MAJOR PDF 12 PDF

1.
UNIT
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
It has been the experience of many traffic planners that most transportation plans rarely
progress beyond the drawing board due to lack of financial resources and other related
constraints. The only recourse open to the traffic manager therefore is the option of optimizing
existing facilities to provide improved accessibility and mobility at a satisfactory level of
safety and comfort to most of the road users. Studying and evaluating the problem in the light
of sound and tested traffic management techniques, which are essentially low cost, easily
implement and flexible, can achieve this. These are short-term solutions, primarily intended
to reduce the intensity of inconvenience caused by congestion. They may not offer a permanent
solution, yet they lend themselves to some time earning relief up to a point where the
administration may launch the long term and short term planning. Objective of short-term
solutions should be within the perspective and is compatible with the goals set out in the
longterm measures.
Though the identification of the problems and the correct diagnosis may automatically
suggest the usefulness of a particular management technique, the application of the single
technique, in isolation, is rarely sufficient in bringing about a significant improvement in the
Level of Service (LOS) and transportation mobility of an area. More often than not, the
problems shifted to the adjacent locality or an entirely new problem is spawned as a
consequence of the very technique used as a solution, if applied in isolation. It is therefore,
essential to seek solutions in a combination of techniques, even in a relatively local situation,
for effective management ( Venkateswaralu, 1996). A solution must be observed as a part of
the total scenario and the systems approach used to prepare a Transportation System
Management (TSM) Plan for the entire network.
Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS
Page 1
The traffic management techniques that have been tried all over the world have been listed below in
seven main categories:
. Regulatory Techniques
. Bus Priority Techniques
. Traffic Control Devices
. Self Enforcing Techniques and
. Traffic Segregation Techniques
. Police Public Interaction Techniques
. Demand Management Techniques
The chief data source for this sector is Transport Research Wing of the Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways. Unless otherwise stated analytical highlights given
below are based on Table No. 1.1 on Trends in Important Indicators of Road Transport
Infrastructure.
The road transport sector in India has expanded manifold in more than fifty years after
independence, both in terms of spread ( total road length & road density) and capacity
(No. of registered vehicles on road and the volume of passenger and freight traffic
handled). The total road length has increased from 4.0 lakh km. as on 31.03.1951 to
about 42.4 lakh km as on 31.03.2014, an increase of more than 10 times. The total
length of National highways has increased from 22.2 Th. Km to 66.8 Th. km, an
increase of about 3 times only, during this period. (Table 1.1).
Page 2
Table - 1.1 : Trends in road characteristics in India
Length
of
Year*
Roads
Length of
Length of
Share of
National
highways
(1000km)
State
highways
(1000km)
Surfaced roads to
total (%)
1951
400
22.2
NA
39.25
1961
524.5
23.8
NA
50.1
1971
915
24
56.8
43.5
1981
1485.4
31.7
94.4
46
1991
1998.2
33.7
127.3
51.3
2000
3325.8
52
132.8
47.32
2006
3373.5
57.7
132.1
47.48
2007
3426.6
58.1
137.7
48.49
2008
3528.7
58.1
134.8
48.21
2009
3621.5
65.6
133.2
48.62
2010
3929.4
65.6
144.4
46.99
2011
4003.9
66.6
148.1
47.72
2012
4140.5
66.6
152.8
48.24
2013
4236.4
66.8
154.5
49.34
2014
4346.5
67.1
156.6
50.24
st
*Year ending on 31 March, NA: Not Available
Sources: (i) Economic Survey
Table 1.1 trends of road characteristics in india
1.1 Planning Activities

The region's transportation planning organizations manage allocation of transportation
funds through a pre-set planning process provided in a transportation program. The plan
coordinates the implementation of roadway improvements, transit and congestion management
Page 3
projects. The transportation plans ensure the improvement of an area's air quality by reducing
congestion and improving mobility. This is achieved through an emission estimation process that
examines conformity of the plan with high international standards. Geographic Information
System is rapidly being developed and applied in a no-limit list of applications. Planning in
general, and transportation in particular, have greatly benefited from some very effective and
efficient technology. Some of the specific transportation applications of GIS include road design,
highway mapping, and analysis of accident data and traffic volumes. This technology was
unavoidable and most notably in the strategic 30-year long term structural plan is also part of ADA
and along with Riyadhs Municipality is also part of the organizations planning responsibilities.
This is why a short-range plan is also critical. Both short-term and long range plans are eminent
for planning agencies in taking on responsibilities. Such plans are often the foundation of a
continuing, comprehensive, and coordinated planning effort in the urbanised areas receiving
public funds for construction, maintenance, and operation of highways and the public
transportation system. The plans identify areas of demand and recommend improvement and
management policies based on the travel demand forecasting process.
1.2 Travel Demand Planning

Transportation planning in Riyadh as in any sound transportation planning agency,
employs a travel demand modelling process based on production and attraction of travel between
activity areas. Travel demand planning generates the data required for planning decisions. Trip
Distribution Models are used to examine the regional travel characteristics. Since activities are
based on a network of roads and projects, GIS plays a revolutionary role in illustrating and
manipulating the analysis of results. The system enables analysis previously considered impossible
because of the very large amounts of data involved (Manogue and Hutch, 1987). Various uses of
GIS in modelling activities for long and short range planning can be applied to the roadway
network and network maintenance and updating.
1.3 Road Network

A digital roadway network with the automated cartography and the complex
mathematical models ( Dakan, 1987) is the basis for travel demand modelling. The network is an
aggregate representation of major thoroughfares classified higher than collector is and projected
to planning coordinate system. The network is the input to the travel demand model as an ASCII
file, which contains link cards identified by start and end points, A-B nodes. Each link card is a
Page 4
record that represents the different characteristics of a street segment. Prior to GIS, paper maps
were the only medium available for visualizing the network and identifying coding errors.
Changes to the network were done with the aid of key maps and knowledge of the region. Limited
ability in manipulation lowers the network accuracy and the quality of analysis results.
GIS
provides a quick and easy way of monitoring network errors such as channelling, consistency of
functional classification along a facility, errors in number of lanes, and other attributes essential
for successful travel demand analysis. It also enables the correction of roadway alignment and the
updating of node coordinates used in identifying link end points. The ability of GIS to produce
colored maps has provided a visual dimension for travel demand analysis. It has also made the
perception of the different planning scenarios impact possible for non-planners. Furthermore, GIS
statistical tools provide an interactive analysis mechanism, which assists in delineating the effects
of planning decisions. Statistical summaries are used in the analysis of networks, such as
identifying the number of links by facility type, number of lanes monitoring changes in network
and travel characteristics overtime.
1.4 Network Maintenance and Updating

Riyadhs Municipality has adopted various GIS engines (software) regardless of vendors since
they feature a so-called open system, GIS via localized database. Due to its compatibility, this
certainly enabled various planning departments to use it. In GIS, a links attribute table, which
contains links, characteriz ed is attached to the network map. Using the GIS capability of
displaying the network attribute table along with a graphic display, link attributes can be corrected
and updated. In addition, results of travel demand analysis are attached and stored in the network
attribute tables, such as a link's modelled volume, speed, and impedance. As needed, colored
maps of the roadway network displaying the different kinds of information are developed
illustrating spatial relationships, temporal changes in travel needs, or locating facilities based on
class, number of lanes, congestion and speed.
1.5 Short Range Planning (SRP)

The process of preparing the SRP requires identification of projects, which qualify for public
funds, designated by decision-makers. Its transportation planning inclusive part deals with
immediate needs and improvements. In the case of transit planning, short-range studies usually
focus on operational improvements. The scope of such studies includes primarily analyses of
existing demand, user characteristics, routes and schedules, equipment needs, fare structure and
management. The techniques for carrying out these tasks are straightforward ( Smerk G., 1971).
Page 5
The conventional short-range transportation studies will continue to play a significant role in urban
areas that have existing transit systems, as they basically focus on the improvement of existing
services. However, it must be pointed out the conventional approach does not apply to a small
urban area with a transit system, the scope of short-range transit planning must not be limited to
the analysis of the existing system only (Transportation Research Board, Report No. 176, 1976).
Selection of qualifying projects relies on a project's ranking process. The ranking process estimates
the project's impact on congestion, air quality and development.
1.5.1 Dynamic Segmentation and Networking

In order to determine the spatial attributes of project proposed for inclusion in the SRP, GIS is
used to develop a map of projects, which highlights each group of projects, by type. Any of the
three main GIS packages would have dynamic segmentation ability to generate a route for arc
sections helped in identifying projects where the project limits does not end at a node. This solved
the problem of having a limited ability in depicting projects accurately on the street network.
Dynamic segmentation also allows for representing overlap projects, which partially or totally
share the same road segment.
1.5.2 Buffer Analysis

