Numirical Simulation of Laser Pulse Generation

Kurdistan Iraqi Region
Ministry of Higher Education

University of Sulaimani
College of Science
Physics Department
Numerical Simulation
of Laser Pulse
Generation
Prepared by
Rebar F. Karem Gashaw O. Abdullah

Zhilan B. Husain
Supervised by
Dr. Omed Ghareb Abdullah
2009 - 2010
Acknowledgments
Praise be to Allah for providing us the willingness and strength

to accomplish this work, we would to express our deepest gratitude
to our supervisor Dr. Omed for his helps and guidance throughout
this work.
True appreciation for Department of Physics in the College of
Science at the University of Sulaimani for giving us an opportunity
to carry out this work.
We wish to extend our sincere thanks to all lecturers who taught
us along our study many other thanks should go to our colleagues
for their encouraging. Lastly thanks and love to our family for their
patience and support during our study.
Rebar, Zhilan, & Gashaw
ii
Contents
Chapter One: Basic Concepts

1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Construction of a laser

1.3 Absorption and Emissions
1.4 Population Inversion
1.5 Three-level lasers
1.6 Four-level lasers
1.7 The Gain in Laser
1.8 The Loss in Laser
1.9 The ruby laser
Chapter Two: Q-Switching Techniques

2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Principle of Q-switching
2.3 Active Q-switching
2.3.1 Mechanical Q-Switches
3.2.2 Electro-Optical Q-Switches
3.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches
2.4 Passive Q-switching
2.5 Passive Q-Switch Processes
iii
Chapter Three: Passive Q-Switching
3.1 Introduction.
3.2 Rate Equations
3.3 Runge-kutta Fehlberg
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion

4.1 Introduction.
4.2 Solution of Rate Equations
4.3 Effect of concentration of the saturable absorber
4.4 Conclusion
References
Appendix
iv
Abstract
Q-switching, sometimes known as giant pulse formation, is a technique

by which a laser can be made to produce a pulsed output beam. The
technique allows the production of light pulses with extremely high (Giga
Watt) peak power, much higher than would be produced by the same laser
if it were operating in a continuous wave (constant output) mode.
In this study the passive Q-switched performance of the ruby laser with
slow-relaxing solid-state saturable absorber calcium fluoride crystals doped
with divalent dysprosium Dy2+:CaF 2 is numerically investigated by solving
the coupled rate equations with the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method. In the
mean time, important factors such as the laser population inversion at
various stages, the peak photon number inside the laser resonator, the
output energy and the pulse width of the Q-switched laser output are
computed. For typical configuration, a Q-switched laser pulse of 150 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 in
duration and 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in energy is obtained. Also the effects of the saturable
absorber doping concentration on output laser characteristics are studied.
The simulated results show reasonable agreement with those obtained
experimentally by other research groups.
v
Chapter One
Basic Concepts
1.1 Introduction:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, LASER (laser), is
a mechanism for emitting light within the electromagnetic radiation region of the
spectrum, via the process of stimulated emission. The emitted laser light is
(usually) a spatially coherent, narrow low-divergence beam, that can be
manipulated with lenses. In laser technology, “coherent light” denotes a light
source that produces (emits) light of in-step waves of identical frequency and
phase. The laser’s beam of coherent light differentiates it from light sources that
emit incoherent light beams, of random phase varying with time and position;
whereas the laser light is a narrow-wavelength electromagnetic spectrum
monochromatic light; yet, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum light, or
simultaneously, at different wavelengths.
A laser emits a thin, intense beam of nearly monochromatic visible or
infrared light that can travel long distances without diffusing. Most light beams
consist of many waves traveling in roughly the same direction, but the phases
and polarizations of each individual wave (or photon) are randomly distributed.
In laser light, the waves are all precisely in step, or in phase, with each other, and
have the same polarization. Such light is called coherent. All of the photons that
make up a laser beam are in the same quantum state. Lasers produce coherent
light through a process called stimulated emission.
The laser contains a chamber in which atoms of a medium such as a synthetic
ruby rod or a gas are excited, bringing their electrons into higher orbits with
higher energy states. When one of these electrons jumps down to a lower energy
state (which can happen spontaneously), it gives off its extra energy as a photon
with a specific frequency. But this photon, upon encountering another atom with
1
an excited electron, will stimulate that electron to jump down as well, emitting
another photon with the same frequency as the first and in phase with it. This
effect cascades through the chamber, constantly stimulating other atoms to emit
yet more coherent photons. Mirrors at both ends of the chamber cause the light to
bounce back and forth in the chamber, sweeping across the entire medium. If a
sufficient number of atoms in the medium are maintained by some external
energy source in the higher energy state a condition called population inversion
then emission is continuously stimulated, and a stream of coherent photons
develops. One of the mirrors is partially transparent, allowing the laser beam to
exit from that end of the chamber. Lasers have many industrial, military, and
scientific uses, including welding, target detection, microscopic photography,
fiber optics, surgery, and optical instrumentation for surveying.
1.2 Construction of a laser:

A laser consists of an active laser material, a source of excitation energy, and
a resonator or feedback mechanism to perform the three stages of laser action.
The general construction of a laser is shown in Figure(1.1).
Laser material: The lasing material can be a solid (Ruby, YAG and glass
lasers), liquid (Dye lasers), gas (Helium-neon, argon and carbon dioxide) or a
semi-conductor (InGaAlP). A material is said to be in "Normal State" if the
number of atoms in the lower energy level is more than the number of atoms in
the higher energy level. The material is said to be in a excited state if population
inversion has been achieved. The laser material is one in which population
inversion is possible. The downward transition from the excited to the normal
state is triggered by stimulated emission. The lasers are classified depending on
the number of energy levels used for the excitation and the stimulated emission
process. Commercial lasers are 3 level and 4 level systems, while the simple 2
2
level system is not used in practice, as it is difficult to achieve population
inversion in a 2 level system.
Figure (3.2): Construction of Laser.
Excitation Source: Population inversion is achieved by "pumping energy"

from an external source. Depending on the external source, the excitation process
is called as optical pumping or electrical pumping. In electrical pumping, an AC
or DC electrical discharge is used for excitation. Gas lasers and semiconductor
lasers are usually excited using electrical pumping. In optical pumping, light is
the source of energy and is used for most of the solid-state and dye lasers.
Resonator: A Fabry-Perot cavity that has a pair of mirrors, one at each end
of the laser is used as a resonator in most lasers. One of the mirrors is completely
reflective while the other mirror is partially transparent. The reflection of the
laser beam between the two mirrors results in increased power. The beam is
reflected back for amplification, until a specific threshold power is reached. The
portion of the laser beam with the necessary power is coupled as output through
the partially transparent mirror.
1.3 Absorption and Emissions:

In any material, during thermal equilibrium the number of particles in the
excited state is very small and is negligible. When the number of particles in the
excited state is greater than the number of particles in the ground state, the
3
material is in a state of "Population Inversion". Population inversion is a
prerequisite for laser action. Energy can be transferred into a laser medium to
achieve population inversion by several mechanisms including absorption of
photon, collision between electrons (or sometimes ions) and species in the active
medium, collisions among atoms and molecules in the active medium,
recombination of free electrons with ionized atoms, recombination of current
carriers in a semiconductor, chemical reactions producing excited species, and
acceleration of electrons.
In photon absorption, the laser material is optically excited to achieve
population inversion based on Planck’s law. According to Planck’s law, the
change of energy level from 𝐸𝐸1 to 𝐸𝐸2 or vice versa, results in the absorption or
emission of photon respectively. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated.
Spontaneous emission: is the process by which a light source such as an
atom, molecule, nanocrystal or nucleus in an excited state undergoes a transition
to the ground state and emits a photon, see Figure (1.2). Spontaneous emission of
light or luminescence is a fundamental process that plays an essential role in
many phenomena in nature and forms the basis of many applications, such as
fluorescent tubes, older television screens (cathode ray tubes), plasma display
panels, lasers (for startup - normal continuous operation works by stimulated
emission instead) and light emitting diodes.
Stimulated emission: is the process by which an electron, perturbed by a
photon having the correct energy, may drop to a lower energy level resulting in
the creation of another photon. The perturbing photon is seemingly unchanged in
the process, and the second photon is created with the same phase, frequency,
polarization, and direction of travel as the original. If the resultant photons are
reflected so that they traverse the same atoms or gain medium repeatedly, a
cascade effect is produced. Stimulated emission is really a quantum mechanical
phenomenon but it can be understood in terms of a "classical" field and a
4
quantum mechanical atom. The process can be thought of as "optical
amplification" and it forms the basis of the maser (including the laser).
In stimulated emission the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light
that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the
number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved
and the amount of stimulated emission due to light that passes through is larger
than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. Strictly speaking,
these are the essential ingredients of a laser. However, usually the term laser is
used for devices where the light that is amplified is produced as spontaneous
emission from the same gain medium as where the amplification takes place.
Devices where light from an external source is amplified are normally called
optical amplifiers.
The light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal
in terms of wavelength, phase, and polarization. This gives laser light its
characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and
often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design. Figures (1.2)
and (1.3) illustrate the spontaneous and stimulated emissions, respectively.
Figure(1.2): Diagram of Spontaneous emission.
5
Figure(1.3): Diagram of Stimulated emission.
The optical cavity, a type of cavity resonator, contains a coherent beam of

light between reflective surfaces so that the light passes through the gain medium
more than once before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction
or absorption. As light circulates through the cavity, passing through the gain
medium, if the gain (amplification) in the medium is stronger than the resonator
losses, the power of the circulating light can rise exponentially. But each
stimulated emission event returns a particle from its excited state to the ground
state, reducing the capacity of the gain medium for further amplification. When
this effect becomes strong, the gain is said to be saturated. The balance of pump
power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of
the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point
of the laser. If the chosen pump power is too small, the gain is not sufficient to
overcome the resonator losses, and the laser will emit only very small light
powers. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the
lasing threshold. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it,
regardless of direction; but only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to
pass more than once through the medium and so have significant amplification.
6
1.4 Population Inversion:
According to the Boltzmann distribution, in a collection of atoms at thermal
equilibrium there are always fewer atoms in a higher-lying level 𝐸𝐸2 than in a
lower level 𝐸𝐸1 . Therefore the population difference 𝑁𝑁1 − 𝑁𝑁2 is always positive,
which means that the absorption coefficient α(νs) is positive and the incident
radiation is absorbed, see Figure (1.4).
Suppose that it were possible to achieve a temporary situation such that
there are more atoms in an upper energy level than in a lower energy level. The
normally positive population difference on that transition then becomes negative,
and the normal stimulated absorption is correspondingly changed to stimulated
emission or amplification of the applied signal. That is, the applied signal gains
energy as it interacts with the atoms and hence is amplified. The energy for this
signal amplification is supplied by the atoms involved in the interaction process.
This situation is characterized by a negative absorption coefficient α(νs).
The essential condition for amplification is that there are more atoms in an
upper energy level than in a lower energy level, i.e., for amplification,
𝑁𝑁2 > 𝑁𝑁1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸2 > 𝐸𝐸1
as illustrated in Figure(1.4). The resulting negative sign of the population
difference (𝑁𝑁2 − 𝑔𝑔2 𝑁𝑁1 /𝑔𝑔1 ) on that transition is called a population inversion.
Population inversion is clearly an abnormal situation; it is never observed at
thermal equilibrium. The point at which the population of both states is equal is
called the “inversion threshold.”
Stimulated absorption and emission processes always occur side by side
independent of the population distribution among the levels. So long as the
population of the higher energy level is smaller than that of the lower energy
level, the number of absorption transitions is larger than that of the emission
transitions, so that there is an overall attenuation of the radiation. When the
numbers of atoms in both states are equal, the number of emissions becomes
7
equal to the number of absorptions; the material is then transparent to the
incident radiation. As soon as the population of the higher level becomes larger
than that of the lower level, emission processes predominate and the radiation is
enhanced collectively during passage through the material. To produce an
inversion requires a source of energy to populate a specified energy level; we
call this energy the pump energy.
The total amount of energy which is supplied by the atoms to the light wave
is: 𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑣𝑣
where ∆𝑁𝑁 is the total number of atoms which are caused to drop from the
upper to the lower energy level during the time the signal is applied. If laser
action is to be maintained, the pumping process must continually replenish the
supply of upper-state atoms. The size of the inverted population difference is
reduced not only by the amplification process but also by spontaneous emission,
which always tends to return the energy level populations to their thermal
equilibrium values.
Figure(1.4): Relative populations in two energy levels as given by the

