OverviewandTimeline

ThecivilizationofAncientEgyptwasoneoftheearliestinworldhistory.Itisusuallyheldtohave
begunaround3000BC,whenthelowerNileValleybecameunifiedunderasingleruler.Bythisdatethe
onlyotherpeopleintheworldtohaveaaliterate,urbancivilizationweretheSumerians,
inMesopotamia.
TimelineofAncientEgyptiancivilization:
c.5000BC:ThecomingoffarmingtotheNileValley
c.35003000:ThePredynasticperiod,leadingtotheunificationofEgypt
c.2650:ThebeginningoftheOldKingdom
c.25752465:TheGreatPyramidsofGizabuilt
c.2150:ThefalloftheOldKingdomleadstothe1stIntermediateperiodbegins
2074:TheMiddleKingdombeginsEgyptisunitedandpowerfulagain
1759:ThefalloftheMiddleKingdomleadstothe2ndIntermediateperiod,andtheoccupationofnorhernEgyptbythe
Hyksos
1539:ThereunificationofEgyptandtheexpulsionoftheHyksosbeginstheNewKingdom,aperiodwhenEgyptbecame
aleadingpowerintheMiddleEast
13441328:ThepharaohAkhenatoncarriesoutashortlivedreligiousreformation
13361327:Tutankhamenreigns
12791213:ThereignofRamsesIIbringsEgypttotheheightofitspower
c.1150onwards:TheNewKingdomfallsintodecline
728:EgyptisconqueredbyNubiankings
656:EgyptisoccupiedbytheAssyrians
639:TheEgyptiansexpeltheAssyriansandbeginaperiodofrevival
525:EgyptisconqueredbythePersians
332:EgyptisconqueredbyAlexandertheGreat
305:Ptolemy,oneofAlexandertheGreat'sgenerals,foundsaGreekspeakingdynasty
30:Cleopatra,thelastqueenofindependentEgyptinancienttimes,dies,andEgyptisannexedbytheRomanEmpire

Ascanbeseen,aswellasbeingoneoftheearliest,AncientEgyptwasoneofthelongest
lastingcivilizationsinworldhistory.ThegreatdaysofAncientEgyptfellbetweenc.3000BCandc.
1000BC,butthecivilizationremainedverymuchagoingconcernforcenturiesafterthis.Egyptwasa
leadingMiddleEasternpoweragainbetween612and525BC,andtheMacedonianconquerorAlexander
theGreatfelttheneedtohavehimselfcrownedaspharaohin332BCwhichsuggeststhatthe
civilizationofthepharaohsstillhadlifeinit.Hisgeneral,Ptolemy,onbecomingindependentrulerof
thecountryin305BC,wasalsocrownedpharaoh,andhislinelasteddowntothefamousqueen,
Cleopatra,whodiedin31BC.SomemayregardthecivilizationofEgyptunderthePtolemiesasbeing

moreGreekthanEgyptian,buttheoldercivilizationwasstillvitalenoughforthekingstofeeltheneed
topresentthemselvestotheirsubjectsinthetraditionalstyleofthepharaohs.Afterthat,
theNileValleybecameaprovinceoftheRomanempire,andwasruledfromoutsideitsbordersfor
nearlyathousandyears.Duringthistimeitsculturechangedoutofallrecognition.
Thisperiodofhistory,betweenthecivilization'sbeginningsinc.3000BCtoitsconquestbytheRomans
in31BC,wasalmostathousandyearslongerthantheperiodbetween31BCandthepresentday.
Location