The proper approach followed in analyzing added capacity projects is to examine the projects
effects upon congestion and air quality within an impact area based on a selected distance.
Calculating the travel time saving and emission levels that could result from implementing the
project within the impact area (buffer) then tests the projects impacts. Using GIS, buffers are
created around each project representing the impact area. In GIS, the links located inside the
project's impact area (buffer) can be captured, then, travel timesaving can be calculated from the
difference in time, before and after the project's construction. This process involves incorporating
the travel demand analysis data into the attribute file, which is transferred from GIS to a date base
application (i.e., Access, Oracle..etc.) to undertake the calculations required. The benefits of GIS
in this process is that it allowed for generating the buffers required for each individual projects and
identification of the different roads located inside the impact area.
Shortest Path Analysis As part of the ranking process, travel time on alternative was identified
for roads to be constructed. The travel time on alternate routes was used to calculate travel
Page 6
timesaving gained from construction of the proposed project. An alternative route is based on the
identification of the shortest path between end points where the new roads are to be constructed.
Path Finding Module of Arc/info can be used to generate the shortest route between points of the
proposed project interactively. The statistical reports of link travel time and link-ids would be
generated and used to evaluate the project's potential in reducing congestion and air pollution
within the impact area. This can be a done using the link impedance attribute table which contains
link's travel time calculated in GIS based on speed, length and access penalty factors. GIS is used
to identify links for projects where Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) is used as variable for analysis.
Arc identifiers can then be used to join the network links in GIS to the VMT data obtained from
the travel model output.
The road density, defined as the average road length per 1000 population, has increased
from 3.28 km as on 31.03.2007
to
3.70
km
as
on
31.03.2014, registering a
CAGR(Compound Annual Growth Rate) of 3.3%. The rural road density per 1000 population
increased from 4.20 km to 4.86 km, whereas urban road density increased from 0.88km to
0.91km during this period. The road density per 1000 population appears to be higher in rural
areas because of lower population density in rural areas compared to urban areas. In terms of
2
availability of roads per unit area, the road density (per 1000 km ) at all- India level increased
from 1026.24 km to 1288.74 km
Fig 1.1 road density per 1000 persons

The number of registered motor vehicles per thousand persons increased from 53 in 2009 to
81 in 2014 indicating improvement in accessibility of means of transport for the people.
Page 7
Buses including omnibuses, which are the main mass transport vehicles on the roads, show
a growth rate of 9.37% during 2007-2014. But they account for only 1% of the registered
traffic on the roads. Actually non-transport vehicles are 90% of the registered motor vehicles
and thereby real culprits for increase in road congestion. Out of the non transport vehicles,
two wheelers alone account for about 70% share in registered motor vehicles in the country.
Fig1.2 registered motor vehicles

The fleet strength of SRTU buses increased only nominally from 114970 to 118629 during
2009-2014. But notable feature is that private sector participation in bus fleet increased from
approximately 82% in the year 2009 to 89 % in 2014. The number of private buses increased
from 519 thousand in 2009 to 880 thousand in 2014
Quality:
There has been a staggering increase in the number of motorized vehicles, but the
expansion in the road network has not been commensurate with this increase. While the motor
vehicle population has grown from 55 million in 2009 to over 89 million in 2014 with CAGR
of 10.26%, the road network has expanded from 3 million km in 2008 to 4 million km in
20014, at a CAGR of 3.31% only. Consequently, the number of registered vehicles per km.
of road has increased from about 16 to 22 during this period, adding to the road congestion.
The share of surfaced roads in the total road length increased from 47 % in 2008 to 49% in
2014. The share of surfaced National highways to total National highways increased from
99.9% to 100% during this period.
Page 8
Fig1.3 road accidents during calender year

The total number of road accidents has increased from about 4.1 lakh in 2008 to 4.8 lakh in 2014. The
number of casualties from accidents has increased from 4.86 lakh to 6.28 lakh and share of fatality in
the casualties has increased from 16.64% to 18.23% during the same period, which means that the
accidents are becoming more fatal over time. This may be due to deterioration in driving ethics, quality
and skill of driving .Road accidents per 1000 registered motor vehicles and per thousand kilometer of
road length show a negative average annual growth rate indicating a decrease in accident rate over the
years. The number of road accidents per 1000 registered motor vehicles decreased from 7 in 2008 to 5
in 2014. Road accidents per thousand kilometer of road length decreased from 120 in 2008 to 116 in
2014. Breakdowns in SRTU buses per lakh
kilometer decreased from 5.3 in 2007 to 2.1 in 2008,
indicating improvement in quality of buses. The general trend of reduction in staff strength is visible in
SRTUs also. Total number of SRTU employees decreased from 7.4 lakh in 2001 to 6.6 lakh employees
in 2008. Breakdowns in SRTU buses per lakh kilometer decreased from 5.3 in 2000 to 2.1 in 2008,
indicating improvement in quality of buses.
Page 9
Fig 1.4 road accidents per 1000km of road
Fig1.5 road accidents per 1000registered motor veh.
The general trend of reduction in staff strength is visible in SRTUs also. Total number of
th
SRTU employees decreased from 7.4 lakh in 2001 to 6.6 lakh employees in 2008. During the 10
th
plan central budgetary support to the sector was `210 crore, showing a large increase over 9 plan
th
outlay of `60 crore. State budgetary support to the sector increased from `7355 crore during the 9
th
plan to `9207 crore, during the 10 plan, showing an increase of `1852 crore over invested the ninth
plan outlay
State plan outlay forms about 99% of the total plan outlay for the sector. Utilization of funds under
central plan increased from 71% in the IX plan to 85% in the X plan. Utilization of funds under state
plan decreased from 81% in the IX plan to 60% in the X plan. Many development projects have serious
dependence on transport network. Authentic information on the transport infrastructure is fundamental
requirement for many decision making process; therefore information is required to be reliable,
updated, relevant, easily accessible and affordable. Better information doesnt guarantee better
decision-making capability but its absence precludes it. This demand for information requires new
approaches in which data related to transportation network should be identified, collected, stored,
retrieved, managed, analyzed, communicated and presented.
Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS
page10
The total capital for SRTUs increased from `8200 crore to `13821 crore, at a CAGR of
7.7% during 2001- 2008. Total cost of operation of SRTUs is higher than total revenue
during 2001-2008.
Both passenger and freight tonne kilometer performed by road transport show significant
growth during 2001-2007. Passenger km performed increased from 2075.5 billion to
4251.7 billion during 20012006, showing a CAGR of 15%. Freight tonne km performed
increased from 494 billion to 766 billion during 2007-2014,showing a CAGR of 7.6%.
Utilization per SRTU bus on road per day increased from 313 km in 2001 to 344 km in
2008.Both passenger and freight tonne kilometer performed by road transport show
significant growth during 2007-20014. Passenger km performed increased from 2075.5
billion to 4251.7 billion during 2001-2006, showing a CAGR of 15%. Freight tonne km
performed increased from 494 billion to
766
billion during 2001-2007,showing a
CAGR of 7.6%.
The road transport related data in particular involves activities like traffic counting,
sign inventories, accident investigation, recording of construction and maintenance
projects and funding, right of way surveys, bridge inventories, pavement condition
surveys, geometry design inventories, and other data collection and maintenance
activities. These activities are mostly uncoordinated within the organizations and across
the organizational boundaries. Because of lack of co-ordination or of narrow concept of
data use and application, data collected for one purpose is rarely usable for others. If two
users need the same data or very similar data, the data is often collected twice
page11
Fig 1.6 performance of SRTU
However, if the data is integrated properly by using the appropriate referencing system
concept it can be put to maximum use for transportation as well as for many other
purposes. Considering the complexities in developing, updating and processing of the
transport related data and the declining trend in cost of data management and storage
facility there is and urgent need to adopt new concepts and technologies for designing and
developing the information resource management of transport infrastructure in the
country. Therefore, the development in the field of information technology such as GIS
Expert System and Database Management Systems are especially relevant to the field to
transportation engineering.
Page 12
MOTORWAYS
Road networks
Road networks are composed of intersections and links. If

the links are long enough, the intersections will no longer
have influence on the behaviour of the traffic on a link.
The capacity of the road network is thus different near the
intersection than on long links. This chapter will first
discuss the capacities on the long links and subsequently
the capacities of some types of intersections.
The traffic stream has three main characteristics:
Traffic stream
Intensity
Density and Mean speed
characteristics
The intensity of a traffic flow is the number of vehicles passing a

Intensity
cross section of a road in a unit of time. The intensity is expressed

with
q. Thus in formula: q= n/T or
Intensity = number of vehicles/unit of time
Density
The density of a traffic flow (k) is the number of vehicles (m)

present on a unit of road length (X) at a given moment.
Thus in formula: k= m/X
The capacity of the road is highly influenced by the behavior of the drivers. In countries, with
disciplined traffic behavior the capacity seems to be considerable higher than in countries where traffic
behavior is less disciplined. Less disciplined traffic tend to block other traffic. Another factor are the
headways that traffic is using. Headways is the distance between two vehicles in a row. In particular
on motorways, it appears that the high-speed traffic with small headways, results in a high capacity of
the road.
Page 13
1.6 Road Categories

1.6.1MAJOR ROADS
Major roads, also called primary or arterial roads are routes that carry long distance through traffic to
specific areas in urban centers. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the major roads in Hyderabad town.
This category of roads form only 1.5% of road network and cover only the central district (Sabon Layi,
Wuro Bulude, Lokuwa and Kabang wards) of the metropolis. The peripheral districts have scarce major
roads. As a result, vehicle circulation in such areas is restricted. This factor might be the reason why
motorcycle is the predominant mode of transportation in Hyderabad town.
1.6.2 MINOR ROADS

