Design II Mannual CF

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGM
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KOVILVENNI 614 403
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
CH 1407- Chemical Process Equipment Design and Drawing / Compiled by, R.ARUL KAMALAKUMARPage
1
DESIGN MANUAL BOOKLET NO:1

COMPILED BY
R.ARUL KAMALAKUMR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CONTENTS
1.
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger04
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.08

Condenser.15
EVAPORATORS...22
i.
Single Effect Evaporator...27
ii.
Multiple Effect Evaporator...29
Distillation Column (Bubble Cap)..32
Absorption Column.46
Cooling Tower..52
Adsorption Column
Packed Extraction Column
Rotary Drier
11.
3
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

A. General Design Considerations:
Simplest type of heat exchanger
Consists of two concentric pipes having different diameters, arranged so
that to form inner and outer pipes leading to annular space. This
facilitates the flow of hot and cold fluids, inside and in the annular space,
either concurrently or counter-currently.

Usually hot fluid flow through the annular space.
High pressure in the tube i.e about 20 kg/cm2 is desirable.
They are usually assembled in 12,15 or 20 feet effective length.
The two legs of the inner pipes are connected by a return which is usually
exposed and does not provide effective heater surface and the unit
resemble a hairpin.
Pressure drop: The best use of double pipe heat exchanger is to increase
the mass velocity which also increases heat transfer coefficient for an
exchanger at low pressure drops. For each pump stream 10 psi is fairly
standard except where the flow is by gravity.
B. Advantages:
Double pipe exchanger construction is very simple.
It is advantageous and beneficial for small heat loads and for heat transfer
areas up to 20 m2
C. Disadvantages:
Heat transfer area available is very small.
Uneconomical where more heat transfer area is required.
Time and cost involved in dismantling and cleaning is high, when
compared with other heat exchangers.
4
4. Design Procedure:
5
1. If at all specified choose counter current flow.

2. Find out whether to proceed with the calculation using LMTD or not. Calculate
T 1T 2
T 1=T h T c
, where
T h 1=T hoT co
and
T 2=T h T c
and
T h 2=T hi T ci
T h =Temperature of hot fluid ;
(For counter-current),
(For co-current)
T h =Temperature of hot fluid out
T c =Temperature of cold fluid ; T c =Temperature of cold fluid out

1
If
T 1 / T 2
T lm =
T lm
).
( T 1 T 2)
ln
T lm =
is more than 2 proceed the calculation using LMTD(
T 1
T2
( )
(for co-current flow)
( T 2 T 1)
ln
T2
T1
( )
(for counter current flow)
3. Calculate heat duty (Q) and/or mass flow rate of hot/cold fluid.
Q=mcold C p T lm=mhot C p T lm
cold
hot
hi
4. Tube side heat transfer coefficient ):
hi= j H
C
k
0.33
0.14
( )( ) ( )
k
di
6
0.14
( )
is 1 for water
jH
Calculate
value from graph
vs
jH
from page 294
Binay K. Dutta (Fifth printing March 2006)
N =
di G
k C
d eq
k
,m
=mass flow rate
0.14
( )( ) ( )
d eq
d eq =
0.33
( ho )
5. Shell side heat transfer coefficient
ho = j H
, Where G is mass velocity
is equivalent diameter
( D2i d 2o )
do
Calculate
N =
jH
using
d eq G
, Where
N
G=
2 2
( D d oi )
4 i
6. Calculate Clean heat transfer Coefficient
1 1 1
= +
u c hi ho
Where
(U c )
1 1
=
uo uc
7. Calculate Overall heat transfer Coefficient
(U o)
1 1
= +R
U o uc d
Where
Rd
is dirt factor
7
Calculate
Uo
8. Calculate length of tube (L):
Q=U o A T lm
A=
Q
= d i
L
U o T lm
L=
A
di
9. Like wise calculate the length of the tube for co-current and / or counter
current by changing
T lm
value in the step no 8.
5. Design Summary:
1. Heat flow rate Q
2. Mass of cold or hot fluid
3. LMTD
( T lm )
for co current and counter current flow
4. Inside heat transfer coefficient (tube side)

5. Outside hat transfer coefficient (Shell side)
6. Overall clean coefficient
hi
ho
Uc
7. Overall heat transfer coefficient
Uo
8. Heat transfer area A for Co current and Counter current flows

9. Length of the tube for Co current and Counter current
8
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGR

A Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger consists of a bundle of tubs enclosed in a cylindrical
shell. The end of the tubes are fitted into tube sheets. Baffles are provided in the shell
direct the fluid flow and to support the tubes.
Shell and Tube Exchanger Sectional

View
Shell and Tube Exchanger General

View
9
1-1 Heat
Exchanger
1-2 Heat Exchanger
A. General Design Considerations:

1. Tubes:
The tube diameters are in the range of 5/8 to 2 are used. Mostly 5/8
to 1 are preferred.
The length of the tubes vary from 6,8,12,16,20. Longer tubes reduces
the shell diameter. The optimum length is usually 5 10.

To start with the design calculation is the preferable trail diameter.
The tube arrangements might be equilateral triangular, square, rotated
Square pattern.
Triangular and rotated square patterns give higher heat transfer rates.
Recommended tube pitch is 1.25 times tube outside diameter.
10
Tube Dia Space and Pitch
Tube Arrangement
2. Shell:
Normal shell diameter is 6 to 42
Tube count tables usually gives the estimate of the no of tubes that
could be accommodated in standard shell sizes, for commonly used
tube sizes.
Pitches and no. of passes can be found from standard reference or
hand book.
The principal shell arrangements are one pass shell, split flow, divided
flow, two passes, double split flow. The split flow and divided flow are
used to reduce the shell side pressure drop.

Single segmental baffles are commonly used. The term baffle cut is
used to specify the dimension of segmental baffles. Baffle cuts of
15 -45 % are used.
11
Generally a baffle cut of 20-25% is optimum.

A close baffle spacing will give higher heat transfer coefficient but at the
expense of high pressure drop. Optimum spacing is 0.3 to 0.5 times shell
diameter.
3. Fluid allocation:
Sl No
Factor
Fluid Allocation
Comment
Corrosion
More corrosive fluid is to be allocated
Replace of shell is difficult and
Fouling
to the Tube side

The fluid having highest tendency to
expensive
Cleaning the tube is easier and the
foul should be allocated to the tubes
allowable higher velocity in the
Fluid
Higher temperature fluid should be
tube reduces fouling

This will reduce the shells outer
Temperature
allocated to the tubs
temperature and this is for safety
Operating
Higher pressure fluid should be
reasons.
High pressure tubes are less
Pressure
Pressure Drop
allocated to the tubes

Fluid with lowest allowable Pressure
expensive than high pressure shell

For the same pressure drop, higher
drop should be allocated to the tube
heat transfer coefficient will be on
side
High viscous material should be
the tube side than the shell side

Higher heat transfer coefficient will
allocated to the shell side
be obtained provided the flow is
Viscosity
turbulent.
High viscous fluid may plug the
7
Stream flow
Fluid with lowest flow rate should be
rates
allocated to the shell side
tubes
Will give more economical design
4. Fluid Velocities:
Higher fluid velocities will give higher heat transfer coefficient, but lead
to higher pressure drop.

Higher velocities will reduce fouling.
Typical recommended velocities are as follows:
1. For Liquids
Tube side
Process
Fluid
Water
Velocity( m/s)
1 -2
Shell side
All Fluids
Velocity (m/s)
0.3 1 m
1.5 2.5
2. For Vapors:
For vapors the velocity depends on the operating pressure.
If operating pressure is atmospheric then the velocity is 10-30 m/s
If it is higher, then the velocity is 5-10 m/s
12
5. Stream Temperature:
The closer the temperature approach, the larger will be the heat transfer area
required for the given pressure.
In general the greater temperature difference should be at least 20C. The
least temperature difference is 5 - 7C
6. Pressure Drop:
In selecting the pressure drop, an economic analysis is made to design an
exchanger which gives lowest operating velocity taking both capital and
pumping costs into account.
For liquids if the viscosity is 1 Nm/s2, the pressure drop is 35 kN/m2
For Gases and Vapors:
For high vacuum the pressure could be 0.4 0.8 kN/m2
For medium vacuum , it is (0.1 X Absolute pressure) kN/m2
For 1 2 bar, it is (0.5 X Gauge pressure) kN/m2
For 10 bar, it is (0.1 X Gauge pressure) kN/m2
7. Design Procedure:
1. Based on the problem given calculate
T ave, h=
Where
T ave, c =
Where
T ave
for hot and cold streams
T h 1 +T h2
,
2
T h1T h 2
are temperature of hot fluid in and out.
T c 1+T c 2
2
T c1T c 2
are temperature of cold fluid in and out.
2. Calculate
T h 1 T h 2
T h 1=T h1T c 2
and
T h 2=T h2 T c 1
3. Find dimensionless temperature ratios R and S

(Note: Where R is the capacity ratio, equal to the shell side fluid flow rate times the
fluid mean specific heat.
S is the temperature ratio (also represented as
), which is measure of the
temperature efficiency of the exchanger.)
13
R=
T h1 T h 2
T c 2T c 1
S=
and
T c2 T c 1
T h1 T c 1
Using this R and S, using the graph (Pg No: 292, Binay K. Dutta) Calculate
FT , the LMTD Correction factor.
4. Calculate the LMTD
LMTD
T 1T 2
F T = T lm
T 1
ln
T 2
5. Calculate the heat load Q:
Q=mc C pc T c =mh C ph T h
Where
C pc C ph
are Specific heats of cold and hot fluid.
6. In this step assume the value
Uo
overall heat transfer coefficient and
proceed with the calculations and finally it is possible to determine it

according to the given condition.
From table 8.2 (Page 297, Binay K.Dutta) . The selection of
Uo
should be based
on the type of operation specified in the problem (Condensation, Heating,