EgyptissituatedintheNileValley,inthenortheastofAfrica.Itsoriginslayinseveralchiefdoms
inUpperEgypt,atAbydosandHierakonpolis,whichthenspreadnorthwardstowardsMemphisand
theMediterranean.By3000BC,theunifiedkingdomofEgyptoccupiedtheentireNileValleynorthofa
seriesofrapidscalledthe1stCataract(theothercataractslayinachainstretchingsouthalongthe
RiverNileintopresentdaySudan).Atitsgreatestextent,inc.1250BC,AncientEgyptoccupiedtheland
inalldirectionsfromtheSyriancoastinthenorth,totheRedSeaintheeast,downtheNileValley
toNubiainthesouth,andspreadingwestinlandintotheLybianDesert.
ThelifeofAncientEgyptcenteredaroundtheriverNileandthefertilelandalongitsbanks.The
farmersinthelong,narrowNileValleydevelopedirrigationmethodstocontroltheflowofthewater,
sothatcropscouldgrowthroughbothitsrainyanddryseasons.Thevalleywasfertileandrich,
creatingvastsurplusesofcropsthatmadepossibleincrediblebuildingprojectssuchasthePyramids
andthetemplesofLuxor.Thesurpluseswerealsousedtofundarefinedlifestylefortheeliteto
developoverseastradeanddiplomacyandtopayforwarsofconquest.
Theachievementsofthecivilizationinvolvedinnovationsinwritinghieroglyphicsanddemoticin
administrationinquarryingandsurveying,mathsandarchitectureinirrigationandagricultural
methodsaswellasindevelooingsomeoftheearliestships.
Government

TheAncientEgyptiancivilizationproducedthefirstgovernmenttoruleanentirenation.TheSumerians,
whoweretheonlyotherpeopletohavealiterateandurbancivilizationby3000BC,livedinsmallcity
states,eachnumberingnomorethanafewtensofthousandpeople.TheunifiedkingdomofEgypt,on
theotherhand,coveredanentirecountrythousandsofsquaremilesinsizeandwithmillionsof
inhabitants.
ThePharaohwastherulerofAncientEgypt,bothpoliticallyandreligiously.ThePharaohheldthetitle
'LordoftheTwoLands',meaningthatheruledallofUpperandLowerEgyptand'HighPriestofEvery
Temple',meaningthatherepresentedallthegodsonalltheEarth.InEgyptianeyes,thepharaohwas
agodhimself,whostoodbetweenheavenandearth.Hispersonalwelfareandthewelfareoftheentire
peoplewereboundtightlytogether.
Pharaohwasinchargeofthearmy,andwouldgotowarwhenhislandswerethreateneddemanding
valuablegiftsfromtheconqueredpeopleifvictorywasobtained.
TohelpthePharaohingoverningtheland,anelaborateorganizationofofficials,scribesandoverseers
theworldsfirstcivilservicedeveloped,bringingthereachofgovernmentdowntothelowliest
villager.Egyptwasdividedintonomes,whichwereadministrativeregions(upto42ofthem),each
governedbyanomarch.Pharaohhimselfwassurroundedinhispalacebyhighofficials,ministersand
courtiers.FormuchofAncientEgyptshistorythePharaohwasservedbyapowerfulchiefminister
calledaVizier.HerepresentedthePharaohintheadministrationoftheland,treasuryandlegal
system.Templeswereusedasplacesofworshipandalsoasgranariesandtreasurieswheregrainand
goodswerestored.
TheArmy
SoldiersofancientEgyptianarmieswerearmedwithbowsandarrows,spears,androundtoppedshieldsmadefrom
stretchedanimalskinoverwoodenframes.Weaponsandarmourcontinuedtoimproveaftertheadoptionofbronze:
shieldswerenowmadefromsolidwoodwithabronzebuckle,spearsweretippedwithabronzepoint,andthebronze
Khopeshahookshapedslashingweaponwasintroduced.IntheNewKingdom,chariotsbecameastandardpartof
thearmy.