These routes are also referred to as secondary or sub-arterial roads. They carry through traffic between
specific or local areas and major roads. The minor roads form about 12.9% of the road network in the
study area. It is more widely distributed in the town than major roads (Figure 3). However, minor roads
are also predominantly concentrated in the city center, extending to parts of Lokuwa North- East and
Sabon Pegi (Mid West of the town). The minor roads have rough and unpaved surfaces. They are
characterized by unlined side drainages. Minor roads that cross River Yadtserem have no bridges.
Hence movements along the routes are hampered in the rainy season. This in turn increases the traffic
volume of the few major roads in the metropolis. The condition of such roads needs to be improved.
1.6.3. ACCESS ROADS

These are routes that connect local areas or specific land use to major and minor roads in urban
areas. Access roads are numerous and well spread in all parts of the town as shown in Figure4.Access
roads form about 85.6% of the motorways in the study area connecting both the major and minor roads
with dwellings, public places and utilities.
1.6.4. PEDESTRIAN PATHWAY

Pedestrian path way is the fourth type of transport network in Hyderabad metropolis. Several pathways
connect residential, recreational, commercial, public and civic places in the town . It is the mode of
transport that predominantly serves the peripheral districts of the metropolis. These traffic free
Page 14
pedestrian accesses greatly improve quality of life through enhanced safety, less pollution and visual
attractiveness of street spaces. Hence, the pathways need to be maintained. Generally, the distribution
of motorways in Hyderabad town is scarce. Some of the roads like Old market road are narrow due to
the activities of street traders and on-street trading. This often results to traffic hold-up at peak hours
of the day. Construction of new motorways to the fast- growing peripheral wards and upgrading some
of the minor roads will go a long way in curtailing the problem of mobility demand in the study area.
1.7
LEVEL OF SERVICE ANALYSIS
Level of service
An important question is how much traffic the road can carry. Current studies present the relationships
between the capacity of the road link/node and the resulting level-of-service offered to the user of the
road.
v/c limit
Service volume
Speed
Density
(veh/h/lane)
(mile/h)
(veh/mile)
LOS
Flow Conditions
Free
0.35
700
> 60
< 12
Stable
0.54
1100
> 57
< 20
Stable
0.77
1550
> 54
<30
High density
0.93
1850
2: 46
40
Near capacity
2000
2: 30
67
Breakdown
< 30
> 67
Unstable
Table1.2 Level of service for basic freeway sections for 70 km/h design speed
Page 15
Ramps
Ramps are sections of roadway that provide connections from one motorway to another motorway or
normal road. Entering and exiting traffic causes disturbances to the traffic on the motorway and can
thus affect the capacity and level-of service of the motorway. There are basically two types of ramps:
1. Tapers
2.Parallel merger
Fig 1.7 An Example of a taper
Fig 1.8 An Example of parallel merger
Weaving sections
Weaving is the crossing of traffic streams moving in the same general direction. It is
accomplished through merging and diverging movements. Weaving is defined as the crossing
of two or more traffic streams traveling in the same direction along a significant length of the
highway without the aid of traffic control devices. Traffic change lanes at the weaving sections.
Weaving is the cause of disturbance in traffic stream, due to weaving vehicles which change
lanes within the length of weaving section. Hence, weaving section comes to have turbulence,
great time headway and low capacity, and as a result, becomes a bottleneck of road system.
Weaving areas are formed when a merge area is closely followed by a diverge area, or when an
on ramp is closely followed by an off ramp and the two are joined by an auxiliary lane. Weaving
Page 16
areas require intense lane changing maneuvers, as drivers must access lanes appropriate to their
desired exit point Research on issues of weaving sections is important to traffic administration
and for facility design and plan, especially for enhancing the efficiency and safety of road
system (Ramps are in a way weaving sections) There are several different kinds of weaving
sections.
The most common ones are:
i.Simple
weaving
ii.Multiple weaving
sided weaving
iii.One
iv.Two-
sided weaving
Fig 1.9 weaving sections
Page 17
UNIT. 2
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
INTRODUCTION:
The success of planning for developmental activities depends on the quality
and quantity of information available on both natural and socio-economic resources. It is,
therefore, essential to devise the ways and means of organizing computerized information
system. These systems must be capable of handling vast amount of data collected by modern
techniques and produce up to date information. Remote Sensing technology has already
demonstrated its capabilities to provide information on natural resources such as crop, land
use, soils, forest etc on regular basis. Similarly, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are
the latest tools available to store, retrieve and analyze different types of data for management
of natural resources. GIS facilitates systematic handling of data to generate information in a
devised format. Thus it plays an important role in evolving alternate scenarios for natural
resources management. Remote Sensing (RS) data and Geographical Information System
(GIS) play a rapidly increasing role in the field of land and water resources development.
One of the greatest advantages of using Remote Sensing data for natural resource
management is its ability to generate information in spatial and temporal domain, which is
very crucial for successful model analysis, prediction and validation. However, the use of
Remote Sensing technology involves large amount of spatial data management and requires
an efficient system to handle such data. The GIS technology provides suitable alternatives
for efficient management of large and complex databases. Image data have been used as a
primary source of natural resources information in thematic mapping, which in turn is
utilized in various hydrological studies. The remote sensing data provides synoptic view of
a fairly large area in the narrow and discrete bands of the electromagnetic spectrum at regular
intervals. The space borne multispectral data enable generating timely, reliable and cost
effective information on various natural resources, namely surface water, ground water, land
use/cover, soil, forest cover and environmental hazards, namely water logging, salinity and
alkalinity, soil erosion by water etc. For many hydrological purposes, remote sensing data
alone are not sufficient and need to be merged with data from other sources.
Hence a multitude of spatially related (i.e. geographic) data concerning topography, rainfall,
evaporation, vegetation, geomorphology, and soils has to be considered. Also of interest are
Page 18
social and economic data related to where the demand is for water for urban and industrial
supplies, irrigation, etc. In addition, technical data are required, such as locations and types
of tube wells, rain and river gauges, etc. GIS provides an extremely useful technology for
considering the interaction between spatially distributed resources. Remote sensing and
geographic information system have to play a vital role in decision support system for various
activities related with development and management of land and water resources in an
environmentally sound and sustainable manner (Seth & Jain, 1997).
2.1. Remote sensing:

Remote sensing is defined as the technique of obtaining information about objects through
the analysis of data collected by special instruments that are not in physical contact with the
objects of investigation. As such, remote sensing can be regarded as "reconnaissance from a
distance," "teledetection,"
The term remote sensing is restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy as
the means of detecting and measuring target characteristics. Electromagnetic energy refers
to all energy that moves with the velocity of light in a harmonic wave pattern. Sensors
(Cameras, Scanners etc) installed in satellites or aircraft react to the electromagnetic radiation
to produce data/images, which provide a synoptic overview giving a comprehensive picture
of the terrain features. Electromagnetic energy is commonly considered to span the spectrum
of wavelength from 10 m, the cosmic rays, up to 10 , the broadcast wavelength. The
wavelengths, which are of, interest to us in remote sensing are the optical wavelengths which
extent from 0.3 m to 15 m. The region between 0.38 and 3.0 m is frequently referred as
the reflective portion of the spectrum. The affective portion of the spectrum is further divided
into the visible wavelengths and the reflective infrared wavelengths. Since the human eye
responds to radiation between wavelengths of approximately 0.38 to 0.72 m these
wavelengths are referred to as the visible wavelengths, 0.72 to 1.3 m is referred as middle
infrared. A special term is not usually applied to the wavelengths from 3.0 to 7 m
atmospheric effects greatly data in this region and in fact, limit the usefulness of these
wavelengths for satellite remote sensing applications. Electromagnetic energy in
wavelengths from 7.0 to 15 cm is in the far infrared region of the spectrum.
Page 19
Figure 2.0.Typical EMR interactions in the atmosphere and at the Earths surface.
Remote Sensing systems in current use are primarily passive, i.e. the sensor merely receives
energy from a target that has been illuminated by an external radiation, usually Sun. An
active remote sensing system generates the radiation within the system (e.g. Radar). The
remote sensing data acquisition system is considered to have four basic parts. The radiation
source, the atmospheric path, the target and the sensor. The energy propagates through the
atmosphere, then interacts with targets and is reflected and reaches the sensor where it is
measured and converted into data for subsequent processing. When the energy propagates
through the atmosphere its intensity and spectral distribution are modified which to be
corrected. The satellite data used in remote sensing application studies is either in the form
of digital computer compatible tapes or imageries. It was in July 1972 that the first Earth
Resources Technology Satellite, subsequently called LANDSAT-1, was launched by USA.
At present LANDSAT-1, was launched by USA. At present LANDSAT is in space orbiting
at an altitude of 705 kms. About the earth it has the multispectral scanner (MSS) with four
spectral bands having a resolution of about 80 meters.
Page 20
Figure no.2.1.sensors
Remote sensing operations are carried out from platforms like aircraft, satellite etc. equipped
with suitable sensors, which react to the reflected radiations to produce data/images. The
aircraft has the advantage of flexibility in operation and can provide pictures of with
resolution. The satellites have the unique capabilities of enabling synoptic overview of
terrain features of large areas not achieved by conventional methods, and repetitive coverage
of the same area at definite intervals of time. The sensors could be cameras, multispectral
scanners, thematic mapper, radiometers etc.The satellite data used in remote sensing
application studies is either in the form of digital computer compatible tapes or imageries. It
was in July 1972 that the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite, subsequently called
LANDSAT-1, was launched by USA. At present LANDSAT-1, was launched by USA. At
present LANDSAT is in space orbiting at an altitude of 705 kms. About the earth it has the
multispectral scanner (MSS) with four spectral bands having a resolution of about 80 meters
and the thematic mapper with six reflective visible and near IR spectral channels having a
resolution of 30 meters and a thermal IR channel of 120 meters resolution. The thematic
mapper by virtue of its special narrow bandwidths and better resolution provides better data
Page 21
than MSS for mapping and monitoring earth resources. The meteorological satellite NOAA
of USA and INSAT of India provide useful data for hydrometer logical studies. Under the
Indian Remote Sensing Program, the first of the series of satellites namely IRS-1A that will
be launched by the middle of 1987 will have solid state imaging systems (cameras) with
resolutions of 73 meters and 36 meters. The system of France launched in February 1986
will have a resolution of 20 meters in the multispectral (colour) made in three narrow spectral
bands and 10 meters resolution in the panchromatic (black and white) made over a broad
spectral band).
2.1.1 Physical basis of remote sensing:

These measurements could be reflectance/emittance or acoustic soundings or geomagnetic
surveys etc. The most commonly measured variation in Remote Sensing is
reflectance/emittance of objects due to electromagnetic radiations. Three important types of
variations which form the basis for remote sensing are:
1.
Spectral Variations:
The intensity of reflected /emitted radiations as a function of wavelengths.
2.
Spatial variations:
Changes in reflectance with location i.e., difference in shape and position may also
be analyzed for discerning various features.
3.
Temporal variations:
The changes in radiation with time i.e., differences over time.
In order to derive information from these variations one has to (i) measure variations and (ii)
relate these measurements to those of known objects. What is conveyed in this :
Temporal measurements serve as an effective method of change detection. For example,
in forest cover estimate, crop monitoring, flood mapping, river migration studies, water
spread inventory are such varied areas of applications demanding temporal measurements
with varying temporal resolution too. Basic knowledge about the electromagnetic spectrum
will be useful in order to understand the use of spectral variations in remote sensing.
Page 22
Figure no.2.2 Paths of remote sensing usage
2.1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (EMR)

Remote Sensing is largely concerned with the measurement of responses from objects to
EMR from the sun. The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to
illuminate the target. This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation and derived
primarily from the sun in the form of light.
A. Electromagnetic Radiation
All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental properties and behaves in predictable ways
according to the basics of wave theory. Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical
field (E) which varies in magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the
radiation is traveling, and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field.
Both these fields travel at the speed of light. The first requirement for remote sensing is to
have an energy source to illuminate the target. This energy is in the form of electromagnetic
radiation and derived primarily from the sun in the form of light Temporal measurements
serve as an effective method of change detection. For example, in forest cover estimate,
crop monitoring, flood mapping, river migration studies, water spread inventory are such
varied areas of applications demanding temporal measurements with varying temporal
resolution too.
Page 23
Figure no.2.3 Electromagnetic radiation

B. Wavelength and Frequency:
Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for
understanding remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency.
Figure no.2.4 wavelength
Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

Page 24
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance
between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter
lambda (l). Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of meters such as
nanometers (nm, 109 meters), micrometers (mm, 10-6metres) or centimeters (cm, 102 meters).
Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per second, and
various multiples of hertz.
C. Visible Spectrum:
The light which our eyes can detect forms the visible spectrum. It is important to note how
small a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is represented by the visible region. The
visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the typical
human eye. Electromagnetic radiation wavelength is called visible light or simply light.
Human eye will respond to the wavelength from 390 to700nm. Additionally, there are light
frequencies that occur on the electromagnetic spectrum that are either too high or too low for
humans to see such as ultraviolet, located just past the violet portion of the visible light
spectrum or infrared, located just past the red portion of the visible light spectrum. Certain
insects, like honey bees, can see ultraviolet light, while snakes, on the other hand, can see
infrared light.
Page 25
Figure no.2.5 Visible spectrum
D. Resolution:
The above-mentioned variations, analytically explained, are grouped together for use as a
key or pass word in remote sensing. They are defined as below.
(1) Spatial (2) Spectral (3) Radiometric and (4) Temporal resolutions.
Before laying down the definition, it is only appropriate to put forth at the first instance
itself, a word of caution Greater the command of Power greater the responsibility. More
the flexibility or choice more the confusion and tentativeness. Meaning one has to pay a
penalty for greater and better facilities at ones disposal. Hence the specification for
resolutions will have to be judicious and well through of. This is what is termed as prescience.
Trade off is an inescapable and an integral part of any system-so as to arrive at what is called
EUTECHNICS, the sensor system to be designed.
1) Spatial resolution: First cut definition runs as the smallest elemental object that can be
captured for imaging. This depends upon many factors but the prime ones are its
reflecting or scattering capabilities and its contrast against a certain background (meaning
contextual interpretation).Fine cut definition reads as the minimum separation between
two objects to be identified unambiguously as two targets and not as one.
Page 26
It would only be fitting to say that the above definition for spatial resolution may undergo
minor modifications in some aspects of remote sensing parlance (say, in microwave) but by
and large this is a very valid definition. One important governing factor of spatial resolution
is the DWELL TIME (the integrating time).
2) Spectral Resolution: Again the minimum separation is brought about. We mean to say,
the minimum separation between two slots or bands in the EM spectrum, is termed as spectral
resolution. For example, the visible-IR region from, say, 0.4 to 100 micrometer in the EM
spectrum, is subdivided into only 3 bands in the case of MSS of Landsat-1, 2 and 3. Whereas
in Landsat-4 and 5 the same visible part is divided into 5 bands. Earth observation system is
designed to have 36 bands. The summary is that more the number of divisions in a given
region of a spectrum, greater the SPECTRAL RESOLUTION.
3) Radiometric Resolution: Once more of the minimum separation but here it is the
magnitude of the transuded energy level captured. In the visible part, the light energy
reflected or scattered from objects reaches the sensor where it is converted into some other
convenient form of energy. In most cases it is electrical; might be voltage or power or even
current-generally it is voltage. Let us stick to voltage only for the convenience of the
explanation here. The smallest increment in voltage that represents the sensed energy is
defined as RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION. In the common most form, in black & white
image display, the grey levels dealt with correspond to the radiometric resolution.
4) Temporal Resolution: Again repetition of the increment, separation the least count,
departure or interval. Here it is the interval or the lapsed time between two successive
observations that is defined as TEMPORAL RESOLUTION. In other words it is the
frequency of observations or measurements made. For example, geological applications need
observations spread over only a very long period, say, years. While agricultural monitoring,
obviously, requires more frequent data; flood mapping still more frequently.
Thus another user-defined parameter completes the string of resolutions.
Page 27
E. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS:

There could be some confusion here between the terms acquisition and collection. Though
more often than not they are interchangeably used, here a sensor on a platform is taken as
acquisition and data receiving station/system as collection.
F. Sensors and platforms:

On-board sensors from various platforms such as ground, air-borne and space borne can be
used to measure the reflected and emitted electromagnetic radiations. Based on the sensors
and the type of data acquisition two major branches of remote sensing are recognized.
(1) Photographic/Video Systems (in other words they are also known as Image oriented or
Analogue systems)
2) Numerical Oriented Systems (e.g., scanner digitized signals).
(1 ) Photographic/Video Systems (aircraft) :

It is the oldest and very popular; it normally uses a photographic camera fixed to an aircraft
to record the data on a film in a limited wavelength region (0.3 to 0.9 m.). e.g., Panchromatic
or in other words Black & White (B/W) and color infrared photographs. The data can be
obtained at various resolutions or scales in a single band or multiple bands depending on the
purpose. Interpretation of this data is done visually using photo interpretation techniques,
consequently a slow and laborious process. However, this technique has proved to be reliable
for a wide variety of applications.
(2) Numeric Oriented System (Aircraft and Satellite)
In this relatively now, but very fast method, the sensor views the area of interest in various
strips perpendicular to the line of flight. The data obtained through the sensor are stored on
magnetic tapes in DIGITAL FORMAT which can be converted into digital numbers. The
forward motion of the aircraft/space craft will bring the newer or following area into the view
for recording thereby composing the full area or the scene observed. The sensor systems are
capable of collecting spectral data in narrow bands of various regions of EMR (UV, visible
and infrared) and the data can analyzed rapidly with the aid of a suitable computer system.
Today, several fields of applications through numerical approach has reached near
operational level, gaining increased attention. However much progress is awaited in some
Page 28
fields of application. Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM), Linear Imaging
Self scanning Sensor (LISS), High Resolution Visible (HRV) imaging instruments etc. are
the typical examples of such sensor systems.
2.2 GIS GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

GIS is computer system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing,
and displaying data related to positions on the earths surface. GIS is used for handling maps
of one kind or another. These might be represented as several different layers here each layer
holds data about particular kind of future.
We are presently at the beginning of the twenty first century with the fast growing trends in
computer technology information systems and virtual world to obtain data about the physical
and cultural worlds, and to use these data to do research or to solve practical problems. The
current digital and analog electronic devices facilitate the inventory of resources and the
rapid execution of arithmetic or logical operations. These Information Systems are
undergoing much improvement and they are able to create, manipulate, store and use spatial
data much faster and at rapid rate as compared to conventional methods.
An Information System, a collection of data and tools for working with those data,
contains data in analog form or digital form about the phenomena in the real world. Our
Perception of the world through selection, generalization and synthesis give us information
and the representation of this information that is, the data constitutes a model of those
phenomena. So the collection of data, the data base is a physical repository of varied views
of the real world representing our knowledge at one point in time. Information is derived
from the individual data elements in a database, the information directly apparent i.e.
information is produced from data by our thought processes, institution or whatever based
on our knowledge.
1. Real, for example the terrain conditions etc.

