Syllabus after Mid-Sem and Class roaster

Cell theory, Structure and function of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell

Schedule of the slots by each faculty for different sections (AB, CD, EF and GH):

Faculty name

Slots W

AB

CD

Dr. Rohan

Sections

EF

GH

Dr. Saleem

Sections

GH

EF

CD

AB

Dr. Sahu

Sections

CD

AB

EF

GH

Dr. Biswal

Sections

AB

CD

GH

EF

Complete definition of cells

It was put forward by Lowey and Siekevitz as follows:

A cell is the smallest but complete expression of the fundamental structure and
function of all living organisms, which is capable of independent existence and
self reproduction in a suitable non-living medium
It has following characteristics:
1. A cell membrane: It is a boundary regulating all exchanges of matter and
energy
2. A metabolic machinery: It uses the energy trapped by the cell or obtained from
foodstuffs
3. A biosynthetic machinery: It helps in the synthesis of proteins (RNA and
ribosomes)
4. A specific genetic programme: It permits the reproduction of new cells of the
same type

Cell basic unit of life

What is a Cell?
Cell is a basic structural, functional and biological unit of all living organisms
(Unicellular and multicellular)
Term originated from Latin Word Cella meaning small room and discovered by
Robert Hook in 1665 while studying cork under microscope

Robert Hook

Microscope

Cells of Cork

It is a self-replicating structures that are capable of responding to changes

in the environment and often called building block of life

Study of cell is called cell biology

Robert Hook published findings about Cells in his book entitled Micrographia in
which he gave 60 observations of various objects under a coarse, compound
microscope
One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork
Hooke did not know their real structure or function
He had thought that cells were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues
With microscopes of low magnification at that time, Hooke was unable to see
internal components of the cells he was observing
So he thought cells were dead and his observations gave no indication of the
nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw cells soon after Hooke did
He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify
objects almost 300-fold

Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects and he states that
motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms

Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of
microorganisms like bacteria and protozoa
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues
were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be
prepared for studying
Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what
this was

It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was
connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants
This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet who besides stating the cell
is the fundamental element of organization, also claimed that cells were not just
a structural unit, but also a physiological unit
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the
problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had
independent cell walls by the Knigliche Societt der Wissenschaft (Royal Society
of Science), Gttingen
Later in 1838 concept of cell theory came into existence

Cell Theory
In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells
Cell theory is the foundation of biology and is the most widely accepted
explanation of the function of cells

With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification

technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century
After the discovery of cells, many debates started about properties, role and
function of cells

Eventually in 1838, Cell theory was formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor

Schwann. Other scientists like Rudolf Virchow also contributed to the theory

Schleiden suggested:
1. Cells or result of cells contribute to structural part of a plant
2. Cells are made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the
outside

Schwann suggested:
1. Like plants, structurally animals are composed of cells or the product of cells

The following are the three basic principles to this cell theory:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

3. All cells arise from pre-existing, living cells (Contributed by Rudolf Virchow in
1855)

Essential features of Cell Theory

Following are the essential features of cell theory:

1. Cells are fundamental units of structure and function in all living organisms
2. Cells are physiological units of living organisms

3. Cells are hereditary units

4. New cells originate from the pre-existing cells only
5. Cell is the smallest unit of life. All activities of living organisms are the outcome
of the activities of its constituent cells

Significance of cell theory

Modern concept of cell theory emphasizes the structural and functional

relationship among the diverse living forms from bacteria to man
All cells irrespective of their function and position have a nucleus embedded in
the cytoplasm and bounded by cell membrane (unity in their structural plan)
Same metabolic processes occur in all the cells primitive or specialized (unity of
function)

This implies that all the living things have originated from the same primitive
ancestral types that originated 2-3 billion years ago

Exceptions to the cell theory

1. Viruses are the exception to cell theory because they are made up of proteins
and one of the nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), lack protoplasm.
2. Bacteria and blue-green algae lack well-organised nucleus. Nuclear membrane,
nucleolus and nucleoplasm are absent. Nucleic acid (DNA) alone forms the
chromosome and lies in direct contact with cytoplasm. Basic proteins associated
with nucleic acid are absent in bacteria.
3. Coenocytic hyphae of Rhizopus and cells of Vaucheria are multinucleate