Vaporization or Heating / Cooling (with no phase change) and based on the hot and
cold fluid given in the problem, the selection of the fluid (hot and cold) should be the
nearest approximation from the given list. This will give more realistic
value. Let us consider

7. Based on the
Ao=
Uo
Uo
U o (assumed)
assumed, calculate heat transfer area
Ao
Q
U o(assumed ) T lm
8. Fix the tube side and shell side fluid based on the guidelines given or from
standard book. Also assume tube pitch arrangement. For shell and tube
heat exchanger better to go for triangular pitch.
14
9. No of tubes
Ao
A
Where
Ao
is heat transfer area and A is the outer
surface area of one tube. Assume no of pass (N).

length of the tube.
Calculate tubes per pass
nP
A= d o L
, L is the
n
, n P= N
d 2i
Area per pass A P =n P 4
10.Tube side velocity
ut =
ut
m
A p , where m is tube side mass flow rate.
11.Calculate the bundle diameter
D b=d o
n
k1
( )
1
n1
(find the value of
where
k 1n1
Db
are constants.
k 1n1 , from the table no 12.4 on Page no 649, Coulson and
Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition, Vol 6 based on the no of

passes and type of pitch arrangement)
Then calculate the shell inside diameter
D i=Db +Clearence
Di
(where Clarence is estimated from the table no 12.10 on Page no 646, Coulson and
Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition,
Vol 6 based on the bundle diameter)
12.Next step is to calculate tube side and shell side heat transfer coefficients
hiho
, it is necessary to remember that the values calculated here are
Uo
tentative one and based on the assumed
. Anyway the actual value is
calculated subsequently in the coming steps by imparting various factors

and actual overall design coefficient
UD
12.1. To calculate tube side coefficient
will b calculated.
hi
15
1
hi
k
=j
( N Prt ) 3
t Ht di
( )
Where
is
thermal
j Ht (Colburn Factor )
conductivity
of
tube
side
N Ret
is estimated based on the
fluid
and
, using the table
8.11a, Page no 294, Binay K.Dutta.
N Ret =
d i ut
N Prs =
and
cp
k
12.2. Similarly calculate for shell side coefficient
ho
1
ho
k
3
=j
( N Prs )
s Hs d eq
( )
N Res =
us
d eq u s
(is
shell side velocity)
m
A s , where
As
is shell side area
(cross flow area)
As=
( P td o ) Di Baffle space
Pt
Pt
Where
is the pitch of the tube
diameter. Baffle space is
1
5
N Res
N Res
, and
do
tube inside
d eq
1.27 2
2
pt 0.785 d o )
(
do
d eq (for triangular pitch)=

Calculate the
of shell diameter.
Calculate the equivalent diameter
d eq (for square pitch)=
1.25 d o
1.10 2
pt 0.917 d 2o )
(
do
j Hs (Colburn Factor)
is estimated based on the
, using the table 8.11b, Page no 295, Binay K.Dutta.
13.Make the viscosity correction and actual inside and outside heat transfer
coefficient,
'
'
hiho
16
Then corrected heat transfer coefficients are as follows:

'
hi =
hi '
t t
( )
and
0.14
( )
't =
Where
Where and
ho '
o o
( )
'
ho =
and
0.14
( )
'o =
are viscosity of the fluid and viscosity of the
fluid at wall temperature.

For
the
nomogram
given
for
temperature
viscosity
of
the
fluids
viscosity
is
from,Fig.14,
to
be
page
calculated
using
821-823,Process
the
Heat
Transfer by Donald Q.Kern
Calculate the wall temperature and subsequently viscosity.
Wall temperature
T w =T cave +
hi
t
( )
hi h o
+
t s
( T have T cave)
14.Calculate the friction factor for tube side and shell side using
N Ret
and
N Res
15.Calculate overall inside heat transfer coefficient
hio =h 'i
hio
di
do
16.Calculate overall design heat transfer coefficient
di
1
1
= + R odo+ Ri di
U d Uc
do
( ),
RoR i
UD
are dirt/fouling factor usually
given in the problem.
UC
is the overall heat transfer clean coefficient
17
d o ln
di
do
1
1
= ' +h1
+
U c ho io
2 ks
Where
ks
is the thermal conductivity of the shell metal.
8. Design Summary:
1.
T Ave h
2. R,S,
and
T aveC
T h1, T h2
FT
3. LMTD and LMTD (Corrected)
Ao
4. Heat transfer area

5. No of tubes, n
ut
6. Tube side velocity,

7. Bundle diameter
8.
hi ho
,
t s
9.
h'i , h'o
heat transfer coefficient based on the assumed
Uo
the corrected heat transfer coefficients
10. Friction factor for tube side and shell side

11.
hio
Overall inside heat transfer coefficient
Uc
12. Clean coefficient

13. Design coefficient
UD
CONDENSER
Condensers are the coolers whose primary purpose is the removal of latent heat of
vapors instead of sensible heat. The construction and design is similar to other shell
and tube heat exchangers, but with a wider baffle spacing. (Usually baffle spacing (
) equal to the shell diameter (
Ds
lB
18
1. Classification
Condensers are classified by what goes on inside them than the process location
or services.
1.1 Single Vapor
Saturated Vapor
Saturated Vapor
Superheated Vapor
Condensation inside the tubes
- Total or partial condenser

tubes
- Condensation and sub-cooling
outside the tubes
- Condensation and sub-cooling
outside the tubes
- De-superheating, condensing
and sub-cooling
Condensation of steam
Condensers falls under this category are the modification of 1-2
heat
exchangers and may b referred as 1-2 condensers. These condensers usually

require provision for large entrance space so that the vapor is not subject to too
great pressure drop. (eg. Power plant condensers)
1.2 Vapor
Mixtures
Binary mixtures
Vapor mixture with long condensing range
Vapor mixture with non condensable gas
Vapor mixture forming immiscible condensate
Single vapor or vapors with non condensable gas
19
Horizontal 1-2 Condenser
20
Whatever may be the case four condenser configurations are possible.

1. Horizontal, with condensation in the shell, and the cooling medium in
the tube
2. Horizontal, with condensation in the tubes
3. Vertical, with condensation in the shell
4. Vertical, with condensation in the tubes
Horizontal shell side and vertical tube side are the most commonly used types
of condenser. A horizontal exchanger with condensation in the tubes is rarely
used as a process condenser, but is the usual arrangement for heaters and
vaporizers using condensing steam as the heating medium.
2. Pressure drop for condensing vapor in a Condenser
For having a good vapor distribution the pressure drop consideration is
necessary. Also this will help to space the baffles accordingly.
For a pumped vapor, a pressure drop of 5 psi is allowed
For gravity systems, the allowable pressure drop is 1-2 psi
When it becomes difficult to meet the allowable pressure drop, a lower
pressure drop could be achieved by having split or divided flow
3. A comparison between Horizontal and Vertical Condensers
S. No
Factor
Horizontal
Vertical
Condensing
Coefficient
The horizontal coefficient will

be 3.07 times as the vertical
60% of the vapor condenses

In the upper half of the tube. Any
coefficient Provided the film is
way the advantage of having
streamline
transition of vertical film into
Condenser
For condensing the exhaust
turbulent flow is not appreciable

Large condensation surface in a
surface area
steam from turbine requires a
vertical condenser could not be
large surface area and heat
achieved, as gravity return is not
transfer coefficient required is
suited for this type of operation
high and for such services

horizontal condensers are
3
Maintenance
Sub cooling
used
Is cheaper and easier when
Maintenance and structural support
compared with others
for the vertical condenser is costly
Not suitable
and difficult
Suitable and is done specially when
the overhead product is volatile
liquid to the storage
21
4. Design Procedure
1. Using the given data find out the heat required to be removed, Q
Q=m C p T
If it is sensible heat use
, If latent heat use
Q=m
2. Based on the Q calculate the mass flow rate of the unknown stream
T ave
3. Based on the problem given calculate
T ave, h=
Where
T ave, c =
Where
4. Calculate
for hot and cold streams
T h 1 +T h2
,
2
T h1T h 2
are temperature of hot fluid in and out.
T c 1+T c 2
2
T c1T c 2
are temperature of cold fluid in and out.
T h 1 T h 2
T h 1=T h1T c 2
and
T h 2=T h2 T c 1
5. Find dimensionless temperature ratios R and S

(Note: Where R is the capacity ratio, equal to the shell side fluid flow rate times the
fluid mean specific heat.
S is the temperature ratio (also represented as
), which is measure of the
temperature efficiency of the exchanger.)
R=
T h1 T h 2
T c 2T c 1
and
S=
T c2 T c 1
T h1 T c 1
Using this R and S, using the graph (Pg No: 292, Binay K. Dutta) Calculate
FT , the LMTD Correction factor.
6. Calculate the LMTD
LMTD
T 1T 2
F T = T lm
T 1
ln
T 2
22
Uo
7. In this step assume the value
overall heat transfer coefficient and
proceed with the calculations and finally it is possible to determine it

according to the given condition.
From table 8.2 (Page 297, Binay K.Dutta) . The selection of
Uo
should be based
on the type of operation specified in the problem (Condensation, Heating,