Boltzmann relation for thermal equilibrium.
8
1.5 Three-level lasers:
To achieve non-equilibrium conditions, an indirect method of populating the
excited state must be used. To understand how this is done, we may use a
slightly more realistic model, that of a three-level laser. Consider a group of 𝑁𝑁
atoms, this time with each atom able to exist in any of three energy states, levels
1, 2 and 3, with energies 𝐸𝐸1 , 𝐸𝐸2 and 𝐸𝐸3 , and populations 𝑁𝑁1 , 𝑁𝑁2 , and 𝑁𝑁3 ,
respectively.
Note that 𝐸𝐸1 < 𝐸𝐸2 < 𝐸𝐸3 ; that is, the energy of level 2 lies between that of the
ground state and level 3.
Initially, the system of atoms is at thermal equilibrium, and the majority of
the atoms will be in the ground state; i.e., 𝑁𝑁1 ≈ 𝑁𝑁, 𝑁𝑁2 ≈ 𝑁𝑁3 ≈ 0. If we now
subject the atoms to light of a frequency 𝑣𝑣13 = ℎ1 (𝐸𝐸3 − 𝐸𝐸1 ), the process of optical
absorption will excite the atoms from the ground state to level 3. This process is
called pumping, and does not necessarily always directly involve light
absorption; other methods of exciting the laser medium, such as electrical
discharge or chemical reactions may be used. The level 3 is sometimes referred
to as the pump level or pump band, and the energy transition 𝐸𝐸1 ⟶ 𝐸𝐸3 as the
pump transition, which is shown as the arrow marked P in the Figure(1.5).
Figure(1.5): Simplified energy level diagram of a three-level laser.
9
If we continue pumping the atoms, we will excite an appreciable number of
them into level 3, such that 𝑁𝑁3 > 0. In a medium suitable for laser operation, we
require these excited atoms to quickly decay to level 2. The energy released in
this transition may be emitted as a photon (spontaneous emission), however in
practice the 3→2 transition (labeled R in the diagram) is usually radiation-less,
with the energy being transferred to vibrational motion (heat) of the host material
surrounding the atoms, without the generation of a photon.
An atom in level 2 may decay by spontaneous emission to the ground state,
releasing a photon of frequency 𝑣𝑣12 (given by 𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐸𝐸1 = ℎ𝑣𝑣12 , which is shown
as the transition L, called the laser transition in the diagram. If the lifetime of this
transition, 𝜏𝜏21 is much longer than the lifetime of the radiation-less 3 → 2
transition 𝜏𝜏32 (if 𝜏𝜏21 ≫ 𝜏𝜏32 , known as a favourable lifetime ratio), the population
of the 𝐸𝐸3 will be essentially zero (𝑁𝑁3 ≈ 0) and a population of excited state
atoms will accumulate in level 2 (𝑁𝑁2 > 0). If over half the 𝑁𝑁 atoms can be
accumulated in this state, this will exceed the population of the ground state 𝑁𝑁1 .
A population inversion (𝑁𝑁2 > 𝑁𝑁1 ) has thus been achieved between level 1 and 2,
and optical amplification at the frequency 𝑣𝑣21 can be obtained.
Because at least half the population of atoms must be excited from the
ground state to obtain a population inversion, the laser medium must be very
strongly pumped. This makes three-level lasers rather inefficient, despite being
the first type of laser to be discovered. A three-level system could also have a
radiative transition between level 3 and 2, and a non-radiative transition between
2 and 1. In this case, the pumping requirements are weaker. In practice, most
lasers are four-level lasers, described below.
10
1.6 Four-level lasers:
Here, there are four energy levels, energies 𝐸𝐸1 , 𝐸𝐸2 , 𝐸𝐸3 , 𝐸𝐸4 , and populations
𝑁𝑁1 , 𝑁𝑁2 , 𝑁𝑁3 , 𝑁𝑁4 , respectively. The energies of each level are such that 𝐸𝐸1 < 𝐸𝐸2 <
𝐸𝐸3 < 𝐸𝐸4 .
In this system, the pumping transition P excites the atoms in the ground state
(level 1) into the pump band (level 4). From level 4, the atoms again decay by a
fast, non-radiative transition Ra into the level 3. Since the lifetime of the laser