Objections to cell theory

Cell Principle
In 1858, a German biologist Rudolph Virchow found that all living cells arise from
pre-existing cells ('omnis cellula e cellula')
In 1866 Ernst Haeckel suggested that nucleus might store and transmit the
hereditary information
The improvement made in the field of microscopes and techniques for the study
of cells, enabled scientists to collect enormous information on the structural and
functional organisation of cells
As a result of these developments the cell theory had to be modified and cell
principle was formulated

Important Features of Cell Principle

Such objections necessitated modification of cell theory
The modified form of cell theory is described as Cell Principle or Cell doctrine

Cell theory vs Cell Principle

Cell principle is better than cell theory because:

1. It is applicable to all the living things like plants, animals and micro-organisms
2. Cell principle incorporates all the modern findings

Diversity in Cell size

Diversity exists in the cells as far as size, shape and number is concerned
Most cells are microscopic, visible only under the high power of microscope
Size varies greatly from 80 milli micron to a meter
Nerve cells are the longest

Egg of Ostrich is about 175x135 mm

In human body cell size ranges between 3-4 micron (Leukocytes) to over 90 cm
(nerve cells)

The nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and surface area are the two important factors that
restrict the cell size

Diversity in Cell shape

The shape of the cells is related to their functions

Some blood cells and Amoeba change their shape whereas others have constant
shape
The cells may be spherical, oval, rounded or elongated, cuboidal, cylindrical,
tubular, polygonal, plate-like, discoidal or irregular
The cell shape is influenced by :
1. Surface tension and viscosity of the protoplasm

2. Mutual pressure of the surrounding cells

3. Rigidity of the cell membrane
4. Internal environment and function of the cell

Types of cells
Cells are generally three types:
1. Prokaryotic:
Relative simple cells with no membrane bound organelles like RE, Golgi
complex, mitochondria, chloroplast or lysosomes. The hereditary material is
highly coiled circular chromosome lying naked in the cytoplasm. It is formed of
DNA alone and called nucleoid like Bacteria and blue green algae
2. Eukaryotic:
These cells contain a true nucleus. Hereditary material that is DNA is
associated with basic proteins and forms nucleoprotein separated from
cytoplasm by nuclear envelop. Membrane bound organelles are present like
plant and animal cells.
3. Mesokaryotic:
In these cells nuclear membrane is present around the nucleus but DNA is not
associated with histones. These cells are more advance than prokaryotes and
less advance than eukaryotes like Dinoflagellates

Structure of Eukaryote and Prokaryote cells

Structure and Function of Prokaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic cells are primitive and relatively simple cells
They are believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago when life
originated on earth
They are mostly single celled and lack all intracellular membranes and membrane
bound organelles like ER, Golgi, Lysosomes, Mitochondria and chloroplasts

Due to the absence of nuclear membrane, hereditary material lies naked in the
cytoplasm
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell:

1. These cells are very small in size about the size of mitochondria
2. Distinct nucleus that is nucleolus and nuclear envelop is absent
3. Hereditary material is a single chromosome which is a single circular double
stranded DNA. It is known as nucleoid
4. Basic proteins like histones are absent

5. Cellular covering is plasma membrane that differs from eukaryotic cells in

following features:
a. It does not have sterols
b. Ratio of protein to phospholipid is high in bacteria (2:1) than in
eukaryotes (1:1)

6. Cell wall or capsule present outside the plasma membrane is non-cellulosic. It

is formed of carbohydrates and amino acids
7. Membrane bound organelles are absent

8. Plasma membrane in some cases is folded inwards and forms mesosomes and
chromatophores
9. Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S type