Vaporization or Heating / Cooling (with no phase change) and based on the hot and
cold fluid given in the problem, the selection of the fluid (hot and cold) should be the
nearest approximation from the given list. This will give more realistic
value. Let us consider
Uo
8. Based on the
Ao=
Uo
U o (assumed)
assumed, calculate heat transfer area
Ao
Q
U o(assumed ) T lm
9. Fix the tube side and shell side fluid based on the guidelines given or from
standard book. Also assume tube pitch arrangement. For condensers it is
better to go for square pitch. Also fix the type of the condenser ie horizontal or
vertical.
10.No of tubes
Ao
=n
A
Where
Ao
is heat transfer area and A is the outer
surface area of one tube. Assume no of pass (N),

of the tube.
nP
Calculate tubes per pass
di
Area per pass A P =n P 4
A= d o L
, L is the length
n
, n P= N
If length of the tube is not given then assume no of passes and proceed
with the calculation.
Calculate the pitch
Pt =1.25 d o
11.Calculate the bundle diameter
D b=d o
n
k1
( )
1
n1
where
, Where
do
is pipe outside diameter
Db
k 1n1
are constants.
23
k 1n1 , from the table no 12.4 on Page no 649, Coulson and
(find the value of
Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition, Vol 6 based on the no of

passes and type of pitch arrangement)
Di
Then calculate the shell inside diameter
D i=Db +Clearence
(where Clarence is estimated from the table no 12.10 on Page no 646, Coulson and
Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition,
Vol 6 based on the bundle diameter)
12. Calculate no of tubes in the centre row
ut =
Db
Pt
hi
13. Calculate the shell side coefficient,
hi=
4200 ( 1.35+ 0.02T ave ,c ) u0.8

t
d 0.2
i
m
c
CS Areaof the tube
Where
m
c
is the mass flow rate of the cold fluid
d 2i n p
Tube CS Area=
4
14. Shell side coefficient
To calculate the shell side coefficient it is necessary to estimate the physical

properties of the shell side fluid at mean temperature of the condensate.
Mean temperature of the condensate=
T ave ,h +T w
2
T w (meanwall temperature) is calculated using the relation.
( T ave, hT w ) h s =( T ave , hT ave, c ) U o ,assumed

Where
h s
is the condensing film coefficient , could be assumed as
1500W /m2 C
For the value of
L , L , K L .
Tw
estimate the physical properties of the condensate viz.
If the exact name of the condensate is not given, then based on the
24
molecular mass, proportionate properties of the component could be estimated from the
component having nearest molecular mass.
Based on the type of the condenser i.e. vertical or horizontal the shell side
coefficient is calculated using either of the relation.
L ( L V ) g
L h
L ( L V ) g
L v
h s ,horizontal =0.95 K L
h s ,vertical =0.926 K L
V ( Vapor Density )=
]
]
1
3
Nr
1
3
1
6
(Kern Equation)
(Boy Ko-Kruzhilin Equation)
M avg
P
273
2
22.4 ( 273+T avg , h ) P1
M avg is the average molcular mass

P2 Condenser oprating pressure , P1 Atmospheric pressure
For Horizontal condensers,
h= s
L Nt
, m s
is the mass flow rate of the shell side fluid,

L is length of the tube
For vertical condensers,
v =
m
s
do N t
N r =No of tubesthe centre row

15.Fouling Factor (to be taken from standard reference books, usually given in
the problem itself) for calculation purpose the fluids which do not foul much,
it could be a reasonable assumption to have dirt factor (fouling factor) as equal
in each side, i.e.
the wall
K w =50
hod =hid =6000

W
m C
w
m C
and assume thermal conductivity of
(Carbon steel range)
16.Overall heat transfer coefficient
Uo
25
1
1 1
= + +
U o ho hod
d o ln
do
di
( )
2Kw
do
d
1
1
+ o
di
hid
di
hi
( )( )( )( )
17.Pressure Drop-Tube side
[ ( )( )
L
di
Pt = 8 j f ,t
N , s=
Calculate
2t
2
ut d i
, is the viscosity of the tube side fluid
N,s
on the
+2.5
N,s
Calculate the
based
0.14
j f ,t ( Dimnsionless Friction Factor )
, and
is estimated
,using the Fig.12.24, Page no 668, Coulson and Richardsons
Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition, Vol 6

For the calculated mean wall temperature
calculated
823,Process Heat
Tw
the viscosity (
is to be
using the nomogram for viscosity of fluids from,Fig.14, page 821Transfer by Donald Q.Kern or as per the value given in the problem
0.14
( )
calculate
, any way for water the term is equal to 1.
18.Pressure Drop Shell-side
Ps =
u 2s
2
( )( )( ) ( )
D
1
8 j fs s
2
de
L
lB
0.14
As a condenser it is reasonable to assume floating head (pull through / no

clearance) and Baffle spacing
is
( lB )
= Shell diameter
very reasonable assumption. Then calculate
As=
( P td o ) D s l B
Pt
G s=
m
s
As ,
1.27 ( P2t 0.785 d 2o )

de=
,
do
( Ds )
, 45% cut section
A s , GS , d e , N , s
N,s
Us=
us
jf
Gs
v
5. Design Summary
1. Heat load Q
2.
Mass flow rate of coldhot fluidm

c ,m
h
26
3.
Average temperature of ColdHot FluidT avg ,c ,T avg , h T h 1 , T h 2 , T w
4. Temperature ratios R and S,
LMTD co rrection factorF T
5. LMTD
6.
Heat transfr area A o
7. No of tubes, Pitch, No of tubes in centre row

8. Bundle Diameter, Clarence, Baffle Spacing, Shell Diameter
9. Tube side and Shell side fluid velocity
(ut , us )
10. Tube side and Shell side coefficients
(hi , ho )
11.
Overall heat transfer coefficient U o
12. Tube side13. Shell side -
N ,t , j ft , Pressure drop Pt
N , s , j fs , Pressure dropp P s
27
EVAPORATORS
1 General Concepts of Evaporation
Evaporation is an operation used to concentrate a solution containing nonvolatile and volatile solvent. Usually the equipment used to evaporate water
are represented as evaporators and for other liquids are represented as
vaporizers.
The difference between evaporation and drying is - in case of evaporation
concentrated solution / slurry is left behind and in other case solid or wet
solid is left behind.

The difference between evaporation and crystallization is in case of
evaporation concentrated solution / slurry is left behind and in other case
crystallization i.e. crystal production or crystal growth is a main function.

Unlike the process of distillation, where the vapor is usually a mixture and
it is further separated and in evaporation usually vapor is a single
component, even it is a mixture it is usually not separated.

2 Function of an evaporator
The main function of evaporator are,
Supplying the heat
Removing the heat
The heat supplied includes the sensible heat for the solution to reach its
boiling point and the latent heat to evaporate / vaporize the liquid at its
boiling. The heat is supplied to the evaporator in any of the following
ways:
Direct contact with hot gases
Contact with hot surfaces
Radiation
3 Classification of Evaporators
The evaporators are usually classified based on the type of circulation of the fluid
and further classified based on the construction/operation of the evaporators.
Natural circulation (Thermo-siphon) evaporator
Horizontal type evaporators (These are absolute nowadays)
Short tube vertical evaporators
Propeller Calandria evaporators
Basket type vertical evaporator
Long tube vertical evaporator
Forced circulation evaporators
28
Long tube recirculation evaporator

Submerged inlet vertical evaporator
Submerged inlet horizontal evaporator
Falling film evaporator
Rising film evaporator
Plate evaporator (falling film)
4 Criteria for selection of an evaporator

The right selection of an evaporator is a critical aspect for the smooth, efficient
and economic operation of a chemical process plant. The following are the key
critical factors that are to be considered.
i
Viscosity: The higher the viscosity, the lower heat transfer coefficient and
ii
large heat transfer surface area.

Fouling: It is due to the sedimentation, crystallization, corrosion etc. This
iii
considerably reduced as velocity increases.

Salting: Can be minimized by keeping the solid and liquid in intimate
iv
contact at all times.

Crystallization: For
solution
having
tendency
to
crystallize
during
evaporation, tubular heating surface is the best choice.

Thermal sensitivity: Food, dairy, pharmaceutical products are temperature
sensitive and film type evaporators are best choice, for operations involving
vi
such materials and for vacuum operation.

Evaporator Load: When heat load is high and heat transfer coefficient is
low, then large heat transfer area is required and multiple effect operation
vii
is more suitable and preferable choice.

Heat transfer coefficient: Higher heat transfer coefficient requires smaller
heat transfer surface area. Fouling reduces heat transfer coefficient and
film type evaporators are best choice.

5 Characteristics of different types of evaporators
Evaporator
type
Calandria
Typical products handled

Salt, glycerin from spent soap lye
Comment
Suitable
for
batch
or
continuous
operations, operated as single or multiple

Forced
Salt forming or scale forming materials
effect
Available with: (1) Horizontal steam chest
Circulation
depending on steam chest configuration;
with external vapor separator (Obsolete
Caustic soda solution, Sodium sulphate,
now); (2) Vertical steam chest with external
tomato juice to 30% concentration
separator; (3) Vertical steam chest with

integral
vapor
head.
Operates
either
submerged or partially filled tubes in a

single or multiple effect
29
Falling film
Low and medium viscous materials,
Can be operated on single pass (most
heat sensitive products; fruit juices,
common) or partial recycle of concentrated
Natural
pharmaceutical products etc.