Pharaohsareoftenshownridingattheheadofthearmy.Modernscholarstendtothinkthismaybeapropaganda
device,asforacommanderinchieftobefightinginthethickoftheactionalongsidehistroopswouldnotnecessarily
havebeenthebestplaceforhimtobe.Onoccasion,however,hemaywellhavedonemanycommandersin
subsequenthistoryhavechargedintobattleinpersonwhenconditionscalledforthiskindofexample.Whatisnotin
doubtisthatbeingthecommanderofthearmywasanimportantpartofthePharaoh'srole.
TheprimedutyofthearmywastodefendEgyptagainstforeigninvasion.Itwasalsoattimesdeployedinconquering
andoccupyingforeignpossessions,inprotectingminingexpeditionstotheSinaiandNubia,andingarrisoningfortsalong
importanttraderoutes,especiallyinNubia.
Religion
TheancientEgyptiansworshippedmanygodsandgoddesses.TheseincludedRa,thesungodIsis,thegoddessof
natureandmagicHorus,thegodofwarandOsiris,thegodofthedead.Thepantheonofgodsandgoddessesgradually
changedovertime,asnewgodsbecamemoreimportant,andsomelessso.Theriseandfallofgodsandgoddesses
seemstohavemirroredthepoliticalfortunesofthedifferenttemplesandpriesthoods.Forexample,whentherulersof
ThebesbecamekingsofallEgypt,andfoundedtheNewKingdom,itslocalgodAmunbecamethechiefgod,andwas
unitedwithRatobecomeAmunRa.
Godswereworshippedintemplesrunbypriests.Thesewerenotapparentlyplacesofpublicworship:theplacewhere
thegod'simagewaslocatedwasusuallysealedofffromtheoutsideworld.Onlyonoccasionswasthegodbroughtout
andshowntothepublic.SmalldomesticstatueswereusedbynormalEgyptianstoworshipthegodsandgoddessesin
theirownhomes.Charmsandamuletswerewornforprotectionagainsttheforcesofevil.
Egyptianreligiousbeliefsabouttheafterlifealsochangedovertime.Inearlytimes,theafterlifeseemstohavebeen
intimatelyconnectedtothepreservationofthephysicalbodybymummification.Thisalwaysretainedsomeforce.
However,theideagrewupthathumanbeingsarecomposedofbothphysicalandspiritualaspects.Afterdeath,thelatter
livedon.Somepeoplebecomedisembodiedsouls,orghosts,wanderingtheearthbutifjudgedworthy,apersoncould
becomea"blessedone",livinginalandofgoodnessandplenty.

EconomyandSociety
Aswithallpreindustrialcivilizations,AncientEgyptseconomywasbasedonagriculture.Thegreat
majorityofthepeoplewerepeasantfarmers.BecauseofthefertilenatureoftheNileValley,theywere
abletoproducethelargesurpluswhichsustainedtherefinedlifestyleofthePharaohandhiscourt,his
officials,thepriestsandalltheothermembersoftheelite.Peasantsalsoprovidedthemasslabour
whichbuiltthepyramidsandtemplesalongtheNileValley.
Agriculture
FarminginEgyptwasdependentcompletelyontheNileRiver.Justafewmilesawayfromtheriver,onbothsides,was
bonedrydesert.

SatelliteImageoftheNileRiverhps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile#/media/File:Nile_composite_NASA.jpg

ThefloodingseasonlastedfromJunetoSeptember,depositingalayerofwonderfullyfertilesiltonthelandbesidethe
river.Asmuchasthefloodwateraspossiblewasstoredintanksandponds.Afterthefloodwatershadreceded,the
growingseasonlastedfromOctobertoFebruary.Egyptreceivesverylittlerainfall,sofarmersirrigatedtheirfieldswith
riverwaterfromthereservoirs,andfromtheriveritself.Ditchesandcanalscarriedthewatertothefields.