10. Prokaryotic cells may contain flagella and pilli

11. Their cytoplasm does not exhibit streaming movement

Structure of Prokaryotic Cell

Capsule
The cell capsule is a very large structure of some prokaryotic cells, such as
bacterial cells
It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope of bacteria
The capsulewhich can be found in both Gram-negative bacteria and Grampositive bacteriashould not be confused with the second lipid membrane (or
bacterial outer membrane), which contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins
and is found only in Gram-negative bacteria
When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into
the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is
known as slime layer

It usually consists of polysaccharides but can be composed of other materials

(e.g., polypeptide (D-glutamic acid) in B. anthracis)
The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of
bacteria to cause disease (e.g. prevents phagocytosis)
The capsule can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells, such as
macrophages

A capsule-specific antibody may be required for phagocytosis to occur

Capsules also contain water which protects the virus against desiccation

They also exclude bacterial viruses and most hydrophobic toxic materials such as
detergents
There are 14 different capsule types, which each impart their own specific
antigenicity
Immunity to one capsule type does not result in immunity to the other types
Capsules also help cells adhere to surfaces

Cell Envelop Cell wall

The cell envelope comprises the plasma membrane and cell wall of a bacteria
Most bacterial cell envelopes fall into two major categories: a Gram-positive type
and a Gram-negative type
Regardless of its Gram status, a bacterium might have an exterior polysaccharidecontaining structure called a capsule for further protection of the cell envelope
As in other organisms, the bacterial cell wall provides structural integrity to the
cell
In prokaryotes, the primary function of the cell wall is to protect the cell from
internal turgor pressure caused by the much higher concentrations of proteins
and other molecules inside the cell compared to its external environment
The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other organisms by the presence of
peptidoglycan (poly-N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid), which is
located immediately outside of the cytoplasmic membrane
Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the bacterial cell wall and for the
determination of cell shape
It is relatively porous and is not considered to be a permeability barrier for small
substrates

Cell Envelop Cell Membrane

The cell membrane or plasma membrane is similar to eukaryotic cells

It separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment

The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its
surroundings

The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and
controls the movement of substances in and out of cells
It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972),

which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes
can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein
molecules diffuse more or less easily
Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell
adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface
for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and intracellular
cytoskeleton
It also contains respiratory chain enzymes in prokaryotes

The bacterial plasma membrane is modified to form varied structures like

Mesosomes
1. Mesosomes: These are folded invaginations in the plasma membrane of
bacteria. These may be tubular, flattened disc-like or curved. They contain
enzymes of electron-transport system. They help in respiration, secretion,
synthesis of material for cell wall and separation and distribution of
chromosomes to daughter cells

Diagram of the arrangement of lipid molecules to form a lipid

bilayer. The polar head groups separate the hydrophobic tails from
the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments

Extracellular structures
Pilus
These are protein tubes that extend out from the outer membrane in many
members of the bacteria
They are generally short to medium in length and present on the bacterial cell
surface in low numbers
A few organisms (e.g. Myxococcus) use pilus for motility
They are involved in the process of bacterial conjugation where they are called
conjugation pili or "sex pili
Type IV pili (non-sex pili) also aid bacteria in gripping surfaces
Flagella
Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell structures are flagella

Flagella are whip-like structures protruding from the bacterial cell wall and are
responsible for bacterial motility (i.e. movement)
The arrangement of flagella about the bacterial cell is unique to the species

Common forms include:

Monotrichous - Single flagellum (A)

Lophotrichous - A tuft of flagella found at one of the cell

Pole (B)
Amphitrichous - Single flagellum found at each of two
opposite poles (C)
Peritrichous - Multiple flagella found at several locations
about the cell (D)
The bacterial flagellum consists of three basic components: a whip-like filament, a
motor complex, and a hook that connects them
The filament is approximately 20 nm in diameter and consists of several
protofilaments, each made up of thousands of flagellin subunits