Foaming liquids; less viscous materials;
juice, , operated as single or multiple effect

External separator provides some holding
Circulation
black liquor from pulp industry; spent
time adjustments; integral vapor-head type
(Thermo-
soap lye; electroplating solutions; spin
with down-comer gives minimum holdup
siphon)
bath liquid
Evaporator
type
Agitated film
Typical products handled

Handles
the
full
range
of
Comment
feed
viscosities; gelatin; fruit puree; glue
Available (1) vertical with integral vapor

separator;
(2)
Vertical
with
external
separator, co-current flow; (3) horizontal

Rising film
Plate type
Caprolactum; ammonium nitrate; fruit
with tapered shell, countercurrent flow

Allow single pass operation with high liquid
juices; for crystal producing solutions
and vapor velocities; minimum liquid hold-
with suspended solids

Fruit
juices;
extracts;
up
Liquid and vapor flow essentially as in
gelatin;
condensed and whole milk
rising- and falling-film evaporators without

liquid distribution problems
6 Principles of Evaporation and Evaporators

a
Single Effective Evaporator
The simplest method of evaporation is to feed the solution to the evaporator

which is provided with sufficient heat transfer area. The vapor generated is
condensed using a surface condenser or a direct contact condenser. The
concentrated product is withdrawn from the bottom and this type is called single
effect evaporator.
Although it is simple in operation, a single effect evaporator does not utilize
steam effectively. More than a kilogram of steam (1.1 to 1.3 kg in common) is
needed in order to vaporize 1 kg of water from the solution. (Kg of water evaporated
per kg of steam is called Economy of the evaporator and kg of water evaporated per hour is
called as Capacity of the evaporated)
30
Single Effect
Evaporator
Very often, the feed temperature remains below its boiling point. A part of
the heat supplied is utilized to supply the sensible heat required to raise
the feed to its boiling point.
The latent heat of vaporization of water decreases with increase in
temperature. Steam condensing in the steam chest is at higher
temperature than that of the solution. So the latent heat released by
condensation of 1 kg of steam is less than that required for vaporization of
1 kg of Water from the boiling solution.
Some amount of heat loss from the evaporator to the ambient always
b
occurs.
Multiple Effective Evaporator
To overcome the disadvantages in the single effect evaporator, to have more

heat transfer area and to have highly concentrated product, an arrangement
of two or more evaporators are put in series, and the vapor generated in the
first evaporator is fed to the steam chest of the second and so on. This
arrangement is multiple effective evaporators.
But the latent heat of the medium i.e. the vapor evaporating has decreases
when it passes from one effect to another. At the same time the concentration
of the feed liquor increases when it passes from one effect to another.
To overcome this problem, depending of the properties of the medium and feed
liquor and depending upon the direction of flow of the heating medium and
feed liquor, multiple effect evaporators can be classified into four categories:
(1) Forward Feed (2) Backward Feed (3) Mixed Feed (4) Parallel Feed. (Refer any
standard book for detailed construction, diagram etc.)
31
MEE - Forward Feed
MEE - Low Capacity
Industrial Scale MEE System
7 Advantages and Limitations of different modes of feed supply

Type of Feed
Supply
Forward Feed
Advantages
Limitations
Simple to operate; less expensive; the
Reduced rate of heat transfer in
liquor flows from one effect to next driven
second and higher effects; feed
by the pressure differential between
should not be below the boiling point
successive effects and hence no pump is
because this reduces steam economy
required for transferring the liquor; less
by consuming external steam to
chance of deterioration of heat sensitive
supply sensible heat
material because more concentrated liquor

Backward
is vaporized at a low temperature.

The most concentrated liquor is in contact
Inter effect pumps are necessary;
Feed
with the highest temperature steam and
higher risk of damage of the viscous
thus lower viscosity and higher heat
product subjected to a higher
transfer rate in the first effect as a result

Combines the simplicity of the forward
temperature; risk of fouling

More complex piping and
feed and economy of the backward feed;
instrumentation which make the
Mixed Feed
32
Parallel Feed
useful for concentration of highly viscous
arrangement more expensive
feed
More suitable for use with crystallizers;
More complex arrangement; pumps
allows better control
generally required for ach effect
Single Effect Evaporator (SEE)

1
Calculate the mass flow rate of the streams using Material Balance of the
solute (salt /solid) present in the stream
Overall material balance:
F=E+ P
F x F =E x E + P x P
33
Where F, E, P are the flow rates of the streams of feed, Vapor and
and
xF , xE , xP
are the fraction of solid in the respective streams.
xV
solid in the feed equal to that in product stream evaporated so

feed and product, Calculate the quantities of the
The
is
as zero, salt wont evaporate. Using this and given concentration
Product
taken
range of the
streams,(kg/hr)
Calculate the quantity of the steam using the energy balance, S

Overall energy balance
F H F +S S =E H E + P H P
Where
HF , H E , H P
are the enthalpies of the Feed, Vapor and Product.
is the latent heat of the steam.
HE
The enthalpy of the steam leaving
and
latent heat of the steam is
taken for the leaving and entering temperature from the steam table.
H F =C P T
CP
is the specific heat of the solution. (If
solution is not given and of very low concentration then

feed temperature could be taken).
HP
CP
CP
the feed
of water at the
is the enthalpy of the product. From
the above calculation quantity of steam kg/hr could be calculated.

3
Calculate the total heat transfer area required, A
Q=UAT
A=
S S
U T
T =T S + T B
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (Usually given)
, Where
T ST B
are the temperature of inlet steam and
boiling point of the solution respectively.
S S
is the quantity of the heat
supplied Q. Find A.(Note that heat transfer area for evaporator is usually taken on
inside area basis)
Calculate the number of tubes,
Nt=
Nt
Total heat transfer area A

=
Area of one tube
a
34
a= Do L
DO
, Where,
is the outside diameter of the tube, L is the length
If inside diameter and thickness of the tube is given, then
D O=Di +2 Thickness of the tube
Area of the evaporator drum,
AD
A D=1.5 N t P2t
Pt
Where
6
Diameter of the evaporator drum,
4 AD
Volume of the evaporator,
VE
DD
A D=
4
7
, so
DD =
1.25 DO
DD
Total Volume of the evaporator=V E=V F +
V F=
F
F
where
Length of the evaporator
Calculate L /
DD
VF
3
is the density of the feed, F is the mass of the feed
L=
VE
AE
ratio
10 Calculate Steam economy
Economy of theevaporator=
Quantity of water evaporated

Quantity of steam supplied
11 Design Summary of Single Effect Evaporator

i
Quantity of the steam required, S kg/hr
ii
Total heat transfer area, A
iii
No of tubs,
iv
Area of Evaporator drum,
m2
Nt
AD
Diameter of Evaporator drum,
DD
35
vi
vii
Length of the evaporator, L
viii
ix
L
DD
VE
ratio
Steam Economy
Multiple Effect Evaporators (MEE)

(This design procedure is based on the on the problem based on the assumption that equal
evaporation in each stage as initial and fair assumption, Boiling Point Elevation (BPE), Specific
heats
and Heat transfer coefficients is given for each effect. Triple effect, forward feed, H is enthalpy,
is latent heat, E is effects, L quantity of liquid leaving, x is the fraction of solid/salt suffix 1,2,3
indicates the effects)
1 Overall Mass Balance
F=E+ L3
x F F=x E E+ x 3 L3 ,
The solid in the feed equal to that in product stream evaporated so
xE
is taken
as zero as salt wont evaporate. Using this and given concentration range of the
feed and product calculate the quantities of the streams.(kg/hr).Calculate
L3
36
Quantity of vapor evaporated E. Assuming equal evaporation in each effect

E
E1 + E2 + E3
E1=E 2=E3=
E
3
L1=FE1
E1=E 2=E3
,E
FL3
L2=L1E2
(The actual values will be calculated using these assumed values)
Calculation of the overall temperature drop

Total Boiling Point Elevation =
T =T S 1T 3BPE T
T3
BPE T =BPE1 + BPE 2+ BPE 3

T S1
is the temperature of the steam entering,
is the temperature in the third effect.
Calculation of
T
T 1=
, Where
T 1 , T 2 , T 3
1
U1
( )
1
1
1
+ +
U1 U2 U 3
T
, T 2=
1
U2
( )
1
1
1
+ +
U 1 U2 U3
T
, T3=
1
U3
( )
1
1
1
+ +
U1 U2 U 3
Calculation of the temperature in each effect
T '1 =T S 1 T 1 ; T '2=T 1BPE 1 T 2 ; T '3 =T 2BPE 2T 3
Calculate the enthalpies of the liquids
H L 1 , H L2 , H L3
H L 1=C p 1 ( T '10 ) ; H L2=C P 2 ( T '20 ) ; H L3 =C p 3 (T '30) , for individual effects

6
Calculation of Steam temperature and their latent heats using steam table
T S 1 is thetemperature of the entering steam ,Calc ulate S 1

T S 2=T S 1BPE 1T 1 ,Calculate S 2
T S 3=T S 2BPE 2T 2 ,Calculate S 3
T '1 Calculate enthalpy H 1 ; T '2 Calculate enthalpy H 2 ; T '3 Calculate enthalpy H 3
37
Calculate the enthalpyeach effect ,

H E 1=H 1+1.88 BPE 1 ; H E 2=H 2 +1.88 BPE 2 ; H E 3=H 3+1.88 BPE 3
(If the boiling point elevation is same in all the three effects or concentration of the salt is the feed
is very low (below 10%) the BPE might be neglected for calculation purpose of enthalpies)
Calculate the quantity of the steam S, using the energy balance equation
Based on effect 1, Energy balance for first effect,
FH F + S S 1=E1 H E 1 + L1 H L1 , where H F =C p ( T F T 0 ) ,T 0 is 273

(Substituting the values get an equation with unknowns
E1S
For Second effect:
E1 S 2 + L1 H L1 =H E 2 E2 + L2 H L2
For Third ffect :
S 3 E 2+ L2 H L 2=E3 H E 2 + H L3 L3
Where
E1 , E 2 , E3
are the actual mass flow rates in each effect, using the
equations for the effects 2 and 3 calculate
E1E 2
E3=EE1 E2
Substitute the value of
8
E1
in the equation for effect 1, Calculate S kg/hr
Calculate the heat transfer area of each effect using the heat transfer
coefficient (per hour)
A 1=
As
SS 1
E1 S2
E 3 S3
; A 2=
; A3 =
U1 T1
U 2 T 2
U 3 T 3
in the multiple effect evaporation the area of each effect should be
reasonably equal and percentage error should not vary more than 10%.
Percent erroreffect 1=
A 1 A 2
100
A1
Percent error effect 2=
A 2 A 3
100
A2
If the error exceeds 10%, revised estimate of

The revised
values are required.
are estimated as follows:
38
Find the average heat transfer area of the evaporator i.e.
A Ave=
A1 + A2 + A 3
3
T 1(New)=
A1
T1 ,
A Ave
T1
is the value calculated in the previous
T2
is the value calculated in the previous
calculation (step 3)
T 2 (New )=
A2
T 2 ,
A Ave
calculation (step 3)
T ( New) =T ST w 3( BPE 1+ BPE 2+ BPE 3 )

TS
Where
Temperature of the steam entering,
T w3
Boiling Point of Water
(Steam) in the third effect. Repeat the step from step 4.

