen the growth of areas such as Asia e.g. China and India but the decline in
Africas share of world trade as the international trade is mostly in the hands of TNCs who have
decided not to invest in Africa and in Asia they have developed free trade zones which attract more
investment.
However the idea of free trade for some countries is an illusion as trade takes place between trade
blocs e.g. EU and NAFTA. Thos countries not a member of a trade bloc still have to pay tariffs and
quotas etc.
Finally developed nations also control innovation and technology which are not shared with developing
nations. 75% of fees/royalties go to three main powers, USA, EU and Japan.
Environmental Costs
Social Costs
Although Chinas stature and power are growing it needs to look to resolve some of its environmental
and social costs to ensure long-term sustainability. China is however one of the few countries trying
to tackle their issues e.g. rapidly increasing their forest cover, wind turbines and solar panels.
In August 2007 Russian submarines planted 2 flags on the Arctic seabed claiming sovereignty
over a large area
Referring to examples discuss the factors that cause power to shift between superpowers over time
(15)
McDonalds restaurants
around the world
the environment
Theoretical ways of reducing the development gap
The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gap
Key Terms:
Aid
Apartheid
Bilateral aid
Bottom-up development
Capital-intensive
Debt service
Development
Development gap
Formal economy
Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)
Gross National Product
(GNP)
Human Development Index
(HDI)
Informal economy
Investment
Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs)
Multilateral aid
Multiplier Effect
Neo-liberalism
Out-sourcing
Per capita
Purchasing Power Parity
(PPP)
Structural Adjustment
Programmes (SAP)
Tied Aid
Top-down development
Trade liberalisation
Poverty Cycle
Idea that less developed countries are trapped in
a continually cycle of poverty because of a lack of
money and low incomes. Did not take into account
the rapid economic growth of countries like China,
India and South Korea. Also does not consider
the amount of foreign aid or loans from
international banks.
Dependency Theory (Frank)
Countries like the USA control and exploit less
developed areas of the world. This produces a
relationship of dominance and dependency which
can lead to poverty and underdevelopment.
Globalisation
Countries are becoming increasing connected and interdependent at a global scale. Global flows that
connect places involve the movement of people, capital, technology, ideas and information.
Debt
In the last 50 years, many poor countries accepted loans from rich countries and interest payments
on loans affect development as they put pressure on the financial situation in the country. Debt is
also an issue due to corruption within developing countries governments which divert loan money from
the intended target and trade barriers imposed by developing countries which make it hard for
poorer countries to export their goods.
Example
International
Monetary
Fund
World Bank
World Trade
Organisation
International
Commercial
TNCs e.g.
Nike
National
Political
Governments
NGOs
Unicef,
Oxfam
Background information
Impacts of cotton
10 million small-scale
cotton growers suffering
from falling prices
Small scale farmers can
earn up to $1000/year
3 million Malians rely on
cotton to survive
Breathing problems
due to cotton fibres
Farming cotton
gives a farmer 3x
the average annual
income
Plans to privatised
USA Cotton
Large scale
production e.g. 1
16,000 acre farm
makes enough
cotton for 200,000
t-shirts
The slack in world
production of
clothing has been
taken up by China
and Pakistan
In countries that
subsidise their
farming, only 5% of
the population are
farmers
If cotton subsidies to
USA farmers were
scrapped prices would
have risen for African
farmers by 3.5%
Reduced cotton prices
by 15%
Law passed banning
export subsidies on
cotton
WTO ruled in March
2007 that cotton
subsidies were unfair
Widespread malaria
and cholera
At risk from
droughts especially
linked to climate
change
Raw material
exploitation has led
to destruction of
the natural
environment e.g.
mining, removal of
trees for
agriculture
Housing:
New migrants dont have any
money so end up in temporary
Created by Natalie Garthwaite 2010 settlements on unwanted land e.g.
marshy, polluted, along transport
routes
Environment:
Deprivation:
FACTORS AFFECTING
MEGACITIES
Location of megacities
Challenges created:
Employment
Urban Poor
Environment
al quality
Challenge
Unemployment of 23%
33% of city workforce is self-employed
Child labour high in poorest households
Home to 80% of the 2 million garment
industry employees
28% of population classed as poor, 12%
extremely poor
Only 5% live in permanent housing
4.2 million live in slums
Only 27% connected to public sewer
Poor water management cost $670
million each year
Poor air regulation = air pollution above
national standard 100 days per year
Polluted water sources = disease
spreads quickly
Solution/recent developments
2 export zones created to encourage
export of goods
Bashundhara City created with hightech industries and businesses
Improvements in drains and
sanitation
Back to home programme encourages
people to return to villages with help
Local community health volunteers
Ban on leaded petrol
Work in improve water quality, supply
and sanitation cost $100m
Public information on causes and
impacts of poor air and water quality
Promoted clean gas-powered cooking
stoves
The positive and negative impacts of countries trying to close the gap
on migration and the environment
Migration: increased migration flows are a vital part of development and include both international
(into the country e.g. business, technicians and out of the country as they seek a better life) and
internal flows from rural to urban areas.