Trade
TradeinsideEgyptwouldhavebeengreatlyaidedbythepresenceoftheRiverNile,andbythefact
thatnopartofthecountrylaymorethanafewmilesfromthisgreatwaterway.Untilmoderntimes,
foranythinglongerthanverysmalldistances,watertransporthasalwaysbeenmuchlessexpensive
thanlandtransport.Numeroustownsdottedtheriverbank,centresoflocaladministration,andoflocal
markets.Egypthasoftenbeenregardedasacivilizationwithoutcities.Thisisnottrue.Unlikethe
Sumerians,Egyptiancitieswerenotindependentstateshowever,therewerenumerousurban
settlementsintheNileValley,andMemphiswasoneofthelargestcitiesintheworld,ifnotattimesthe
largest.
IntheBronzeAge,internationaltradewasalmostthesameasdiplomacy,takingtheformof
exchangesofgiftsbetweenrulers.TheEgyptianswereideallysituatedtotakefulladvantageofthis.
BeforethedevelopmentoflongrangetraderoutesacrosstheSahara,theNileValleyfunctionedasthe
onlypinchpointthroughwhichtradegoodsfromsubSaharanAfricacouldflownorthto
theMediterranean.TradingexpeditionsrangedfarsouthintothepresentdaySudanandtheRedSeain
searchofexoticgoodssuchasivory,gold,ostrichfeathersandblackslaves.Thesehighlyvalued
commoditiesunderpinnedEgypt'sinfluenceintheinternationalworldoftheBronzeAgeMiddleEast,
findingtheirwaytoHittite,SyrianandMesopotamiancourts.
Mineralresources
Egyptisrichinmineralresources,andthesewerewellexploitedinancienttimes.Limestoneandgranitequarries
occurredalongtheNilevalley.Intheeasterndesertwasminedporphyry,alabaster,carnelianandemeralds.Therewere
extensivegoldminesinNubia.CoppersmeltedfrommalachiteoreminedintheSinai.IrondepositsfoundinupperEgypt

wereutilizedintheLatePeriod.
Manyofthesemineralsweretobefoundindistant,inhospitablelocationsintheeasternandtheSinaideserts.They
requiredlargeexpeditionstogetatthem.Thesewereorganizedbythegovernment,andoftenhadtobeprotectedby
troops.However,thesenaturalresourcesallowedtheancientEgyptianstobuildmonuments,sculptstatuesofallsizes,
manufacturemetaltoolsandfashionjewellery.

Society
Asinallsocietiesoftheancientworld,peasantfarmersmadeupthebulkofthepopulation.However,
thelandwasownedbythePharaoh,orbyoneofthetemples,whichwereimmenselywealthy,orbya
noblefamily.Peasantswerealsosubjecttoalabourtax,andwereattimesrequiredtoworkonpublic
projectssuchasirrigationorconstructionworks.
Craftsmenseemtohavehadahigherstatusthanfarmers.Mostoftheseprobablyworkedfortemples
orthestate.ScribesandofficialswereofhighrankinancientEgyptiansociety.Withinthiselitegroup
werealsopriests,physiciansandengineersandfromthemweredrawntheleadingpriests,ministers
andcourtiers.
Attheverytopwastheroyalfamily,belowwhichwasapowerfulclassofhereditarylandowners
(nobles).SlaverywasknowninancientEgypt,butitsextentisunclear.Mostslavesseemtohavebeen
usedasdomesticservantsinwealthyhouseholdsratherthanasagriculturalworkers.Bylaw,slaves
wereabletobuyandsell,likeotherpeople,orworktheirwaytofreedom.

WomenseemtohavehadacomparativelyhighstatusinEgyptiansociety.Likemen,theycouldown
andsellproperty,makecontracts,marryanddivorce,receiveinheritance,andpursuelegaldisputesin
court.Marriedcouplescouldownpropertyjointly.Somewomenenjoyedhugestatusashigh
priestesses.Ontheotherhand,asinvirtuallyallancientsocieties,publicofficewasalmostalways
reservedformen.
Writingandliterature
Thefirsthieroglyphicwritingthathascomedowntousdatesfromc.3000BC.Ahieroglyphcanrepresentaword,a
sound,orasilentdeterminativeandthesamesymbolcanservedifferentpurposesindifferentcontexts.Egyptian
hieroglyphicwritingiscomposedofhundredsofsymbols,whichcouldbereadinrowsorcolumns,andineitherdirection
(thoughinthemajorityofcases,writtenfromrighttoleft).