9
Total no of tubes,
NT=
NT
A Ave
A
= Ave
Areaof single tube Do L
10 Area of the evaporator drum,
AD
A D=1.5 N t P2t
Pt
Where
12 Diameter of the evaporator drum,
D 2D
A D=
4
, so
DD =
1.25 DO
DD
4 AD
13 Volume of the evaporator,
VE
Total Volume of the evaporator=V E=V F +
V F=
F
F
where
VF
3
is the density of the feed, F is the mass of the feed
39
14 Length of the evaporator
15 Calculate L /
DD
L=
VE
AE
ratio
16 Calculate Steam economy
Economy of theevaporator=
Quantity of water evaporated

Quantity of steam supplid
17 Design Summary of Multiple Effect Evaporator

i
Quantity of the steam required, S kg/hr
ii
Total heat transfer area, A
iii
No of tubs,
iv
Area of Evaporator drum,
Nt
vii
Length of the evaporator, L
ix
AD
Diameter of Evaporator drum,
vi
viii
m2
L
DD
DD
VE
ratio
Steam Economy
DISTILATTION COLUMN
1. General Concepts about distillation
Distillation is a method used to separate two or more liquid components of a
liquid solution into more or less pure fractions. The operation involves
vaporization and subsequent condensation of the liquid solution. Separation is
40
achieved because of the difference in the vapor pressure of the components at a

given temperature.
The difference between distillation and absorption or stripping is that in the case
of distillation mass transfer occurs in both the directions, simultaneously, with
more volatile component vaporizing and passing from the liquid to the vapor
phase and less volatile component condensing. The resulting vapor, enriched in
one component and depleted in another, is called the distillate product. The liquid
effluent is called as bottom product or simply bottom.
2. Types of Distillation
a. Equilibrium or Flash Distillation
In this type of distillation the liquid mixture to be separated is partially
vaporized. The vapor and liquid mixture is then allowed for sufficient time to
reach equilibrium, before being separated. The whole operation is carried out
batch wise or continuously.
b. Simple Batch or Differential Distillation
In this distillation a liquid mixture is first slowly boiled in a kettle. As soon as
the vapor is formed, it is quickly withdrawn to a condenser. During the early
part of vaporization the distillate is rich in high volatile component, but as
time proceeds, it becomes leaner in high volatile component.
c. Steam Distillation
Many substances cannot be separated at ordinary pressure because they
cannot withstand the temperature of distillation and decompose. Such
substances can be separated by reducing the partial pressure of the volatile
component. This can be done by introducing an inert vapor which decreases
the required temperature of distillation. The vapor added should be immiscible
with the components being distilled. Steam is generally used for this purpose
and the operation is called as steam distillation.
d. Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
As the composition of the liquid mixture is same as that of the vapor
generated from it, the liquid mixture is called as Azeotropic or constant boiling
mixtures. Since the liquid and vapor compositions are the same, the boiling
point remains constant as vapor is generated. Azeotropes may be of two typeshomogeneous and heterogeneous. In homogeneous one liquid phase is in
equilibrium with vapor and in heterogeneous two liquids are in equilibrium
with the vapor.
As two liquid phases vary in composition at or below the boiling point, a
heterogeneous azeotrope may be separated in two conventional columns and a
homogeneous azeotrope may be separated by adding a third component this
41
will form a ternary mixture with no azeotrope. This mixture is now separated
with one component in the distillate and the other in the bottom product. The
third component is found in one or both products. When the third component
is found in an appreciable amount in the distillate product, the operation is
known as Azeotropic distillation. When the concentration of the third
component is high in the bottom, then the operation is called as Extractive
distillation.
e. Fractional Distillation
A process, through which components in a liquid mixture are separated,
according to their difference in the boiling points. Vapors from a boiling
solution are passed along a column. The temperature of the column gradually
decreases along its length. Components with a higher boiling points condense
in the column and return to the solution and components with a lower boiling
points pass through the column and are collected.
There is no heat loss in the still, as the amount of heat recovered by
condensation is exactly equal to the heat supplied to the first still. Due to the
continuous upward and downward movement of the fluid the condition is
exact in each still. Such a series of operation is called as fractional distillation.
The vapor raising from the each still must be in equilibrium with the liquid in
the still.
Continuous
Distillation Column
42
f. Reactive distillation
Reactive distillation is the name given to the process where the chemical
reaction and product separation are carried out simultaneously in one unit.
Carrying out the reaction, with separation and purification of the product
by distillation, gives the following advantages:
1. Chemical equilibrium restrictions are overcome, as the product is
removed as it is formed.
2. Energy savings can be obtained, as the heat of reaction can be utilized for
the distillation.
3. Capital costs are reduced, as only one vessel is required.
The design of reactive distillation columns is complicated by the complex
interactions between the reaction and separation processes.
43
Distillation Column Arrangement Showing
Flow of Vapor and
Various Sections
Liquid Inside the
Re-boiler Arrangement
Column
3. Methods of Contacting the Vapor and Liquid

Sieve Plate
Bubble Cap
Valve Plates
(Perforated Plate)
(Floating Cap Plates)
The vapor passes up through
The
vapor
passes
up
through
They are essentially sieve plates with larger
Through the perforations in the
short pipe called risers, covered by
diameter holes covered by movable flaps,
plate and liquid is retained on the
cap with a serrated edge or slots.
which lifts as the vapor flow increases. As the
plate by vapor flow. The weir
The risers ensure that the level of
area of vapor flow varies with the flow rate,
ensures the level of liquid to be
liquid is maintained on tray at all
valve trays can be operated efficiently at lower
maintained
vapor flow rates.
flow rates than sieve plates than sieve plates,

as the valve closes at lower flow rates
Flow in Sieve Plate

(Perforated Plate)
Flow in Bubble Cap
Flow in Valve Plates

(Floating Cap Plates)
44
4. Selection of Plate type

Factor
Cost
Sieve Plate
Bubble Cap
Valve Plate
Remarks
Cheaper than
More expensive
Costlier than
Relative cost
bubble cap or valve
than sieve tray or
sieve plate and
depends on the is
tray
valve plate
cheaper than
material of
Higher capacity
Relatively lower
bubble cap
Higher than sieve
construction
Capacity difference
than bubble cap
than that of sieve
plates but lower
is little comparing
and valve tray

Sieve plate rely on
or valve tray
than bubble cap

Valve plates are
all the three types
Operating
range
the flow of the
designed to give
vapor through the
more flexibility
holes to hold the
than sieve plates
liquid on the plate
at a lower cost
and cannot operate
than bubble caps
Capacity
at low vapor flow

Pressure
rate
Sieve plates gives
Bubble caps gives
Intermediate
Pressure drop is
drop
lowest pressure
highest pressure
pressure drop
more significant in
drop
drop
between sieve
case of vacuum
plate and bubble
column
Efficiency
Intermediate
Low efficiency
between bubble cap
comparing other
and sieve plate
two
cap
Most efficient
To sum up, sieve plates are the cheapest and satisfactory in most application.
Valve trays are preferable under the circumstance when the sieve plate cannot
met with the Turndown ratio (is the ration of the highest to lowest flow rate).
Bubble caps are preferable for very low vapor rates.
A stage efficiency is defined as the fractional approach to equilibrium which a
real stage produces. But frequently used is the Murphree Efficiency, a fractional
45
approach of one leaving stream to equilibrium with actual concentration in the

other leaving stream. The Murphree efficiency of the three plates will be almost
the same when operating over their design flow range and no real distinction can
be made between them.
5. Plate Hydraulic Design
The basic requirements of a plate contacting column are, that it
Should provide good vapor liquid contact
Should provide sufficient liquid hold-up for good mass transfer (for high
efficiency)
Should have sufficient area and spacing to keep the entrainment and
pressure drop within acceptable limits

Should have sufficient down comer area for the liquid to flow freely from
plate to plate.
The plate and column design, like most engineering design is a combination of
theory and practice. The design method incorporates the right combination of
a semi empirical correlations derived out of meticulous fundamental research
work and practical experience obtained from the operation of commercial
column. Proven layouts are kept within the range of values known to give
satisfactory performance.
6. Operating Range
Satisfactory level of performance could be achieved over a limited range of vapor
and liquid flow rates. The following possible conditions should be considered
during the operation of the column.
Flooding: It is the upper limit for vapor flow. Flooding is caused by either
the excessive carryover of liquid to the next plate by entrainment or by
liquid backing up in the down comer. At flooding there is a sharp drop in
the plate efficiency and increase in pressure drop.

Weeping: It is the lower limit of vapor flow. Weeping occurs when vapor flow
is insufficient to maintain a level of liquid on the plate.