The bundle is held together by a cap and may or may not be encapsulated

Flagella

Cytoplasm
The fluid and all its dissolved or suspended particles is called the cytoplasm of
the cell
Cytosol is the water-like fluid found in bacterial cells
The cytosol contains all the other internal compounds and components the
bacteria needs for survival
Proteins, amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, salts, vitamins, enzymes, DNA,
ribosomes, and internal bacterial structures all float around the cell in the
cytoplasm
All of these components are vital to the life of the cell and are contained by the
cell membrane
Bacterial DNA and plasmid
Unlike eukaryotes, the bacterial DNA is not enclosed inside of a membrane-bound
nucleus but instead resides inside the bacterial cytoplasm
This means that the transfer of cellular information through the processes of
translation, transcription and DNA replication all occur within the same
compartment and can interact with other cytoplasmic structures like ribosomes

The bacterial DNA is not packaged using histones to form chromatin as in

eukaryotes but instead exists as a highly compact supercoiled structure, the
precise nature of which remains unclear
The clear area of the cytoplasm along with
bacterial chromosome is called nucleoid
Most bacterial DNA are circular although some
examples of linear DNA exist (e.g. Borrelia
burgdorferi)
Along with chromosomal DNA, most bacteria
also contain small independent pieces of DNA
called plasmids that often encode for traits
that are advantageous but not essential to their
bacterial host

Plasmids can be easily gained or lost by a

bacterium and can be transferred between

bacteria as a form of horizontal gene transfer

So plasmids can be described as an extrachromosomal DNA in a bacterial cell

There are two types of plasmid integration into a host bacteria: Non-integrating
plasmids replicate as with the top instance, whereas episomes, the lower
example, integrate into the host chromosome

In bacteria there are three types of plasmids:

1. F plasmid: These are also called sex factors. The bacterial cell having this
plasmid is called F+ or donor cells and other one not having it is F- or recipient
cell. This plasmid initiates conjugation between F- and F+ bacteria
2. R plasmid: This plasmid contains genes that provide resistance to bacterial
cells against antibiotics

3. Col Factors: The presence of this plasmid makes bacteria to secrete colicins
which are antibiotics
Ribosomes:

In most bacteria the most numerous intracellular structure is the ribosome

This is the site of protein synthesis in all living organisms
Ribosomes consist of two major components the small ribosomal subunit
which reads the RNA, and the large subunit which joins amino acids to form a
polypeptide chain

Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a
variety of proteins
All prokaryotes have 70S (where S=Svedberg units) ribosomes while eukaryotes
contain larger 80S ribosomes in their cytosol

Svedberg units is a measure of the rate of sedimentation in centrifugation rather

than size
The 70S ribosome can occur either freely in the cytoplasm or in chains known as
polyribosomes
The 70S ribosome is made up of a 50S and 30S subunits
The 50S subunit contains the 23S and 5S rRNA while the 30S subunit contains the
16S rRNA
These rRNA molecules differ in size in eukaryotes and are complexed with a large
number of ribosomal proteins, the number and type of which can vary slightly
between organisms

Lipid droplets
Lipid Droplets are ubiquitous dynamic organelles that store and supply lipids in
all eukaryotic and some prokaryotic cells
Lipids are used for energy metabolism, membrane synthesis, and production of
essential lipid-derived molecules

Structure and Function of Eukaryotic Cell

A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles
enclosed within membranes

Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota

The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from
prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea) is the nucleus, which contains the
genetic material, enclosed by the nuclear envelope
The presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes their name, which comes from the
Greek (eu, "well and karyon, "nut" or "kernel")
Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus
In addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts
Many unicellular organisms are eukaryotes, such as protozoa
All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi
Cell division in eukaryotes differs from that in prokaryotes

There are two types of division processes

In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells
In meiosis, which is required in sexual reproduction, one diploid cell (having two
instances of each chromosome, one from each parent) undergoes recombination
of each pair of parental chromosomes, and then two stages of cell division,
resulting in four haploid cells (gametes)
Each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the
corresponding pair of parental chromosomes
The domain Eukaryota is one of the three domains of life
The two other domains are Bacteria and Archaea
Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things

Even in a human body there are 10 times more microbes than human cells
However, due to their much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is
estimated at about equal to that of prokaryotes