2. Captured, i.e. recorded digital data from remote sensing satellites or Arial photographs
of any area.
Page 29
3. Interpreted, i.e. land use from remote sensing data.

4. Encoded i.e. recordings of rain-gauge data, depth of well data etc.
5. Structured or organized such as tables about conditions of particular watershed.
Geographic information systems (GIS) technology can be used for scientific investigations,
resource management, and development planning e.g. a GIS might allow emergency planners
to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a natural disaster, or might be
used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution.
2.2.1 Development in the field of information systems:

Geographic Information Management Technology encompasses many fields including
Computer Science, Cartography, Information Management, Telecommunications, Geodesy,
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and is flavored with its applications of engineering,
environmental analysis, landuse planning, natural resource development, infrastructure
management, and many others.
Another is automated mapping/facilities management
(AM/FM). Although GIS has recently became more widely accepted as a generic term for
the technology, the term Geographic Information System was first published in a 1965
Northwestern University discussion paper by Michal Dacy and Dvane Marble. Key terms
associated with geographic information management technology include:
Automated Mapping (A.M.)
Computer Assisted or Computer Aided Mapping (CAM)
Computer Aided Drafting (CAD)
Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD)
Geographic Information System
Automated Mapping/ Facility Management (AM/FM)
Geoprocessing and Network Analysis
Land information System
Multipurpose Cadastre
All these terminologys are often used interchangeably even though they denote different
capabilities and concepts (figure) .
Page 30
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing,

manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified
according to their locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including operating
personnel and the data that go into the system.
The defilations of a GIS given by various authors are as follows:
A spatial data handling system" (Marble et at, 1983).
A computer - assisted system for the capture, storage retrieval, analysis and display of
spatial data, within a particular Organization" (Clarke, 1986).
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world" (Burrough, 1987).
Page 31
An internally referenced, automated, spatial information system" (Berry, 1986).
"A system which uses a spatial data base to provide answers to queries of a geographical
nature" (Goodchild, 1985).
A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data
which are spatially referenced to the Earth (DOE, 1987:132)
Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulate
geographically referenced data( Aronoff, 1989:39)
2.2.2 GIS FOR TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

The main advantage of using GIS is its ability to access and analyze spatially
distributed data with respect to its actual spatial location overlaid on a base map of the area
of coverage that allows analysis not possible with the other database management systems.
The main benefit of using the GIS is not merely the user-friendly visual access and display,
but also the spatial analysis capability and the applicability to apply standard GIS
functionalities such as thematic mapping, charting, network-level analysis, simultaneous
access to several layers of data and the overlayment of same, as well as the ability to interface
with external programs and software for decision support, data management, and user
specific functions (Vonderohe, 1993). The existing database does not allow the user to
manipulate, access, and query the database other than in a very limited way. The user is
limited to textual queries only, the selection and viewing of crossing attribute data with
respect to spatial and topological relationships is not possible. Over related data, such as land
use, population, and the road network characteristics of the area in the crossings vicinity,
cannot be accessed in the present database. This ability of GIS, along with the final
presentation of results on a digital base map, will allow the user a better perception of the
problem, enable better decisions, and allow a better understanding of what is to be achieved
in a broader sense. The ability to define conditional queries, perform statistical analysis,
create thematic maps, and provide charting chances the crossing safety program by allowing
for better understandability of the data. Furthermore, the ability of most GIS software to
provide many basic transportation models and algorithms may also be useful in specific
situations. The ability to link up to external procedures and softwares also provides
Page 32
flexibility, as these procedures can access data within the GIS and present the results of
analysis to the GIS for viewing and analysis.
The geographic information system (GIS) could be used as a tool for highway infrastructure
management in a way similar to its current application in land-based information.
Thus, potential applications for GIS in transportation planning include the following:
_ Executive information system.
_ Pavement management system.
_ Bridge management.
_ Maintenance management.
_ Safety management.
_ Transportation system management (TSM)
_ Travel demand forecasting
_ Corridor preservation and right-of-way
_ Construction management
_ Hazardous cargo routing
_ Overweight/oversize vehicles permit routing.
_ Accident analysis
_ Environment impact
_ Land side economic impact and value-capture analysis and Others
Page 33
2.3 Global positioning system:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near
the earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The
system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the
world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS server
The idea behind GPS is rather simple. If the distances from a point on the Earth (a GPS
receiver) to three GPS satellites are known along with the satellite locations, then the
location of the point (or receiver) can be determined by simply applying the well known
concept of resection. That is all! But how can we get the distances to the satellites as well
as the satellite locations.
As mentioned before, each GPS satellite continuously transmits a microwave radio signal
composed of two carriers, two codes, and a navigation message. When a GPS receiver is
switched on, it will pick up the GPS signal through the receiver antenna. Once the
receiver acquires the GPS signal, it will process it using its built-in software. The partial
outcome of the signal processing consists of the distances to the GPS satellites through
the digital codes (known as the pseudoranges) and the satellite coordinates through the
navigation message.
Theoretically, only three distances to three simultaneously tracked satellites are needed.
In this case, the receiver would be located at the intersection of three spheres; each has a
radius of one receiver-satellite distance and is centered on that particular satellite From
the practical point of view, however, a fourth satellite is needed to account for the receiver
clock offset [6]. More details on this are given in Chapter 5. The accuracy obtained with
the method described earlier was until recently limited to 100m for the horizontal
component, 156m for the vertical component, and 340 ns for the time component, all at
the 95% probability level. This low accuracy level was due to the effect of the so-called
selective availability, a technique used to intentionally degrade the autonomous real-time
positioning accuracy to unauthorized users [3]. With the recent presidential decision of
terminating the selective availability, the obtained horizontal accuracy is expected to
improve to about 22m (95%probability level) .
Page 34
Figure 2.7. Basic idea of GPS positioning
2.3.1 Why use GPS?
GPS has revolutionized the surveying and navigation fields since its early stages of
development. Although GPS was originally designed as a military system, its civil
applications have grown much faster. As for the future, it is said that the number of GPS
applications will be limited only to ones imagination.
On the surveying side, GPS has replaced the conventional methods in many applications.
GPS positioning has been found to be a cost-effective process, in which at least 50% cost
reduction can be obtained whenever it is possible to use the so-called real-time kinematic
(RTK) GPS, as compared with conventional techniques. In terms of productivity and
time saving,
GPS could provide more than 75% timesaving whenever it is possible to use the RTK
GPS method the fact that GPS does not require indivisibility between stations has also
made it more attractive to surveyors over the conventional methods. For those situations
in which the GPS signal is obstructed, such as in urban canyons, GPS has been
successfully integrated with other conventional equipment. GPS has numerous
applications in land, marine, and air navigation.
Vehicle tracking and navigation are rapidly growing applications. It is expected that the
majority of GPS users will be in vehicle navigation. Future uses of GPS will include
automatic machine guidance and control, where hazardous areas can be mapped
Page 35
efficiently and safely using remotely controlled vehicles. The recent U.S. decision to
modernize GPS and to terminate the selective availability will undoubtedly open the door
for a number of other applications yet to be developed.
2.3.2 What is a datum?
The fact that the topographic surface of the Earth is highly irregular makes it difficult for
the geodetic calculations. For example, the determination of the users location to be
performed. To overcome this problem, geodesists adopted a smooth mathematical
surface, called the reference surface, to approximate the irregular shape of the earth (more
precisely to approximate the global mean sea level, the geoid). One such mathematical
surface is the sphere, which has been widely used for low-accuracy positioning. For high
accuracy positioning such as GPS positioning, however, the best mathematical surface to
approximate the Earth and at the same time keep the calculations as simple as possible
was found to be the biaxial ellipsoid. The biaxial reference ellipsoid, or simply the
reference ellipsoid, is obtained by rotating an ellipse around its minor axis, Similar to the
ellipse, the biaxial reference ellipsoid can be defined by the semi minor and semi major
axes (a, b) or the semi major axis and the flattening (a, f), where f = 1 - (b / a).
2.3.3 Geodetic coordinate system
A coordinate system is defined as a set of rules for specifying the locations (also called
coordinates) of points. This usually involves specifying an origin of the coordinates as
well as a set of reference lines (called axes) with known orientation. the case of a 3-D
coordinate system that uses three reference axes (x, y, and z) that intersect at the origin
(C) of the coordinate system.
Page 36
Fig 2.8 coordinate system
Coordinate systems may be classified as one-dimensional (1-D), 2-D, or 3-D coordinate