Benefits
Costs
Source area/country
Natural increase slows as
young adults leave
Less pressure on resources
Remittances sent home
Populations become older
Loss of skilled workers
Westernisation of returning
migrants
Host area/country
Declining populations
boosted by migrants
Labour force filled
Multicultural society
Racial/social tensions
Gender concentrations e.g.
only males
Increased pressure on
resources
Environment: as a country develops its environmental pollution and ecological footprint becomes
larger. Economic development raises demand for resources and countries tend to exploit them as
quickly as possible without thinking of the environmental costs e.g. SYNOPTIC LINK TO CHINA
CASE STUDY
Neo-liberal 1980-1990s looked to remove tariff barriers to encourage international trade. This
allowed countries to develop through trade and governments should look to privatise and reducing
state intervention in the economy. This however, tended to make the rich richer and the poor poorer.
Examples e.g. World Bank, world Trade Organisation
Marxism idea that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by the owners and that
history has mainly been a conflict between these 2 classes. Sought to replace existing class
structures with a system that managed society for the good of all
Populism idea that supports the people in the struggle against societys ellite. Also known as
grassroots action it is an important element of bottom-up planning e.g. NGOs
Non-development some people are against the idea of development as it creates and widens
inequalities, undermines local cultures and is environmentally unsustainable.
Definition
Benefits
Provided by
many nations
and organised
by international
bodies e.g. UN
Bilateral
Given directly
from one
country to
another
Voluntary
Run by NGOs
or charities
such as Oxfam,
Action Aid
Top-down
Capital
intensive and
government
lead.
Bottom-up
Negatives
Fails to reach the poorest people
Benefits are short-lived
Often a number of disasters occur in
a short period so people give less
money
The WB notorious for implementing
conditions that consequences for
recipient countries
Often tied to the purchase of goods
and services from the donor country
Use of aid on large capital intensive
schemes can worsen the conditions of
the poorest people
Can create a culture of dependency
Interest repayments
They rely on the generosity of the
public as well as donations from
governments for their funds. This
means that their cash flow isnt
always guaranteed
Criticised as inappropriate way of
helping poor countries
Aid often fought over by different
interest groups = lack of investment in
productive business activities
Often money diverted to rich people
rather than the poor
They rely on the generosity of the
Example
Brandt Report suggested each
country should give 0.7% of its
GNP towards. However most
countries do not get close to
reaching that target
decision making
Analyses the locals needs and
looks for solutions
Uses appropriate technology
Fair Trade
Debt
cancellation
Aimed to
improve the
terms of trade
between North
and South
through the
Fair Trade
Foundation
Tourism
Technology
Access to
mobile phones
in the
developing
countries could
help bridge the
digital divide
South to South
Links
Encourages recipient
governments to spend aid more
effectively
Workers are learning new skills
Employing local people
New trading links developed
Mongolia
The Asia-Pacific Development
Organisation Programme
(APDIP) has developed citizen
information centres which
function as training centres
which visitors can learn basic
computer skills and access the
internet. Remote rural areas
can connect to the central
government and apply for grants.
Aims to encourage business and
collages to use IT and
counteract the issue of the
periphery
China in Africa
China increased its aid to
African governments, cancelled
$10 billion debts. China hopes
that by doing this it will open up
new markets and find new raw
MDGs
Provide a
framework for
monitoring the
development
gap and
measuring any
progress
towards
reducing it
Evaluate the role of different global organisations in narrowing the development gap. (15)
Using Figure 4 and your own knowledge, explain why some groups of people within a country have a
lower level of development than others. (10)
Using named examples, assess the advantages and disadvantages of top-down and bottom-up
development strategies (15)
Evaluate the role of trade in bridging the development gap (15)
Examine the role played by debt in maintaining the global development gap (15)
Examine the barriers that exist against the expansion of trade in some developing countries (15)
How far are patterns of global trade responsible for maintaining the development gap? (15)
Assess the view that economic development is not possible without causing environmental degradation
(15)
Key Terms
Biotechnology
Digital Access Index
(DAI)
Digital Blackout
Digital Divide
DNA
Environmental
determinism
Extended polluter
responsibility
Externalities
Genetic modification
Global Shift
information and
communications
technology (ICT)
Intellectual property
Intermediate
technology
Pandemic
Patent
Polluter Pays
Principle
Technological
Leapfrogging
Technology poor
Technology rich
Over time people have used technology to control nature, so that their lives are less controlled by
environmental factors e.g. an umbrella when it is raining. Generally people will accept new technology
if they think it will improve their quality of life. Techies embrace new developments to the luddites
who are opposed to technological change. In the USA Amish Christians reject modern technology for
religious reasons.
Wealth
- 2/3rds of all those infected by
HIV live in Sub-Saharan Africa but
cannot afford the annual treatment
costs
Politics
- 31 countries operated nuclear
power plants in 2007
- Western powers that used
military force, economic sanctions
and tied aid to prevent countries
gaining access to nuclear technology
e.g. Iran
Green Revolution
Research institutes e.g.