Anexampleofcursivehieryoplyhpicwriting:EgyptianBookofthe
Deadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs#/media/File:Papyrus_Ani_curs_hiero.jpg

Hieroglyphicswere,asfarasweknow,exclusivelyusedonstonemonumentsandintombs.Intheirdailywork,scribes
usedanotherkindofwriting,calledhieratic.Thisusesacursivescript(thatis,joinedupwriting)whichwasfarquicker
andeasiertousethanhieroglyphics.Hieraticwritingwasalwayswrittenfromrighttoleft,usuallyinhorizontalrows.
Later,around500BC,andthereforetowardstheendofAncientEgyptiancivilization,anewformofwriting,Demotic,
cameintowidespreaduse.Thiswasaphonetic,semialphabeticalscript,whichbeganlifeasthetranscriptionof
everydayspokenlanguage,butovertimedevelopedintothelanguageofliterature,highcultureandreligion.
Literature
Egyptianhieroglyphicliteratureisfoundonpublicmonuments,andthewallsoftemplesandtombs,andconsistsof
recordsofthedeedsofgodsandmen,aswellaspoetry.Lovepoetry,hymns,proverbs,spellsandcurses,instructional
andmedicaltexts,andmythsandlegends,arefoundinhieratic,andlaterdemoticscripts.Oneofthebestknown
examplesofEgyptianliteratureisacollectionofspellsdatingtotheNewKingdomperiodandlabelledthe"Bookofthe
Dead":itsobjectistoenablepeopletopasssuccessfullyfromthislifeintothenext.
TheStoryofSinuheisprobablythebestknownworkofEgyptianliteraturethathascomedowntous.Anotherpopular
taleistheStoryofWenamun,whichgivesaninsightintoEgyptinitsdecliningphase.
Art

Muchoftheartwhichhascomedowntousisfuneraryartartdesignedforthetomb.TheAncient
Egyptiansbelievedthatlifecouldcontinueintotheafterlife,andsothedeadwereaccompaniedintheir
gravesbyeverydayandluxurygoodsincludingartobjectstohelpthemenjoytheirnewlife.
AncientEgyptianartemphasisedarigidstylewhichchangedremarkablylittleoverthemillennia.This
didnotmeanthatEgyptianartwasunchangingbutchangetookplacewithinfairlynarrowbounds.
Ironically,inthedecliningcenturiesofAncientEgyptiancivilization,itsartbecamemoreconservative
andrigid,harkingbacktothegloriousdaysofold.
TheiconicEgyptiantwodimensionalstyleisfoundintombs,templesandstatues.Egyptianstatues
werecarvedfromstoneandrock,orwoodasacheapalternative,withpaintobtainedfrommineral
oresquarriedfromsurroundingareas.

Thekastatueprovidedaphysicalplaceforthekatomanifest

Thekastatueprovidedaphysicalplaceforthekatomanifest
hps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt#/media/File:Ka_Statue_of_horawibra.jpg
Thewallpaintingsintombsoftendepictlivelyscenesofeverydaylife,bringingthisancientcivilization
vividlytolife.Thehousesofthewealthyalsohadrichlypaintedwallswithscenesofpeople,birds,waterpools,
deitiesandgeometricdesigns.
Architecture

TheAncientEgyptiansbuiltsomeofthemostaweinspiringstructurestheworldhaseverseen,suchas
thePyramidsofGiza.TheconstructionofpyramidswasinfactrestrictedtotheearlierdaysofEgyptian
civilization.Latermonumentalarchitecturecanbeseenmostclearlyinthetemplesandgiantstatuesof
theValleyoftheKingsandAbuSimbel.
TheaverageEgyptianlivedinasimplemud,woodorbrickabode,withtheelitehavingelaboratemulti
roommansionswithrichlypaintedwalls,decoratedfloors,andbuiltaroundcourtyards.
Technology