Coning: Coning occurs at low flow rates and is the term given to the
condition where vapor pushes the liquid back from the holes and gets
upward with poor liquid contact.
7. Design Procedure
46
1. Calculation of Vapor Liquid Equilibrium data
Calculate the equilibrium data using the given relative volatility (
=
Where
y A (1x A )
x A (1 y A )
xA
yA=
xA
1+ ( 1 ) x A
is the fraction of highly volatile component in the liquid
and
yA
is the fraction of highly volatile component in the vapor.
In absence of data, the value of
can be computed from vapor pressure
data of the components as,
( AB ) =
PA
PB
2. Draw the x-y (equilibrium diagram)

Mark the fraction of the composition of the high volatile component in the
equilibrium diagram. Using McCabe-Thiele method find the number of
theoretical plates required to achieve the distillation. (For the detailed
procedure refer any standard mass transfer book).
McCabe Thiele Diagram
Mark the points

Find
'
F
xF , xD , xB
, using the feed conditions given in the problem.
Corresponding to
xF .
Calculate the Minimum Reflux Ratio
R Dm=
'
F
x D y
'
y F x F
R Dm
, using the relation,
, (Calculate the actual reflux ratio
R D if the actual is some proportion
of the minimum reflux ratio, if not given take minimum reflux ratio as actual
R Dm=R D
47
Calculate the intercept for drawing the operating lines. (There are two operating lines, one for the
enriching (upper) section of the column and the other for the stripping (lower) section, the feed plate marking
the point of separation between the two. The upper line intersects the diagonal at the abscissa corresponding
to the overhead-product composition and the lower line intersects it at the abscissa corresponding to the
bottoms composition. The slope of each is the ratio of (descending) liquid (low to (ascending) vapor flow, or
L / V , in that particular section of the column. The two lines intersect along the q line. The ratio L / V
depends on the amount of reflux in the column. At minimum reflux, the operating lines intersect each other and
the q line at the point where the q line intersects the x , y curve.)
tercept=
xD
R Dm +1 . Using the graph find the number of plates
q-line is constructed as per the guidelines given in the table below:

Where
heat required
q= convert one mole of feed saturated vap
,
molar latent heat
Calculate
theoretical no of plates.
Depending on the state of the feed, the feed lines will

have different slopes. For example,
q = 0 (Saturated vapor)
q = 1 (Saturated liquid)
0 < q < 1 (Mix of liquid and vapor)
q > 1 (Sub-cooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapor) The q-line for various
feed conditions are shown in the diagram.
Slope of q line = q/(q 1).
using the plate efficiency
3. Determine the actual number of plates
There are many methods available to calculate the plate efficiency (
For petroleum hydrocarbons
E MV =1860 log L
, where
viscosity of the feed in cP.
and
is
the
For both hydrocarbons and non hydrocarbons, modified Bradford

Equation is used.
E MV =0.170.616 log L
, Here
L
efficiency and
E MV is efficiency
E MV
E MV
is multiplied with 100 to get the

is the viscosity of the feed.
O Connells Correlation - this is specially used for fractionators and

absorbers using bubble cap trays.
E MV =5132.5 log ( av L )
where
L
and
av
is the average relative volatility

is the molar average viscosity of the feed, mNs/m2
48
Murphree efficiency this is used to calculate the efficiency of both

bubble cap and sieve plate.
E MV =5.65 F0.25
h0.25
S 0.143
a
w
cL
E MV
where,
is the efficiency %
Fa
is the fraction of plate area for vapor flow in %
hw
Weir height in mm
S cL
is Liquid Schmidt number,
Mathew Van Winkle Correlation this includes dimensionless groups

relating to system variables and plate parameters and given by,
0.25
0.08
E MV =0.07 D0.14
g ScL
Dg
Where
L
L uv
is Surface tension number,
is Liquid surface
tension,
uv
is Superficial Vapor Velocity,
( hu u v v )
L ( F a )
Re
is Reynolds number,
Fa =
Area of holesrisers
Total column crosssectional area
is liquid viscosity
Fa
, where
is fractional area
(Normally for calculation purpose Modified Bradford equation is used)
In the Bradford equation calculates

Find the feed temperature,
as follows:
T F = x i T i , where x mole fraction of the
feed and T is the boiling point of the component

For the temperature
TF
, Calculate
F = x i i
( value could be taken from, Process Heat Transfer by Kern, pg 822-823)
No of actual plates=
(Theoritical number of plates1)

E MV
49
4. Locating the feed plates

Using the McCabe Thiele, in the graph intersection of the q-line with
operating line determines the feed plate location. That is for the ideal case and
actual location is based on the calculated efficiency. Locate the exact point of
intersection in the graph, for e.g. if the intersection point lies between fourth
and the fifth plate identify the exact location point, if plate cuts exactly in the
middle then theoretical feed location is 4.5 and so on. Measure the distance
where it intersects.
Then actual feed plate location
Exa ct location the graph

E MV
5. Height of the column
Calculate the actual number of plates. Find the plate spacing (Given in the
problem).Add each one plate additional for feed, reflux and re-boiler.
Column height = (Actual number of plates + 3) x (Plate Spacing)
6. To calculate the column diameter
(The column diameter should be calculated based on the flow at the top and for the flow at the
bottom. Larger diameter should be taken as column diameter.)
Calculate the quantity of each stream viz. feed, distillate and bottom using the
material balance.
Convert the given feed rate in terms kgmoles per hour. If the mass flow rate of
the feed is given then find the average molecular mass of the feed and convert
into moles. Average molecular mass =
F=D+BF xF =D xD +B xB
, So
xi M i
, M is the molecular mass.
F xF =D xD + ( FD ) x B
50
Find the quantity of each stream in kgmols per hour

7. Calculate the column diameter based on the distillate composition
T D = xi T i
Boiling point of the distillate
M ave D= xi M i
Average Molecular Mass of the distillate,
LD= xi i
Density of the liquid at the top
kg/m3
( value could be calculated using the specific gravity data from, Process Heat
Transfer by Kern, pg 808, Density = SG X 1000)
VD
Density of the vapor at the top
VD=
M aveD P D
RTD
Where
PD
kg/m3
pressure of distillation usually atmospheric
pressure or specified in the problem

Vapor velocity of the distillate
u D=k v
( LD VD )
VD
m/s
Moles of the vapor at the top = moles of the vapor at the bottom=n
n=D( RD +1)
kgmoles per hour
nRT D
Volumetric flow rate at the top

PD
Cross sectional area,
CS T =
m3/hr
CS T
Volumetric Flow Rate at the top

3600 u D
m2
Diameter of the column based on the conditions at the top
DT =
4 CS T
DT
8. Calculate the column diameter based on the bottom composition

(Repeat the calculation as it is in step no 7, but for the bottom
conditions)
51
9. Compare the diameters calculated i.e.
DT DB
, Higher the CS area,
subsequently higher the diameter should be taken as the column diameter (.

This plate CS area is the active area where contact takes place, called as net
active area
AN
. So actual column area =
AN
+ Down flow area (assume
down flow area from Table.1, for column diameter 0.75 to 1.2 m is about 15% of Column diameter
and so actual column area =
So column diameter
( A N )/Fraction of the plate area this case 0.85
DC=
Actual Column Area 4
10. Layout Design for Bubble-Cap
In the bubble cap plats vapor passes up through short

pipes, called risers, covered by a cap with a serrated edge,
or slots.
The bubble-cap plate is the traditional, oldest, type of crossflow
plate,
and
many
different
designs
have
been
developed.
Standard cap designs would now be specified for most
applications.
The most significant feature of the bubble-cap plate is that
the use of risers ensures that a level of liquid is maintained
on the tray at all vapor flow-rates.
A bubble cap plate can be divided into the following area segments viz.
a. Allocated cap area,
b. Down flow area,
An
Ad
c. Liquid distribution area

d. End wastage
So the allocated cap area
Columnarea(b+ c+ d)
Table.1- Approximate Distribution of Bubble Plate Area as percent Column

Area is given the table
Tower
Diameter
(m)
Down flow
area
Cross Flow
Split Flow
Liquid
Distribution
area
Cross Flow
Split Flow
End wastage
Cross / Split
52
0.90
1.20
1.80
2.40
Tower
Diameter
(m)
10-20
-10-20
-10-20
20-30
10-20
18-27
Down flow
area
Cross Flow
10-20
10-20
10-20
--
3.00
3.60
4.50
6.00
10-25
8-20
5-12
4-10
--15-20
12-16
Liquid
Distribution
area
Cross Flow
Split Flow
3-8
9-13
3-6
8-11
2-5
6-9
-5-7
Split Flow
16-24
14-21
12-18
10-15
10-30
7-20
5-18
4-15
End wastage
Cross Flow
3-12
3-10
2-8
2-6
Table.2- Selection of Cap Diameter

Column Diameter
m
Cap Diameter
mm
0.75 - 1
1.5 4.8
75
100
150
4.8
Table.3- Value of Static Seal

Column Pressure, P (atm)
Static Seal (mm)
Vacuum
Atmospheric
1< P<8
0
12
12-25
8< P<22
25-37
22
37-50
Table.4- Cap Size, Pitch and Slot area

Cap Size
mm
75
100
150
Sc
Slot area as percent of allocated cap area
Sc
=0.25
dc
Sc
=0.31
dc
Sc
=0.38
dc
Sc
=0.50
dc
39
56
29
35
33
26
32
30
24
27
25
20
= Distance between cap walls
Another method of plate layout and distribution of the various area
segments to fix up minimum values of cap clearance as follows:

Cap Cap Wall = 38 mm
Cap Overflow Weir = 90 mm
Cap Down flow Apron = 90 mm
Size of the bubble cap
75 mm (3) and 100 mm (4) are commonly used
150 mm (6) are used for large diameter column
53
Using the vapor flow area

area
Ad
An
(active area) and suitable down flow
the column area could be calculated and based on this
cap diameter could be obtained using table.2
(For a particular cap diameter, all relevant dimensions relating to the cap, riser and slots
are obtained from a standard bubble cap design table, by Mathew Van Winkle, Distillation
Table 14.6, and pg 570)
Calculation is as follows (For Column diameter 0.75 to 1.50 m)

Say column diameter 1.1 m then cap diameter 75mm (3)
The data are as follows:
Overall cap height = 2.5
No of slots pr cap = 20 nos.
Slot height = 1
Skirt height = 1
Slot area = 5 in2
S c Distance between the cap walls

=
=0.25
Dc
Cap diameter
So
(from table 4)
S c =0.25 76=19 mm
For the specified clearance of 19 mm

Cap wall column = 38 mm
Cap Over flow weir = 90 mm
Cap Down flow apron = 90 mm
Cap wall Cap wall = 19 mm
Cap pitch = 76 + 19 = 95 mm
Number of bubble caps = 96
11.Check for Slot velocity

(The slot velocity should be calculated based on the flow at the top and for the flow at the bottom)
Top of the column