systems, according to the number of coordinates required to identify the location of a
point. For example, a 1-D coordinate system is needed to identify the height of a point
above the sea surface. Coordinate systems may also be classified according to the
reference surface, the orientation of the axes, and the origin. In the case of a 3-D geodetic
(also known as geographic) coordinate system, the reference surface is selected to be the
ellipsoid. The orientation of the axes and the origin are specified by two planes: the
meridian plane through the polar or z-axis (a meridian is a plane that passes through the
north and south poles) and the equatorial plane of the ellipsoid
Of particular importance to GPS users is the 3-D geodetic coordinate system. In this
system, the coordinates of a point are identified by the geodetic latitude (f), the geodetic
longitude, and the height above the reference surface (h).these parameters. Geodetic
coordinates (f, l, and h) can be easily transformed to Cartesian coordinates (x, y, and z).
To do this, the ellipsoidal parameters (a and f) must be known. It is also possible to
transform the geodetic coordinates (f and l) into a rectangular grid coordinate (e.g.,
Northing and Easting) for mapping purposes.
Page 37
2.3.4 Conventional Terrestrial Reference System
The Conventional Terrestrial Reference System (CTRS) is a 3-D geocentric coordinate

system, that is, its origin coincides with the centre of the Earth
Figure 2.9 Concept of geodetic coordinates; and (b) geodetic and Cartesian
The CTRS is rigidly tied to the Earth, that is, it rotates with the Earth. It is therefore also
known as the Earth-centred, Earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate system. The orientation of
the axes of the CTRS is defined as follows: The z-axis b points toward the conventional
terrestrial pole (CTP), which is defined as the average location of the pole during the
period 1900.1905. The x-axis is defined by the intersection of the terrestrial equatorial
plane Nandi the meridional plane that contains the mean location of the Greenwich
observatory (known as the mean Greenwich meridian). It is clear from the definition of
the x and z axes that the xz-plane contains the mean Greenwich meridian. The y-axis is
selected to make the coordinate system right-handed (i.e., 90 east of the x-axis, measured
in the equatorial plane). The three axes intersect at the centre of the Earth, as shown in
. The CTRS must be positioned with respect to the Earth (known as realization) to be of
practical use in positioning. This is done by assigning coordinate values to a selected
number of well-distributed reference stations. One of the most important CTRSs is the
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), which is realized as the International
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). The ITRF solution is based on the measurements
from globally distributed reference stations using GPS and other space geodetic systems.
It is therefore considered to be the most accurate coordinate system. The ITRF is updated
every 1 to 3 years to achieve the highest possible accuracy. The most recent version at
the time of this writing is the ITRF2000.
Page 38
2.4 What coordinates are obtained with GPS
The satellite coordinates as given in the broadcast ephemeris will refer to the WGS 84
reference system. Therefore, a GPS user who employs the broadcast ephemeris in the
adjustment process will obtain his or her coordinates in the WGS 84 system as well.
However, if a user employs the precise ephemeris obtained from the IGS service (Chapter
7), his or her solution will be referred to the ITRF reference system. Some agencies
provide the precise ephemeris in various formats. For example, Geometrics Canada
provides its precise ephemeris data in both the ITRF and the NAD83 (CSRS) formats.
The question that may arise is what happens if the available reference (base) station
coordinates are in NAD 83 rather than in WGS 84?
The answer to this question varies, depending on whether the old or the improved NAD
83 system is used. Although the sizes and shapes of the reference ellipsoids of the WGS
84 and the old NAD 83 are almost identical; their origins are shifted by more than 2m
with respect to each other. This shift causes a discrepancy in the absolute coordinates of
points when expressed in both reference systems. In other words, a point on the Earth.
Surface will have WGS 84 coordinates that are different from its coordinates in the old
NAD 83. The largest coordinate difference is in the height component (about 0.5m).
However, the effect of this shift on the relative GPS positioning is negligible. For
example, if a user applies the NAD 83 coordinates for the reference station instead of its
WGS 84, his or her solution will be in the NAD 83 reference system with a negligible
error (typically at the millimetre level). The improved WGS 84 and the NAD 83 systems
are compatible.
2.5 GPS for civil engineering applications

Civil engineering works are often done in a complex and unfriendly environment,
making it difficult for personnel to operate efficiently. The ability of GPS to provide realtime
submitter- and centimeter-level accuracy in a cost-effective manner has significantly
changed the civil engineering industry. Construction firms are using GPS in many
applications such as road construction, Earth moving, and fleet management. In road
Page 39
construction and Earth moving, GPS, combined with wireless communication and computer
systems, is installed onboard the Earthmoving machine. Designed surface information, in a
digital format, is uploaded into the system. With the help of the computer display and the
real-time GPS position information, the operator can view whether the correct grade has been
reached. In situations in which millimetre-level elevation is needed, GPS can be integrated
with rotated beam lasers.
Page 40
3.UNIT
STUDY AREA AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Study Area
Road from Hitech city to Kukatpally housing board was selected because of heavy traffic due to
software industries.
GIS Based TSM 4.1.Forecasting the Traffic

The traffic volume for the year 2007 and future year 2014 are forecasted with respect to the
2001 traffic volume taken from the CTTS (Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Study) Report
(CTTS Report, 2001), vehicle growth rate and the sample survey conducted at different locations.
However, the capacity restraints are not taken into account. The traffic volume count made at different
selected locations the percentage share of each type of vehicle is computed. As per IRC: 106-1990
(IRC: 106, 1990) the PCU values are assigned and the total PCU share of each vehicle is obtained on
each link..
3.0 Importance of satellite images
The satellite images are better and cheaper than aerial photography, field surveys and paper
maps
Advantages of satellite imagery:
1) Digital
Nearly all satellite imagery is acquired digitally this reduces expensive data conversion
costs, scanning and digitalizing.
2) Fast
In this time it takes a field crew to unload its equipment or a pilot to do a preflight check of
the aircraft, a satellite can map an entire geographical scene satellites are easy to schedule
because they are constantly is orbit.
3) Inexpensive
Because satellites can take scene of large areas, the advantage cost of raco satellite imagery
usually averages out well below US 1.00 per image.
Page 41
4) Global
Nobody owns space there are no boundaries in space that restricts the coverage of a satellite
and because they are polar orbit any point on the face of the earth can be imaged.
5) Current
By the time as paper map is finally published and released to the public the information can
be updated every 24hr in some cases.
Due to remote sensing data it is possible to get the information of isolated or inaccessible
areas of earth Satellite images are one of the most powerful and important tools used by the
methodologist. They are essentially the eyes in the sky. These images reassure forecasts to
the behavior of the atmosphere as they give a clear, concise and accurate. Forecasting the
weather and conducting research would be essentially difficult without satellite. Satellite
images provide data that can be interoperated First-Hand. Satellite images give a good
representation of what is happening at every point in the world, especially over oceans where
large gaps in data occur.
There are many different types of satellite images of most use to methodologists is the
visible images can be taken with one satellite located out in space. Satellite imagery was first
used operationally in the central forecasting office of the metrological office (CFO) about 25
years ago with the introduction of the automatic picture transmission (APT) facility from us
polar orbiting satellites. Satellite images can make forecasting weather conditions much more
clear cut because they show accurately what is happening in any given location. These
images show the concentration, speed and directions of the storms.
The main use of satellite imagery historically has been as an analysis tool in data spare
areas with information provided on could distribution, shape, size and structure as well as
approximate closely height trough the relationship between brightness and cloud top
temperature on infra-red images.
Page 42
3.1 Road Capacity Calculation

Capacity of all the links are made with three different categories:
Capacity with parking
Capacity with restricted parking
Capacity without parking
The capacity of road links as per HCM 1985 is 1300-1500 PCU per lane per hour. Adopting
the average value of 1400 and a lane width of 3.50 m, the capacity is computed as 400 PCU/hr
per one meter effective width of carriage way. The following formula is adopted for the
calculation of capacity ,Capacity = Effective width of road way * 400 PCU/hr. To obtain the
effective width of road, road inventory survey was conducted and total width
(after
encroachment) and parking width are measured. For the different cases the effective
width is taken as,
Effective width with parking = Total width parking width Effective width without parking = Total width
Effective width with restricted parking = Total width parking width allowed.
The width of parking allowed is computed by adopting the following four conditions:
Total road width
Parking width
Less than 5 m
0.0
>5 m and <= 10 m
2.0
>10 m and <=15 m
2.5
Table 3.1 parking width allowed
Page 43
3.2 Parking Management

Parking management was selected as the next measure. As far as Hitech City To Kphb CBD
is concerned it is not an easy measure to ban parking, as it will lead to major local problems.
So parking may be permitted if the V/C ratios of the links are less then 0.8. It is specified as
the design capacity for urban roads as per IRC: 106-1990. Recommendations are made for
restricting parking only when the links are identified as highly congested. After the
application of parking management, the LOS improved rapidly. Analysis shows that
reduction in parking width will reduce the traffic congestion.
3.3 Effect of New Links

To control future traffic problems inside the Hyderabad , the Corporation of hyderabad had
decided to construct three ring roads in and around hyderabad, namely outer, intermediate and
inner ring roads. The outer ring road running through the outer edge of the hyderabad is under
construction and finished by the year 2006. The intermediate and inner ring roads planned to
be constructed inside the hyderabad are yet to commence. So only the effect of outer ring road
is taken for the study. The diversion of traffic during the peak hour in different years from
these roads is predicted from the overall diversion given per day in CTTS report (CTTS Report,
1997) with the assumption of 12 percent peak hour flow. New traffic volume on each link is
the difference between the projected traffic and the diverted traffic. Two wheelers are not
considered for the diversion of traffic during peak hours. Due to this measure, the V/C ratio on
NH-7 ( Thirunelveli Road) is greater than one.
This is due to heavy truck movement and higher population density along this road. Adequate
road network is known to facilitate the movements of persons and goods in urban areas. It is
in this regard that transport planners intend for road network to be maintained in such a way
that the travel demands of the people in an area are met to the maximum extent in a collective
way at the lowest cost of development. This study is aimed at developing digital map of road
network so as to enhance circulation in Hyderabad metropolis.
Page 44
3.4 Overall Improvement