Eukaryotes first developed approximately 1.62.1 billion years ago

Origin of Eukaryotic Cell

The set of ideas most favored by biologists to explain how eukaryotic cells first
came about is called the endosymbiotic theory

This theory is able to account well for the fact that two of the organelles found in
eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts, have their own DNA that is
completely distinct from the DNA housed in the nucleus
According to the endosymbiotic theory, the eukaryotic cell evolved from a
symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells
Specifically, the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are what remains of ancient
symbiotic oxygen-breathing bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, whereas the
rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean cell
The origin of the eukaryotic cell was a milestone in the evolution of life
Although eukaryotes use the same genetic code and metabolic processes as
prokaryotes, their higher level of organizational complexity has permitted the
development of truly multicellular organisms

Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

feature
eukaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells
Found in "simple" organisms,
Found in "complex"
types of
organisms, including all plants
including bacteria and
organism
and animals
cyanobacteria
Can specialize for certain
functions, such as absorbing
nutrients from food or
Usually exist as single,
specialization transmitting nerve impulses;
virtually identical cells
groups cells can form large,
multicellular organs and
organisms
Most animal cells are 1030
micrometers across; most
Most are 110 micrometers
size
plant cells are 10100
across
micrometers across
Contain a nucleus and many
other organelles, each
surrounded by a membrane
Lack a nucleus and other
nucleus
(the nucleus and
membrane-encased organelles
mitochondrion have two
membranes)

nucleolus

One (or more) present in each

nucleus

Absent

DNA

DNA always in combination with

histone proteins

Simple duplex not associated

with histones (i.e. basic
proteins)Absent

spindle

sexual system

Present temporarily during

mitosis and meiosis
Complete nuclear fusion
between gametes, with equal
contributions from both
genomes

Absent
Unidirectional transfer of genes
from donor to recipient

Present, but chemically

Present in plant cells, but never different in many respects from
cell wall
contain muramic acid
eukaryotes (e.g. presence of
muramic acid)
Complex compartmentalization
internal
Usually simple and often
into endoplasmic reticulum,
membranes
transient, if present at all
Golgi bodies, lysosomes, etc
ribosomes
80 S with subunits (60 S + 40 S) 70 S* with subunits (30 S + 50 S)
Complex chloroplasts
photosynthesis
(membrane-bounded
Simple chromatophores
organelles)

respiration

Virtually all forms are aerobic,

though a few are facultatively
anaerobic (e.g. yeasts); and,
uniquely, the trichomonads are
obligate anerobes

Found on the inner membrane

of special membrane-bound
electron
organelles: mitochondria
transport
system & ATP (oxidative phosphorylation)
synthesis
and chloroplasts
(photophosphorylation)

Mostly anaerobic

Localized on the cell

membrane

Eukaryotic Cell

There are many different types of eukaryotic cells, though animals and plants are
the most familiar eukaryotes, and thus provide an excellent starting point for
understanding eukaryotic structure

Fungi and many protists have some substantial differences, however

Animal Cell
All animal cells are multicellular and eukaryotic
Animal cells are surrounded by plasma membrane
and it contains the nucleus and organelles that
are membrane bound
Animal cells are of various sizes and have
irregular shapes

Most of the cells size range between 1 and 100

micrometers and are visible only with help of
microscope
Trillions of cells are found in the human body
There are many different types of cells, approximately 210 distinct cell types in
adult human body
Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids
Due to the lack of the cell wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are
mostly irregular

Animal Cell constituents

Parts of a Animal Cell

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable

Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended
inside the cell
Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell

Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division

Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products

Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell
Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy
Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis
Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of

ribosomes
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of
nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell
Cell membrane
It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing
only a few molecules to move across it
Electron microscopic studies of cell
membrane shows the lipid bi-layer model
of the plasma membrane, it also known as
the fluid mosaic model
The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has polar (hydrophillic)
heads and non-polar (hydrophobic) tails

Cytoplasm
The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm
The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm

This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink or
burst

Nucleus
Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA
The nucleus is surrounded by a porous
membrane known as the nuclear membrane
The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through
these pores

Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through

the nuclear pores
The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process

The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control center
The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for ribosome
formation

Ribosomes
Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes
place
As protein synthesis is very important to the
cell, ribosomes are found in large number in
all cells

60S
40S

60S

40S

Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum
ER is the transport system of the cell
It transports molecules that need certain
changes and also molecules to their
destination
ER is of two types, rough and smooth
ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic
reticulum; while the smooth ER do not have the ribosomes

Lysosomes
It is the digestive system of the cell
They have digestive enzymes helps in
breakdown the waste molecules and also
help in detoxification of the cell
If the lysosomes were not membrane
bound the cell could not have used the
destructive enzymes
Centrosomes
It is located near the nucleus of the
cell and is known as the 'microtubule
organizing center' of the cell
Microtubules are made in the centrosome
During mitosis the centrosome aids in
dividing of the cell and moving of the
chromosome to the opposite sides of the cell

Vacuoles
They are bound by single membrane and small
organelles
In many organisms vacuoles are storage
organelles

Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which

function for transport in/out of the cell
Golgi bodies

Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell

The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from
the rough ER by dividing them into smaller
units with membrane known as vesicles
They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound
sacs

Mitochondria
Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell
They are called the power house of the cell because
energy(ATP) is created here
Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane
It is spherical or rod shaped organelle
It is an organelle which is independent as it has its
own hereditary material.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative
enzymes that are digestive in function
They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in
synthesis of cholesterol

Cytoskeleton
It is the network of actin filaments, microtubules and microfilament fibres
They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures
They are different based on the function they perform and their length

Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and are
fewer in number
They are organelles of movement
The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary movement is
power stroke and recovery stroke

Functions of a Animal Cell

The functions of animal cell is carried out by the different cell organelles
The organelles of the cell function as a unit and regulate the activities of the cell
The

different

cell

organelles

and

their

functions

are

as

follows:

Cell Nucleus
Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell

The genetic material of the organism is present in the cell

The replication of DNA, and synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the cell
It also regulates the activities of the other cellular organelles
Mitochondria
The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the cell
Its main function is to produce energy for cell by the process of cellular
respiration

The energy produced is ATP

Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network for transportation of certain substances in and out of the nucleus
Golgi Apparatus

It is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules that are

synthesized by the cells
The crude proteins that are passed on by the ER to the apparatus are developed
by the golgi apparatus into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins
Ribosomes
The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis

Lysosomes
They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell
They have digestive enzymes and are involved in clearing the in wanted waste
materials from the cell

They also engulf damaged materials like the damaged cells and invading
microorganisms and digest food particles
Vacuole
They are large storage organelles
They store excess food or water
The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular organelles

These cells function as a unit and the cells together form tissues
A group go tissues with similar function form an organ and a group of organ of
specific function to perform becomes and organ system

Thus, the microscopic cells form the basic unit for the activities and coordination
and help survival of the organism

Structure and Function of a Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key aspects from the cells of
other eukaryotic organisms
Their distinctive features include:
A large central vacuole, a water-filled volume enclosed by a
membrane known as the
tonoplast that maintains the cell's
turgor, controls movement of
molecules in the cytosol, stores
useful material and digests waste
proteins and organelles
A cell wall composed of cellulose
and hemicellulose, pectin and in many cases lignin is secreted by the protoplast
on the outside of the cell membrane
This contrasts with the cell walls of fungi (which are made of chitin), and of
bacteria, which are made of peptidoglycan
Specialized cell-to-cell communication pathways known as plasmodesmata, pores
in the primary cell wall through which the plasmalemma and endoplasmic

reticulum of adjacent cells are continuous

Plastids, the most notable being the chloroplast, which contains chlorophyll, a
green-colored pigment that absorbs sunlight, and allows the plant to make its own
food in the process known as photosynthesis
Other types of plastids are the amyloplasts, specialized for starch storage,
elaioplasts specialized for fat storage, and chromoplasts specialized for synthesis
and storage of pigments