Vapor density at the top
VD
Max Slot velocity=
14.69
0.5
VD
and
Min Slot Velocity=
4.15
0.5
Vd
Slot area per cap = 5 in2 (for column diameter of 0.75 to 1.5 m)
Total area per plate = Slot area X No of bubble caps m2
54
Slot velocity=

tal area 3600
m/s
This slot velocity should be within the calculated value of Max and Min slot
velocity, if otherwise different slot area to be assumed using the table
(The same calculation should be repeated for bottom of the column for the
bottom conditions and check the slot velocity)
12.Check for down flow area and Residence time in the down comer area
Down comer and Plate
Bubble Cap Plate
Down comer Area

Calculation
Cross sectional area of the tray is shown with down flow area.
Let AC = Length of the weir =
0.7 D C
AD = AC and OA = Radius =
OD= OA 2 AD2
=tan 1
AD
( OD
)
DC
AOD=
and
AOC =2
Area of the sector OABC=
2 DC
360
4
1
AC OD
2
Area of the triangle OAC
Down flow area (ABCD)

= Area of the sector OABC Area of the triangle OAC
Percent down flow area
Down flow area( ABCD)

ColumnCS Area ( DC )
X 100
This should be equivalent or with a variation within permissible limit

i.e. maximum of 10%. Otherwise revised assumption should be made.
13.Calculation of residence time

55
For calculation of residence time the weir height
hw
is to be calculated
using the equation
hw =hsk +h sr +hs +h ss
Where,
h sk=Skirt clearence , mm
h sr =Height of shroud ring ,mm
h s=Slot height , mm
h ss=Static seal , mm
The values of
value of
h ss
h sk , hsr , hs
are obtained from bubble cap design table and the
could be taken from the following table.
Column Pressure, P (atm)

Static seal (mm)
Vacuum
0
Atmospheric
12
1< P < 8
12- 15
8 < P < 22
25 - 37
>22
37 -50
(For a column diameter of 0.75 to 1.5 m and for 3 bubble cap, the values may
be as follows,
h sk=1 (25.4 mm), hsr = 0.25 ( 6.5 mm )h s=1 (25.4 mm)
Height of the down flow apron = Plate spacing Clearance
hw
Total height of weir =
+ Height of down flow apron
Down comer Volume = Down flow area (ABCD) X Total height of weir
Calculation above the feed plate
Liquid rate = L = V D kgmol /hr
Volumetric flow rate=
L
LD
Residence time for down comer
Down comer Volume

Voumetric Flow Rate (Top)
Calculation below the feed plate
Liquid flow L=L+ F

Volumetric flow rate
kgmols / hr
L
LB
56
Residence time in the down comer
Down Comer Volume

Volumetric Flow Rate (Bottom)
Note: The residence time in the down comer, for both at the top and at the
bottom of the column are should be more than that of the minimum value
recommended. (Sufficient residence time to be allowed, in the down comer for
disengagement of entrained vapor. Minimum recommended value is 3 seconds for the
non-foaming and 5-6 seconds for foaming liquids, any way this could be calculated
using
the
relation,
Residence
Time
A D hb L
,where
Lwd
A D is downflow area , hb is clear liquid

back-up height,
is the density of the liquid and
Lwd
is liquid flow rate in the down
comer)
14.
Design Summary
a.
b.
c.
d.
No of Theoretical plates
No of actual plate
Feed plate location
Quantity of the F, D, B Kgmole / hr
e. Density of the liquid at the top and bottom,
LD , LB
kg/m3
f. Density of the vapor at the top and bottom,
VD , VB
kg/m3
g. Column Height, m
h. Column diameter,
i.
j.
k.
l.
DC
No of bubble caps
Diameter of the bubble cap, mm
Slot Velocity at the Top and bottom, m/s
Down flow area, m2
m. Weir height,
hw
,m
n. Residence time above the feed plate, s

o. Residence time below the feed plate, s
57
ABSORPTION COLUMN
1. Gas Absorption and Stripping
Gas absorption is mass transfer operation in which one or more species
(Solute) is removed from a gaseous stream by dissolution in a liquid (Solvent).
58
In this operation, where a gas mixture is contacted with a liquid, for the
preferential dissolving of one or more constituents of the gas and provide a
solution of these in the liquid. In this case the direction of transfer of mass is
from the gas phase to the liquid. The reverse of the process is called as
Desorption or stripping, where the transfer of mass takes place from the liquid
phase to the gas phase (normally solute recovery is achieved in this process)
The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with the temperature almost as
a rule. Absorption of a gas is done at a lower temperature so that there is a larger
driving force for the transfer of the solute from the gas phase to the solvent.
Desorption or Stripping on the other hand is carried out at a elevated
temperature so that the direction of the driving force is reversed.
The intimate contact between the gas and the liquid is achieved in
suitable equipment like packed tower, tray tower, spray tower, venture scrubber
etc.
2. Selection of column type

S. No
Operational
Packed Column
Plate Column
Preference
59
Consideration
Column
Diameter
If the column diameter

is less than 1 m, This
column is economical.
For small size column it is

uneconomical to fabricate
small sized tray.
Packed
Column
For larger diameter column

there is possibility for
channeling when packed
column is used
If periodic cleaning is
required the packing are
to be removed which is very
difficult practically
When ceramic or metal
packing are used the total
weight of the tower will be
more
It is impossible to have a
sid stream insertion or
withdrawal
Channeling is avoided in
plate column
Plate
Column
Man holes may be provided

between the trays and
maintenance work can be
carried out
The weight of an identical
plate column is less than
a packed column
Plate
Column
It is possible to have one

such arrangement with a
modification with that
particular plate
Could be used for wide
range of both liquid as well
as vapor flow rates
Efficiency could be found
more accurately
Plate
Column
Maintenance
Weight of
internals
Side stream
Insertion /
withdrawal
Flow rate
Packed column are not

suitable for very low rate
Efficiency
Calculation
There is an un certainty
In calculating the efficiency
Plate
Column
Plate
Column
Plate
Column
Generally packed towers are used in industry for the purpose of absorption or
stripping, as it gives more intimate contact.
60
3. Tower Packing
The material used as tower packing should meet the following criteria:
a. Should posses more active surface area per unit volume of the packed space.
b. Should give low pressure drop: As the pressure drop through packing is a
direct function of fluid velocity, a large free cross sectional area should be
available between the individual piece of packing material, so that to give a
low pressure drop.(i.e. the bed porosity should be high)
c. Should have low weight and low liquid hold up: The total weight of the column
and the resultant foundation load would be low, if the weight of the packing
and liquid hold up in the tower are low. However liquid holdup must be
sufficient to effectively wet the packing surface.
d. Should give even distribution with maximum dispersion of phases: This will
avoid both the extreme conditions as channeling and dry packing zone.
e. The packing should provide intimate contact between vapor and the liquid,
compared with empty tower.
f. The material surface should provide thinnest possible liquid film to vapor
phase to have maximum possible mass transfer.
g. Should have high mechanical strength, so that it would not crumble or break
and low bulk density, so that overall weight of tower could be reduced.
61
4. Choice of Solvent
The purpose of absorption is primarily for two folds viz.
To produce a specific liquid product
To remove some specific constituents from a gas stream
In the case of the former there is hardly any choice, as it is guided by the nature
of the product. For the latter case there is some flexibility exists. In addition to
the availability and low cost the following characteristics are considered while
deciding upon the solvent.
a. Volatility: To reduce the loss with the exit gas, the solvent should posses
low volatility. If a volatile liquid is suitable, then the process of absorption
can be completed in two stages with the lower section of the tower
absorbing the solute by the volatile solvent while the upper section
recovering the solvent vapor accompanying the exit gas with a second
absorbing liquid which is non-volatile.
b. Solubility: The solvent should have high solubility with respect to the
solute. This will reduce the amount solvent to be used. At times, a
reversible reaction of the solute with the solvent may be useful in
expediting the process of absorption.
c. Viscosity: This is an important property of the solvent as it influences the
absorption rate, pressure drop and flooding characteristic. A solvent with
low viscosity is preferred.
d. Miscellaneous Characteristics: The solvent should be non-corrosive, nontoxic, non-flammable with reasonably low freezing point.
5. Design Procedure
1. Let a stream contains an inert gas A and a Vapor B (usually given in mole
percent), is to be absorbed by a liquid solvent S, introduced from the top of
the column.
62
M i xi
Find the average molecular mass M Ave=
i=1
2. Find the gas rate in kgmoles/hr
If the flow rate is given in kg/hr, then gas rate
Where
Where
M Ave
is the mass flow rate
3. Inert gas rate

4. Calculate
gas rate fraction of inert gas leaving the tow er
Y 1Y 2
Y 1=mole ratio of vapor inert gas leaving the tower
Moles of vapor the gas streamleaving the tower

Moles of inert gas leaving thetower
Y 2=Fraction of inert gas entering thetower Y 1
5. Calculate
Where
x is the mole fraction of vapor in solution leaving the bottom of the
tower and
ye=
x y e
Ye
1+Y e
x=
X
1+ X
Where,
6. Calculation of
Where
ye=
X=
Moles of Vapor
Moles of Solvent
Moles of Vapor
=Y 1
Moles of Inert gas
xe
From the equilibrium relation given in the problem which is a linear relation
given by,
Where
y=mx , Substitute the equilibrium conditions in the relation.

x
ye
x= e
y=
1+ x e and
1+ y e ,
So the equilibrium relation will become
63
ye
x
=m e , Calculate
1+ y e
1+x e
xe
7. Using the material balance calculate minimum liquid rate
LMin
Material balance is as follows:
Inert gas rate ( y eY 2) =L Min x e

8. Actual liquid rate
For a safer and efficient operation, as per the requirement of the operation the
some excess liquid rate is maintained based on the minimum liquid rate.
Actual liquid rate=LAct L Min +( LMin
Excess Percent
)
100
9. Calculation of NTU:
(NTU is number of Transfer Units, which is the ratio of change in vapor concentration to
average driving force for absorption. The number of transfer units is somewhat like
number of theoretical stags, but these values are equal only if the operating line and
equilibrium line are straight and parallel. Similarly the HTU, height of a transfer unit is
defined as the height of a packed section required to accomplish a change in
concentration equal to the average driving force in that section. Usually these values are
estimated from the empirical correlations for the individual coefficient or the individual
height of a transfer unit.)
Actual composition of the outgoing liquid
Inert gas rate( y e Y 2 )

=X Act
L Act
Substituting in the equilibrium condition,
ye
X Act
=m
1+ y e
1+ X Act
NTU =
, Calculate
y e for X Act = y e 1
Y 1Y 2
( Y 1 y e1 ) ( Y 2 y e 2 )
ln
Y 1 y e1
Y 2 y e2
10.Calculation of HTU (m), Normally HTU is given in form of correlation.