The effect on V/C ratio and LOS for the entire city road network due to application of each
TSM measures is studied using the avenue program. Suitable coding is written in the avenue to take
care of entire road network. Overall V/C ratio of the CBD road network is calculated using the
formula:
n
Overall V/C Ratio=
Vi * Li
i =1
n
Ci*Li
i=1 where
Vi = Volume of traffic in link i in PCU/hr
Li = Length of the link i in km
Ci = Capacity of the link iin PCU/hr
The effect on overall V/C ratio for the entire city road network due to One-way streets,
Parking Management System and Diversion of Traffic is presented in Table 3.2 Analysis
shows that the overall V/C ratio is less than 0.81 for the present condition. But for the year
2007 the overall V/C ratio is greater than 1.15. Hence the long-term TSM measures such as
widening of roads and construction new roads may be implemented to reduce the congestion
in the future.
Page 45
Effect on V/C Ratio Before and After Application of TSM Measures

Effect for
hthe year
Effect for the year 2014
TSM
2012
Measures
Before
After
Before
After
One-way
0.94
0.74
1.89
1.15
1.02
0.81
2.14
1.45
1.24
0.80
2.74
1.79
Street
Parking
Restriction
Diversion
of
Traffic
Table3.2 effect of v/c ratio Before and After Application of TSM Measures
Page 46
4. UNIT
METHODOLOGY
Aim:
The main aim of the project is digitize the existing road network from HITEC CITY to JNTU
which includes, minor roads ,road dividers ,Freeways and bus stops . Based on the existing
network need to prepare a new road network based on the traffic volume for smooth flow of
the vehicles.
Page 47
Objective:
Image cutting from google earth
Georeference the images using Arc GIS
Digitize the existing road network using Geo referenced images
Proposal of new road work using Arc GIS tools
Softwares used:
Google earth
Arc GIS 9.2
Autocad 2009
Surfer 10.0
Data Used:
Toposheets of Hyderabad
Basemap of Hyderabad
Google maps
Page 48
4.1 images of study area
Fig4.1 satellite image at cyber towers
Fig4.2 satellite image at hitech city
Page 49
Fig 4.3 satellite image at shilparamam road
Fig 4.4 satellite image near N-convention

Page 50
Fig 4.5 satellite image at siddivinayaknagar
Fig 4.6 satellite image at bhagyanagar
Page 51
Fig 4.7 satellite image near bhagyanagar
Fig 4.8 satellite image
Page 52
Fig 4.9 satellite image at kphb 4th phase road
Fig4.10 satellite image at kphb railway station
Page 53
Fig4.11 satellite image at 9th phase road
Fig4.12 satellite image near kphb 9th phase road
Page 54
Fig4.13 satellite image at flyover
Fig4.14 satellite image after railwaystation flyover
Page 55
Fig4.15 satellite image near maleshian township
Fig4.16 satellite image at maleshian township
Page 56
Fig4.17 satellite image before circle
Fig4.18 satellite image at maleshian township circle
Page 57
Fig 4.19 satellite image after maleshian township
Fig 4.20satellite image at 9th phase road
Page 58
Fig4.21 satellite image at anupama hospital
Fig4.22 satellite image at 6th phase
Page 59
Fig 4.23 satellite image near manjeera mall
Fig4.24 satellite image at raithu bazaar
Page 60
Fig4.25 satellite image near jntu
Fig 4.26 satellite image at jntu
Page 61
Geographical data of study area:

LATITUDE
LONGITUDE
78.379888
17.451011
1938
78.382186
17.451018
1932
78.380483
17.452386
1918
78.382301
17.452298
1931
78.381819
17.453896
1917
78.383478
17.453765
1911
78.382781
17.455210
1911
78.384174
17.455177
1898
78.383322
17.456654
1899
78.384674
17.456581
1895
78.383507
17.458172
1890
78.385096
17.458201
1883
78.383842
17.459877
1891
78.385696
17.459908
1881
78.384218
17.461475
1914
78.385943
17.461508
1901
78.384450
17.463133
1901
78.385996
17.463146
1888
78.384689
17.464724
1884
78.386311
17.464820
1871
78.385126
17.466384
1872
78.386729
17.466477
1865
78.385414
17.468129
1865
ELEVATION
Page 62
LATTITUDE
LONGITUDE
78.387513
17.474937
1898
78.389411
17.474889
1899
78.388542
17.476528
1920
78.390242
17.476413
1910
78.389435
17.478017
1926
78.390949
17.477872
1911
78.389296
17.479444
1920
78.390732
17.479505
1904
78.388695
17.481114
1920
78.390545
17.481073
1919
78.388712
17.482637
1906
78.390283
17.482630
1907
78.388919
17.484219
1884
78.390664
17.484250
1884
78.389783
17.485863
1886
78.391321
17.485873
1896
78.91818
17.841345
1846
78.390450
17.487519
1916
78.391857
17.487344
1905
78.390981
17.489023
1926
78.392391
17.488955
1921
78.391680
17.490663
1919
ELEVATION
Page 63
78.393294
17.490628
1907
78.392411
17.492133
1910
78.393768
17.492085
1904
78.393046
17.493706
1922
78.394365
17.493587
1926
78.393669
17.495188
1942
78.395066
17.495127
1944
78.394361
17.496822
1953
78.395650
17.496765
1954
Table 4.1 Geographical data of Study Area
4.2 Geo Reference

Geo referencing is a process of establishing a mathematical relationship between the image coordinate
system to the real world spatial coordinate system.
.
The Geo reference process lets you create, edit, and store control information that relates the
positions of raster cells and geometric elements in your spatial objects to map coordinates in a
specified coordinate reference system.
Geo-reference
To geo-reference means to associate something with locations in physical space. The term
is commonly used in the geographic information systems field to describe the process of
associating a physical map or raster image of a map with spatial locations. Geo-referencing
may be applied to any kind of object or structure that can be related to a geographical location,
such as points of interest, roads, places, bridges, or buildings. Geographic locations are most
commonly represented using a coordinate reference system, which in turn can be related to a
geodetic reference system such as WGS-84.Examples include establishing the correct
position of an aerial photograph within a map or finding the geographical coordinates of a
place name or street address (Geocoding).
Page 64
Need of Geo-referencing is crucial to making aerial and satellite imagery, usually raster
images, useful for mapping as it explains how other data, such as the above GPS points,
relate to the imager
Very essential information may be contained in data or images that were produced at
a different point of time. It may be desired either to combine or compare this data with
that currently available. The latter can be used to analyze the changes in the features
under study over a period of time.
Different maps may use different projection systems. Geo-referencing tools contain
methods to combine and overlay these maps with minimum distortion.
Using geo-referencing methods, data obtained from surveying tools like total stations
may be given a point of reference from topographic maps already available. It may
be required to establish the relationship between social survey results which have been
coded with postal codes or street addresses and other geographic areas such as census
zones or other areas used in public administration or service planning.
Page 65
Fig 4.27 georeferenced images
4.3Digitization of
Road Network
There were four categories of routes major roads, minor roads, access roads and footpaths
identified and traced in Hyderabad town. Each of the route categories was digitized as
independent line thematic layers using Arc view GIS software. Area features such as motor
park, Bus stop and lay bye were digitized as polygon. Attribute data of major roads were
input and appended to GIS database.
Page 66
Geographical Data of Georeferenced Image

Northing
Easting
78.38017
17.45108
78.38036
17.45121
1936
78.38063
17.45097
1938
78.38053
17.45194
1923
78.38079
17.45211
1924
78.38054
17.45236
1919
78.38171
17.45112
1931
78.38145
17.45096
1933
78.38198
17.45083
1933
78.38171
17.45068
1936
78.38126
17.45062
1928
78.38162
17.45179
1931
78.38189
17.45258
1930
78.38216
17.45238
1931
78.38259
17.45262
1927
78.38289
17.48531
1922
78.38364
17.45282
1917
78.38231
17.45308
1925
78.38185
17.45267
1929
78.38267
17.45342
1922
78.38339
17.45324
1911
Elevation
1938
Page 67
78.38377
17.45499
1903
78.38385
17.45536
1900
78.38355
17.4554
1904
78.38371
17.45578
1899
78.38397
17.4557
1897
78.38413
17.45633
1895
78.38392
17.45635
1896
7.38414
17.45704
1895
78.38431
17.45696
1894
78.38445
17.45743
1891
78.38423
17.45744
1892
78.38428
17.45767
1889
78.38449
17.45758
1889
78.38454
17.45791
1884
78.38433
17.45793
1886
78.38447
17.45846
1882
78.38464
17.45838
1881
78.38486
17.45947
1879
78.38464
17.45948
1880
78.38481
17.46018
1884
78.38499
17.46011
1883
78.38505
17.46041
1887
78.38488
17.46042
1888
78.38499
17.46097
1894
Page 68
78.38545
17.4627
1893
78.38512
17.46269
1895
78.38522
17.46399
1888
78.38558
17.46394
1883
78.38567
17.46473
1877
78.38533
17.46473
1880
78.38576
17.46502
1875
78.38539
17.46508
1879
78.38563
17.46614
1872
78.38593
17.46717
1864
78.38612
17.46716
1864
78.38704
17.47077
1869
78.38684
17.47082
1868
78.38774
17.47143
1879
78.38767
17.47126
1877
78.38647
17.47145
1870
78.38657
17.47153
1870
78.38701
17.47188
1877
Table 4.2 Elevational Values of Study Area
Page 69
4.4 Existing road network
Fig 4.28 Existing Road Network
Page 70
Fig 4.29 point data along study area
Page 71
5.UNIT
OUTPUT
5.1 VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