As in mitochondria, which have a genome encoding 37 genes, plastids have their

own genomes of about 100120 unique genes and, it is presumed, arose as
prokaryotic endosymbionts living in the cells of an early eukaryotic ancestor of
the land plants and algae
The sperm of bryophytes and pteridophytes, Cycads and Ginkgo have flagella
similar to those in animals, but higher plants, (including Gymnosperms and
flowering plants) lack the flagella and centrioles that are present in animal cells

Types of Plant Cell

Types of Plant Cell

As a plant matures, its cells become specialized

There are a number of important specialized types of plant cells

Some examples of specialized plant cells include:
Meristematic Cells
These cells give rise to all three fundamental mature cell types
Their major function is cell division

The walls are thin, the vacuole is largely missing, the plastids are immature, etc.
Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells are usually depicted as the typical plant cell because they are
not very specialized
These cells are the biochemistry machines of the plant because most of the
plant's metabolism takes place in these cells

These cells synthesize and store organic products in the plant

They are alive at maturity and are specialized in any number of structural and
biochemical ways
Other than support functions, this cell type is the basis for all plant structure and
function

Parenchyma cells have thin primary walls, and highly functional cytoplasm
For example, leaf is composed of parenchyma cells where these are specialized
for light penetration or regulating gas exchange

Collenchyma Cells
Collenchyma cells have a support function in plants, particularly in young plants

These cells help to support plants while not restraining growth due to their lack of
secondary cell walls and the absence of a hardening agent in their primary cell
walls
These cells mature from meristem derivatives
Plastids do not develop and secretory apparatus (ER and Golgi) proliferates to
assist in the accumulation of additional primary wall

The cells are also typically quite elongate

The role of this cell type is to support the plant in areas still growing in length
The primary wall lacks lignin that would make it brittle, so this cell type provides
what could be called plastic support
Support that can hold a young stem or petiole (leaf base) into the air, but in cells
that can be stretched as the cells around them elongate
Stretchable support is a good way to describe what collenchyma does
Sclerenchyma Cells
Sclerenchyma cells also have a support function in plants but unlike collenchyma
cells, they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid
Their wall is invested with lignin, making it extremely hard
These cells cannot survive for long as they cannot exchange materials well
enough for active (or even maintaining) metabolism
They are typically dead at functional maturity

Types of Plant Tissue

The major classes of cells differentiate from undifferentiated meristematic cells
(analogous to the stem cells of animals) to form the tissue structures of roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and reproductive structures
Xylem cells
These are elongated cells with lignified secondary thickening of the cell walls
Xylem cells are specialised for conduction of water

The possession of xylem defines the vascular plants or Tracheophytes

The bryophytes lack true xylem cells, but have a water-conducting tissue known
as the hydrome that is composed of elongated cells of simpler construction

Phloem
This is a specialised tissue for food transport in higher plants
Phloem cells mainly transport sucrose along pressure gradients generated by
osmosis
This phenomenon is called translocation

Phloem consists of two cell types, the sieve tubes and the intimately associated
companion cells
The sieve tube elements lack nuclei and ribosomes, and their metabolism and
functions are regulated by the adjacent nucleate companion cells
The bryophytes lack phloem, but have a simpler tissue with analogous function
known as the leptome

Distinctive Feature of a Plant Cell

Cell wall
The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal
osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the
difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external water
Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several m in thickness
Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls
The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectins which is the outermost layer forms the
interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together

The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while
the cell is growing
The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the
cell is fully grown

It is not found in all cell types

Some cells, such as the conducting cells in xylem, possess a secondary wall
containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall

Composition of cell wall

In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin

Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify
their mechanical properties and permeability
The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include:
cellulose, 35-50%
xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose
lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer

Plasmodesmata
These are intercellular organelles found only in plant and algal cells

The plasmodesmata consist of pores, or channels, lying between individual plant

cells, and connect them
They can also be termed as "bridges" between two plant cells