International Rice Research
Institute
First crop IR8 was rice but other
varieties now replace it as more
resistant
HYV rice grown in Asia
HYV wheat grown in Latin America
HYV crops in Africa
Rapid growth allows 2 crops
per year
Yields 10xs traditional rice
Now bred to be disease and
pest resistant
India been self-sufficient in
rice since 1980s
Yields of wheat, rice and maize
grew by 2% year between 19671996
1 ) Solar polarisation larger
farmers could afford fertilisers
etc so benefited the most
2) Monocultures HYVs are
vulnerable to new strains of
disease
Gene Revolution
TNCs and bio-tech companies
Externalities of technology
For every technology there are unexpected consequences of its use which can be both positive and
negative. There are various different approaches to externalities and their impacts:
Polluter Pays Principle way of accounting for the pollution which is a negative externality. It
quantifies the cost of pollution and passes it back to the producers, or user of a technology. It can
be implemented through 2 approaches:
1) Command and control new technologies are introduced to limit pollution. In the USA all cars
built since 2004 must be fitted with a catalytic converter to reduce their emissions
2) Market based governments introduce pollution controls, carbon trading permits and product
labelling e.g. British government introduced Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) bands based on the
amount of C02 that a vehicle emits. This aims to encourage people to drive cars which
produce less carbon dioxide.
Pollution Sink the carbon dioxide we produce from burning fossil fuels is released into the
atmosphere. It was assumed that the sink was large enough to cope but the WWF living Planet Index
suggested that using the environment as a sink for pollution has serious consequences that will need
to be addressed
Capturing pollutants for single-point polluters such as power stations the use of carbon capture and
storage (CCS) technology can be used.
Aim
Benefits
Negatives
Example
Appropriate
Designed with
special
consideration to
the environmental,
ethical, cultural,
social, political, and
economical aspects
of the community it
is intended for.
Refer to relatively
low, usually labour
intensive
technology that can
be mastered by
local people,
especially in the
developing world
Also known as
large-scale
megaprojects which
reflect a top-down
approach
It is appropriate to the
level of income, skill and
needs of the local
population
Fewer resources are
needed
Easier to maintain
Less impact on the
environment
See above
See above
China
Have favoured megaprojects as a quick
way to modernise the Chinese economy
and most of the leaders are trained
engineers.
Gained a 8% GDP annual growth rate
e.g. Three Gorges Dam
- Increased pollution as the river can no
longer regulate itself
- 4 million people displaced
- Several species threatened with
extinction
Intermediate
Civil
engineering
Alternative
Refer to
technologies that
are more
environmentally
friendly than the
functionally
equivalent
technologies
dominant in current
practice.
Micro
Technology
Includes providing
developing nations
with connections to
ICT and mobile
phones
Nano
technologies
See GM/Green
revolution table
Enables developing
countries to become
part of the globalised
network of
communications
Leapfrogging of old
technologies enables
fast development in
certain areas
See GM/Green revolution
table
Geoengineering
Looks to engineer
our own planet than
rather attempting
to find a new one
Maldives
Building of a $32 million artificial island
of Hulhumale between 1997-2002. It is
built 2 metres above sea level and it
designed to reduce overcrowding on
existing islands and also replace them if
they are drowned by rising sea levels
Space mirrors
Attempt by Russia in 1999 to launch giant
mirrors into orbit to reflect solar
radiation away from Earth to create a
cooling effect. Costs expected $1 trillion
Technological Convergence the spread of the motor vehicle is an example of this and they allow
individual mobility, road transport which is key in development as it allows markets and networks to
operate and transport in an industry accounts for up to 10% of the GNP providing jobs and income
growth. The launch of the Tata Nano in India priced at $2500 will allow the poorer people to access
transport. Also leads to other problems such as increases in Co2 emissions.
Energy efficiency The Automotive X Prize is a global competition to find a 100mpg four-passenger
car. The winner will receive $7.5 million and aims to encourage technological breakthroughs. Other
examples include; electric cars, hydrogen cars and bio fuel cars.
Technology transfer IMF report concluded that education was the key to ensuring people in less
developed parts of the world could benefit from new technologies. The commitment to development
technology index shows the developed worlds willingness to allow this technology transfer.
Technology transfers do occur but often rely on NGOs to provide the funding required to purchase
and install the technology e.g. Practical Action
Evaluate the contribution technology might make to tackling global environmental problems such as
land degradation and global warming. (15)
Using named examples, discuss the extent to which there is a widening technology gap between the
developed and developing world. (15)
Technology can be seen to have unforeseen consequences. Discuss this with reference to examples
(15)
Some are able to access new technology to solve environmental problems while others are left to
suffer from environmental determinism. Referring to examples, assess the validity of this viewpoint
(15)
Examine the importance of technological leapfrogging for developing countries (15)
The development of technology is a possible response to future resource shortages. Assess the
possible costs and benefits to this approach (15)
Assess the view that economic development is not possible without appropriate technologies (15)
Explain how both taxing and subsidising petrol can have impacts on human and ecosystem wellbeing.
(10)