UPPER SURFACE
Grid File: E:\values.grd
Grid size as read: 33 cols by 100 rows
Delta X: 0.00048025
Delta Y: 0.000466656565657
X-Range: 78.380165 to 78.395533
Y-Range: 17.450675 to 17.496874
Z-Range: 1864.23145847 to 1952.91071699
LOWER SURFACE
Level Surface defined by Z = 1990
VOLUMES
Approximated Volume by
Trapezoidal Rule:
-0.0636558129813
Simpson's Rule: -0.0636598250559

Simpson's 3/8 Rule:
-0.0636581355257
Page 72
CUT & FILL VOLUMES

Positive Volume [Cut]: 0
Negative Volume [Fill]: 0.063656849996
Cut minus Fill:
-0.063656849996
AREAS
Positive Planar Area
(Upper above Lower):
Negative Planar Area

(Lower above Upper):
0.000709986232
Blanked Planar Area:
Total Planar Area:
0.000709986232
Positive Surface Area
(Upper above Lower):
Negative Surface Area
(Lower above Upper): 2.68838065883
Page 73
5.2 Data file
Data Filter Report
Source Data File Name:
E:\values.csv
X Column:
Y Column:
Z Column:
Data Counts
Number of Active Data:
152
Number of Original Data:
152
Number of Excluded Data:
Number of Deleted Duplicates:
Number of Retained Duplicates:
Number of Artificial Data:
Filter Rules
Duplicate Points to Keep:
First
X Duplicate Tolerance:
Y Duplicate Tolerance:
Exclusion Filter String:
Not In Use
Data Statistics Report
Page 74
Data Counts
Number of Active Data:
152
Number of Original Data:
152
Number of Excluded Data:
Number of Deleted Duplicates:
Number of Retained Duplicates:
Number of Artificial Data:
X Variable Statistics
X Range:
0.015368
X Midrange:
78.3878
X Minimum:
78.3802
X 25%-tile:
78.3841
Page 75
5.3 Vector image study area
Fig 5.1 vector image
Page 76
5.4.Wire frame image of study area
Fig 5.2 wire frame of study area
Page 77
5.5 Contour image of study area
Fig5.3 contour of the study Area
Page 78
5.6 New Roads Proposed
Page 79
Page 80
Page 81
CONCLUSION
Planning and Management of such a huge network in the country has been primarily done at
two levels i.e. national and local level. The national level planning in the country is broad
based and is done using some macro level data like area, gross domestic product etc., whereas
local level planning is problem specific and confined to a vicinity of a few metropolitan cities.
The road network planning based on the travel demand requirements in the country could not
be adopted merely due to lack of relevant data needed for it (MOST, 1984). The major
planning in different aspects of road network can be attributed to the lack of availability of
large volume of data required for this purpose. Even if this data is made available, the next
problem is how to manage and access that data. GIS made easy to store the data in a soft copy
so that the changes can be made easy time to time. In this project we achieved our objectives
successfully. Proposals we have given in this will definitely useful for the traffic department
for smooth flow of the traffic. Mainly we observed lot of traffic jams at Malaysian township
circle , Hitech city MMTS railway station flyover and KPHB rhythu bazar areas. In this areas
new road diversion will give a good results for free traffic flow.
The transportation network is an important infrastructure in an urban setting. It allows
connectivity and movement of people, traffic and goods both within and between urban
centers. This makes it expedient to preserve urban transportation network in good working
condition. Satellite remote sensing and GIS are powerful new technologies used to update
information about road transportation which is required for mapping, planning and
maintenance of urban road network. Hence transportation planners need to integrate landuse
transportation models with Satellite Remote Sensing GIS technique for effective planning
and management of transportation network. GIS technology has opened up new horizons in
transportation planning and especially in travel demand modelling. It provides the tool a
transportation planner would need to convey ideas and present implications of planning
decision for non-planners visually. GIS provides a means of communication that allows for
an interactive understanding between the public and transportation professionals. This was
based on the observed data, which was linked to a database that enabled the researcher to
manipulate it based on the international standards of road capacities.
Page 82
REFERENCES:
1.
IRC SP: 43, (Indian Roads Congress), (1990), Guidelines on Low - Cost Traffic
Management Techniques for Urban Areas, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
2.
IRC: 106 (Indian Roads Congress), Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain
Areas (1990), Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
3.
Moses Santhakumar, S., and Samson Mathew, (1998), Proceedings on Advanced
Computer Applications in Transportation Engineering and Planning (ACATE), Regional

Engineering College, Tiruchirappalli.
4.
PC ARC/INFO User Guide, ESRI, 1994.
5.
R2V for windows 9X and NT Users Mannual, Able Software Corp., 1998.
6.
Using Arc/VIEW GIS, ESRI, Users Mannual, 1996.
7.
Using AVENUE, ESRI, Users Mannual, 1996
8.
Venkateswaralu, B., (1996), Unpublished P. G. Thesis Report on Comprehensive
Measures to Relieve Traffic Congestion along Arterials, Regional Engineering College,

Tiruchirappalli.
10. CTTS Report (Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Study) for Hyderabad Local
Planning Area (1997), Department of Town and Country Planning, Regional Office,
Hyderabad.
11 http://www.gisdecelopment.net/application/utility/transport/mi0351.htm
12 http://www.esri.com
13. Alterkawi, (2001) Application of GIS in Transportation planning: The case of Riyade, the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabi. http://.www.gis development.net/application/utility/transport.
14 Coops, N.C. and Waring, R.H. 2001: The use of multiscale remote sensing imagery to
derive regional estimates of forest growth capacity using 3-PGS Remote Sensing of
Environment 75, 32434.
15 Rao, K.M. and Jayasreo, K. (2010) Rural infrastructural planning with emphasis o road
network connectivity by Coplanar Concurrent Theory:
Page 83
16 A. M. Voorhees and Assoc., (1973) Short-Range Transit Planning. Prepared for U.S.
Dept. of Trans., Office of the Secretary, and UMTA, Washington, D. C.
17 Antenucci J., Brown K., Croswell P. Kevany M., with Archer H., (1991) Geographic
Information System: A Guide to the Technology.
18 Aronoff S., (1989) Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective.
Chatterjee A., and Sinha K., (1975) Mode Choice Estimation for Small Urban Areas.
Transportation Engineering Journal, ASCE, pp. 265-278.
19 Dakan A. W. (1987), The Private Sector and Geographic Information Systems: Papers
from the1987 annual conference of the Urban and Regional information system.
Page 84

MAJOR PDF 12 PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

MAJOR PDF 12 PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

1.

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

. Bus Priority Techniques

. Traffic Control Devices

. Self Enforcing Techniques and

. Traffic Segregation Techniques

. Police Public Interaction Techniques

. Demand Management Techniques

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

Table - 1.1 : Trends in road characteristics in India

Table 1.1 trends of road characteristics in india

1.1 Planning Activities

1.2 Travel Demand Planning

1.3 Road Network

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

1.4 Network Maintenance and Updating

1.5 Short Range Planning (SRP)

1.5.1 Dynamic Segmentation and Networking

1.5.2 Buffer Analysis

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

Fig 1.1 road density per 1000 persons

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

Fig1.2 registered motor vehicles

Fig1.3 road accidents during calender year

kilometer decreased from 5.3 in 2007 to 2.1 in 2008,

Department of Civil Engineering,MRITS

Fig 1.4 road accidents per 1000km of road

Fig1.5 road accidents per 1000registered motor veh.

billion during 2001-2007,showing a

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Fig 1.6 performance of SRTU

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Road networks are composed of intersections and links. If

Density and Mean speed

The intensity of a traffic flow is the number of vehicles passing a

cross section of a road in a unit of time. The intensity is expressed

The density of a traffic flow (k) is the number of vehicles (m)

Thus in formula: k= m/X

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

1.6 Road Categories

1.6.2 MINOR ROADS

1.6.3. ACCESS ROADS

1.6.4. PEDESTRIAN PATHWAY

LEVEL OF SERVICE ANALYSIS

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Fig 1.7 An Example of a taper

Fig 1.8 An Example of parallel merger

Fig 1.9 weaving sections

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

2.1. Remote sensing:

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

2.1.1 Physical basis of remote sensing:

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Figure no.2.2 Paths of remote sensing usage

2.1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (EMR)

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS

Figure no.2.3 Electromagnetic radiation

Figure no.2.4 wavelength

Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

Department of Civil Engineering, MRITS