Mathemetics
TheAncientEgyptiansdevelopedhighlevelsofmathematicalskillstoenablethemtobuildtheir
pyramidsandtempleswithremarkablysimpletools.Theremathematicsseemstohavebeenofamore
practicalnaturethanthatoftheMesopotamians,andthereforemayhaveinfluencedlatercivilizations
lesshowever,thispracticalmathematicsmusthavebeenofaveryhighorderindeed.
Medicine
AncientEgyptianfunerarypractices,whichinvolvedembalmingthedead,didnotleadtodetailed
knowledgeofhumananatomy.Nevertheless,Egyptianmedicineacquiredanexcellentreputationinthe
AncientWorld.AncientEgyptiandoctorscouldstitchupwounds,repairbrokenbonesandamputate
infectedlimbs.Cutswerebandagedbyrawmeat,linen,andswabssoakedwithhoney.Opiumwasalso
usedasapainkiller.Onionsandgarlicwereusedashealthfoodsinthediet.
CloseproximitytotheNilemeantthatwaterbornediseases,suchasmalaria,wererife.Other
commonailmentsincludedphysicalstressescausedfromalifeoflabour.Lifeexpectancywasbetween
30(women)and35(men),howeveraboutonethirdofinfantsneverreachedadulthood.
ShipBuilding
ThelongriveralongwhichAncientEgyptiancivilizationflourishedwasanidealenvironmentforthe
developmentofboattechnology.Asearlyas3000BCanEgyptianshipof75ftinlengthhadbeenbuilt.
Planksofwoodwereoriginallyheldtogetherbystraps,withreedsorgrasspushedintosealthegaps.
Soontreenailswereusedtoholdplankstogether,withpitchandcaulkingtoclosetheseamsand
mortiseandtenonjointshadalsobeendeveloped.However,despitehavingshipsonwhichtosail,they
werenotrenownedasgreatsailorsanddonotseemtohaveengageinshippingacross
theMediterraneanorRedSeasonaregularbasis.

DepictionofanAncientEgyptianSeafaring
ship:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt#/media/File:Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg'

AncientEgyptinWorldHistory
TheclearestevidenceforthelegacyofAncientEgyptcanbeseeninarchitecture.ThelaterEgyptian
templeslookverysimilartoearlyGreektemplesandithasbeensuggestedthattheAncientGreeks
gottheveryideaofmonumentalbuildinginstonefromtheEgyptians.
OtheritemsofEgyptslegacyarehardertopindown.ArchaicGreeksculptureseemstobemore
closelyrelatedtoMesopotamianandastronomicalmodelsthanEgyptiansimilarly,Greekmathematics
bearsacloserrelationshiptoBabylonianprecedents.
Whatisunmistakableisthatthisancientcivilizationhasexercisedanunmatchedspelluponfuture
civilizations.TheGreeksalreadyregardedEgyptasalandofwisdomandmystery,andtheAncient
RomanfascinationwithEgyptcanbeseeninthenumberofobeliskstobefoundinthecityofRometo
thisday(someofthemshippedfromEgypttotheimperialcapital,otherscopiesofEgyptianmodels).
ThemedievalArabswroteaboutEgyptiancivilization,andthemodernEuropeanfascination
withEgyptwasfuelledbyNapoleonsconquestofthecountryin1798.ModernEgyptologystartedat
thatdate,andhascontinuedeversince.Today,Egyptisoneoftheprimetouristdestinationsofthe
world,witnessingtotheongoingfascinationwiththis,oneoftheworldstrulygreatcivilizations.
Sowhat,insum,istheplaceofAncientEgyptinworldhistory?Itissurelythishere,almostatthevery
beginningsofrecordedhistory,wasagreatcivilizationwhichproducedwonderfulart,architecture,
engineering,literature,medicineandsoon.Thewiderangeofhighlydevelopedpracticaltechniques
theseinvolvedweretransmittedtootherpeoplesandlaterculturesbutmorethanthis,whatan
inspirationitmusthavebeenforthecivilizationswhichcameafter!WeknowthatmanyGreeksand
RomanstravelledtothelandofEgypt,andwereawedbythemagnificentremainstheysawthere.In
short,AncientEgyptsetthebarhigh!

HISTORICALOVERVIEWOFANCIENTEGYPT:
TheHistoryofAncientEgypt
Clickhereforsourcesusedandsuggestionsforfurtherreading

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