11.Calculate the height of the packing, Z
HTU =Z NTU
64
12.Calculation of actual flooding velocity,
u Act
Gas rate in kgmoles/hr was already calculated step no.3

Assuming ideal behavior
PV =nRT
, Find Volume in m3/hr
Calculation of flooding velocity: (Is calculated using flooding correlation which

is a plot between,
( ) [ () ]
L G
u 2 a G 0.2
VS
G L
gc 3 l
, It should be noted in this correlated relations
the values should be substituted in FPS units. Evaluate the left side by
substituting the values.
Where L and G are gas and liquid flow rate in Ib/hr,
G L
are the density
ib
of the vapor and liquid in ft 3 . For this value find the value of the right side
of the correlation from the plot (Unit Operations on Chemical Engineering, by
McCabe
and Smith or any standard Mass Transfer Operations book)
[ () ]
2
u a G 0.2
=
gc 3 l
Value from the plot.
a
3
( )
is the Characteristic Factor of
the packing, a constant for given type and material. Substitute the values in
FPS units and find the value
13.Actual flooding velocity
u Act
uCal , the FloodingVelocity
in m/s.
(Operating Velocity)
Usually the flooding velocity will be maintained at some percentage of the

calculated value. (If not mentioned in the problem take the calculated value as
actual)
u Act (OperatingVelocity)=u Cal
14.Diameter of the Column,

Column CS Area
Given percentage
100
, m/s
Dc
Dc
Volumetric Flow Rate
=
Operating Velocity 3600
4
6. Design Summary
1. Gas flow rate
65
2. Minimum liquid rate,

3. Actual liquid rate,
LMin
L Act
4. NTU
5. HTU based on the gas phase, m
6. Height of the packing, Z, m
7. Flooding Velocity,
uCal
8. Operating Velocity,
m/s
u Act
9. Diameter of the Column,
Dc
,m
COOLING TOWER
1. Introduction
A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the warm water
and the air are brought in direct contact for evaporative cooling. It must
provide a very good contact of air and water in terms of the contact area and
mass transfer coefficient of water vapor while keeping the air pressure drop
low. In early years cooling of warm water was done through Spray Ponds.
It is comparatively inefficient and creates problem of entrainment and carryover
of water droplets by air.
2. Governing Factors of operation
The important factors that govern the operation of the cooling tower are:
The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air
The temperature of the warm water
The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the volumetric
mass transfer coefficient

The contact time between the air and water
The uniformity of distribution of phases within the tower
The air pressure drop
The desired temperature of the cooling water
66
A large air-water contact area and time are offered by special type of packing. Air may
enter the tower driven by a density gradient (natural draft), may be pushed into the
tower (forced draft) at the base or sucked into the tower (induced draft).Several types of
cooling towers have been designed on the basis of the above factors and operating
strategies.
Classification Based on air
flow pattern
Cooling
Classification based on
Atmospheric
Natural
Crossfo
Counterfo
Mechanical
Forced
Draft
Induced
Draft
3. CLASSIFICATION OF COOLING TOWERS
67
Natural Draft
Induced Draft
Forced Draft
Induced Draft Cross-flow
a. Atmospheric towers: An atmospheric tower consists of a big rectangular

chamber with two opposite louvered walls. The tower is packed with a suitable
fill. Atmospheric air enters the tower through the louvers driven by its own
velocity. The atmospheric tower is cheap but efficient. Its performance largely
depends upon the direction and velocity of the wind.
b. Natural draft (also spelled as draught) tower: These towers have large
reinforced concrete shell of hyperbolic shape. A small part of its bottom is filled
with high void packing. A natural draft tower is called so because natural flow of
air occurs through the tower. The factors responsible for creating natural draft
are:
A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its

density.
68
The wind velocity at the tower bottom.
The pressure drop across the tower is low (fraction of inch of water) and the air
velocity above the packing may vary from 1-1.5 m/s. The diameter of the tower
may be large as 100 m and height about 150 m. It could have a capacity to
handle 2000 m3 per minute. The initial cost is high, but absence of fan reduces
the fixed cost. For long time operation operating and maintenance cost is very
economic.
c. Mechanical draft towers: Due to the huge initial cost and construction
difficulties, the natural draft towers are replaced by mechanical draft towers.
In mechanical draft towers fans are used for the air movement inside the tower.
Forced draft towers one or more fans are located at the bottom of the tower and
the air is pushed in side the tower against the water, hence the flow is
countercurrent.
The advantages are, a part of the velocity head of air thrown by blower is
converted to pressure head on entering into the tower, which makes the
tower slightly energy efficient. As the fans are installed near the ground,
the system is less susceptible to vibrations.
The disadvantages are the flow of air through the fill or packing may not
be uniform, especially the tower is big and big fans are used. Some warm
and humid air may be recalculated which reduces the performance of the
tower. The recirculation rates are small when the air velocity is more.
Forced draft towers are not popular except for small capacities.
Induced draft towers are one where one or more fans are located at the top. The
fan sucks fresh air through the air inlets at the bottom. The air flow or draft is
induced by the suction created by the fans. The induced tower may divided into
cross flow and counter flow.
In the countercurrent induced draft tower, a vertical movement of air counter
current to the warm water occurs. The advantage of this is that the relatively dry
air contacts the coldest water at the bottom and the humid air contacts the warm
water at the top. This gives maximum average driving force for heat and mass
transfer .But the disadvantage is more powerful fans are required.
The cross-flow towers provide horizontal air flow along the packed height. The air
flow is crosscurrent to the down flowing water. Louvers are provided all along the
wall of the tower to allow the air to move in. For a same given air flow rate the
hors power of fan required is low in cross flow towers. The liquid flow in cross flow
is done by gravity flow.
d. Spray filled tower: This is the simplest but least efficient induced draft cooling
tower. It does not have any fill or packing. Water is sprayed at the top of tall empty
69
tower chamber. The fan at the top induces the air through the tower counter
current to the falling spray.
4. Comparison of Towers:
S No
1
Atmospheric towers
Emphasis is placed on
wind
Natural draft towers

Emphasis is placed on temperature
characteristics
These towers avails wind current
characteristics of air
A rise in temperature and humidity of
itself.
air in the column reduces its density
Air
flow
direction
varies
during the years cycle
and the difference of air inside and
In places where wind velocities are
outside the tower causes air movement

No such factors required
8 to 10 km per hour it is more

economical
As the air
has
penetrates
Natural draft towers must be tall to have
through the entire tower width are
sufficient buoyancy and should have
narrow
other
large cross section as the air circulation
towers
This tower makes less efficient use
is low comparing with mechanical draft

Initial cost is high. These towers cease to
of available potential. When the air
operate during the hot part of the day.
comparing
to
with
flow ceases , the tower may cease to

operate.
5. Design consideration for natural draft towers
Tower height 20 50
Width
8 - 16 (In the direction of prevailing wind)
In the design of natural draft towers a ratio of height to base diameter of
3:2 is normally used

In natural draft cooling towers the lower portion amounting to 10-20% of
the total height is usually fitted with grids on to which the water is fed by
means of a distributor
The maximum length of atmospheric tower is about 2000.
6. Design Procedure
70
71

Design II Mannual CF

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ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGM

DESIGN MANUAL BOOKLET NO:1

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger04

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.08

DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

either concurrently or counter-currently.

1. If at all specified choose counter current flow.

T h =Temperature of hot fluid ;

T h =Temperature of hot fluid out

T c =Temperature of cold fluid ; T c =Temperature of cold fluid out

is more than 2 proceed the calculation using LMTD(

(for co-current flow)

(for counter current flow)

4. Tube side heat transfer coefficient ):

value from graph

from page 294

Binay K. Dutta (Fifth printing March 2006)

5. Shell side heat transfer coefficient

, Where G is mass velocity

6. Calculate Clean heat transfer Coefficient

7. Calculate Overall heat transfer Coefficient

8. Calculate length of tube (L):

value in the step no 8.

for co current and counter current flow

4. Inside heat transfer coefficient (tube side)

7. Overall heat transfer coefficient

8. Heat transfer area A for Co current and Counter current flows

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGR

Shell and Tube Exchanger Sectional

Shell and Tube Exchanger General

1-2 Heat Exchanger

A. General Design Considerations:

the shell diameter. The optimum length is usually 5 10.

Tube Dia Space and Pitch

used to reduce the shell side pressure drop.

Generally a baffle cut of 20-25% is optimum.

More corrosive fluid is to be allocated

Replace of shell is difficult and

to the Tube side

foul should be allocated to the tubes

allowable higher velocity in the

Higher temperature fluid should be

tube reduces fouling

allocated to the tubs

temperature and this is for safety

Higher pressure fluid should be

allocated to the tubes

expensive than high pressure shell

drop should be allocated to the tube

heat transfer coefficient will be on

the tube side than the shell side

allocated to the shell side

be obtained provided the flow is

Fluid with lowest flow rate should be

allocated to the shell side

to higher pressure drop.

for hot and cold streams

are temperature of hot fluid in and out.

are temperature of cold fluid in and out.

3. Find dimensionless temperature ratios R and S

), which is measure of the

temperature efficiency of the exchanger.)

FT , the LMTD Correction factor.

4. Calculate the LMTD