Through plasmodesmata, endoplasmic reticulum of one cell is extended to the

neighbouring cell
Plasmodesmata play roles in both cellular communication and in molecule
translocation
Plasmodesmata have been shown to transport proteins (including transcription
factors), short interfering RNA, messenger RNA and viral genomes from cell to
cell

Plastids
The plastid is a major double-membrane organelle found, among others, in the
cells of plants and algae
Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell
They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments
present can change or determine the cell's color
They have a common origin and possess a double-stranded DNA molecule, which
is circular, like that of prokaryotes

In plants, plastids may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which
function they play in the cell
Undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may develop into any of the following
variants:
1. Chloroplasts: for photosynthesis
2. Chromoplasts: coloured plastids: for pigment synthesis and storage

3. Leucoplasts: colourless plastids for monoterpene synthesis

Leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids:
Amyloplasts: for starch storage
Elaioplasts: for storing fat

Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the specialized subunits, in plant and algal cells
Their main role is to conduct
photosynthesis, where the
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll
captures the energy from sunlight,
and stores it in the energy storage
molecules like ATP

They then use the ATP to make

organic molecules from
carbon dioxide in a process known as
the Calvin cycle
Chloroplasts carry out a number
of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis and amino acid synthesis
The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from 1 chloroplast per cell in algae and
can get up to 100 chloroplasts per cell in plants like wheat

Structure
These are double-membrane bound organelles that contains an inner and outer
membranes that act as protective coverings and keep chloroplast structures
enclosed
Inside they have flattened sac-like membrane structures called thylakoids that
serve as the sites of conversion of light energy to chemical energy
The interior space of thylakoid is known as lumen
Embedded in the thylakoid membranes are important protein complexes and
pigment like chlorophyll that carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis
Dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs are called grana
Dense fluid within the chloroplast is called Stroma which is inside the chloroplast
envelope but outside the thylakoid membrane
This is the site of conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates (sugar)

Vacuole
This is typically a large structure in a plant cell that provides support and
participates in a variety of cellular functions including storage, detoxification,
protection, and growth

Differences and similarities between animal and plant cell

Animal Cell

Plant Cell
Present (formed of
cellulose)

Cell wall

Absent

Shape

Round (irregular shape)

Rectangular (fixed shape)

Vacuole

One or more small

vacuoles (much smaller
than plant cells).

One, large central vacuole

taking up 90% of cell
volume.

Centrioles

Present in all animal cells

Only present in lower

plant forms.

Chloroplast

Animal cells don't have

chloroplasts.

Plant cells have

chloroplasts because they
make their own food.

Cytoplasm

Present

Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Smooth and Rough)

Present

Present

Ribosomes
Mitochondria

Present
Present

Present
Present

Contd..

Plastids
Golgi Apparatus

Absent
Present

Present
Present
Cell wall and a cell
membrane

Plasma Membrane

Only cell membrane

Microtubules/
Microfilaments

Present

Present

Flagella

May be found in some

cells

May be found in some

cells

Lysosomes

Lysosomes occur in
cytoplasm

Lysosomes usually not

evident

Nucleus
Cilia

Present
Present

Present
It is very rare

Differences between Animal and Plant cell

Contd..

Functions of a Plant Cell

Cell wall: Its main function is to provide rigidity, strength, protection against
mechanical stress and infection
Cell membrane: In plants cells it is inside the cell wall and allows specific
substances to pass through and blocking others
Chloroplasts: The process of photosynthesis occurs in this region of the plant
cell. The chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight to
make food for the plants by converting light energy into chemical energy

Plasmodesmata: They enables transport and communication between plant cells

Vacuole: Vacuoles are known as cells storage center. Plant cells have large
membrane bound chamber called vacuole. Its main function is storage. Vacuoles
are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells. They are membrane bound
organelles, they perform functions of secretion, excretion and storage.
Tonoplast: A vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane is called tonoplast
Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for
synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes

Leucoplast: They are a type of plastid which are non-pigmented

Chromoplast: They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage.
They are found in photosynthetic eukaryotic species. They are found in colored
organs of plants like fruits and flowers