transition L is long compared to that of Ra (𝜏𝜏32 ≫ 𝜏𝜏43 ), a population
accumulates in level 3 (the upper laser level), which may relax by spontaneous
or stimulated emission into level 2 (the lower laser level). This level likewise has
a fast, non-radiative decay Rb into the ground state (see Figure(1.6)).
As before, the presence of a fast, radiation-less decay transitions result in
population of the pump band being quickly depleted (𝑁𝑁4 ≈ 0). In a four-level
system, any atom in the lower laser level 𝐸𝐸2 is also quickly de-excited, leading to
a negligible population in that state (𝑁𝑁2 ≈ 0). This is important, since any
appreciable population accumulating in level 3, the upper laser level, will form a
population inversion with respect to level 2. That is, as long as 𝑁𝑁3 > 0, then
𝑁𝑁3 > 𝑁𝑁2 and a population inversion is achieved. Thus optical amplification, and
laser operation, can take place at a frequency of 𝑣𝑣32 (𝐸𝐸3 − 𝐸𝐸2 = ℎ𝑣𝑣32 ).
Figure(1.6): Simplified energy level diagram of a four-level laser.
11
Since only a few atoms must be excited into the upper laser level to form a
population inversion, a four-level laser is much more efficient than a three-level
one, and most practical lasers are of this type. In reality, many more than four
energy levels may be involved in the laser process, with complex excitation and
relaxation processes involved between these levels. In particular, the pump band
may consist of several distinct energy levels, or a continuum of levels, which
allow optical pumping of the medium over a wide range of wavelengths.
Note that in both three- and four-level lasers, the energy of the pumping
transition is greater than that of the laser transition. This means that, if the laser
is optically pumped, the frequency of the pumping light must be greater than that
of the resulting laser light. In other words, the pump wavelength is shorter than
the laser wavelength. It is possible in some media to use multiple photon
absorptions between multiple lower-energy transitions to reach the pump level;
such lasers are called up-conversion lasers.
1.7 The Gain in Laser:

Another fundamental concept in lasers is the idea of gain, which is basically
a short way of referring to the "free" photons described earlier. Suppose we have
just pumped our laser medium so that all of the particles are in their excited state.
One of those particles now spontaneously decays back down to its ground state,
emitting a photon (hv 0 ). This photon is of the right frequency to stimulate
emission from another excited state particle, which emits another photon which
can stimulate another excited state particle, and so on, as shown in figure(1.7).
12
Figure(1.7): Diagram illustrate the gain in laser.
1.8 The Loss in Laser:

In addition to stimulated emission processes there are also stimulated
absorption processes in which a ground state particle absorbs a photon matching
the energy gap and jumps to the excited state. (represented by the gray arrow in
the above figure). Thus we lose one photon to each stimulated absorption
process. Since the probabilities for stimulated absorption and emission processes
are equal (relative to population of the ground and excited states -- Einstein's
famous result), it is clearly detrimental to the laser to have any particles in the
ground state. For this reason, two level lasers are not practical -- it is not in
general possible to pump more than half of the molecules into the excited state.
1.9 The ruby laser:

The first laser made from a hard material was the ruby laser; it was first build
in 1960. It consists to 99.95% of AlO 2 and the remaining 0.05% are Cr. Those
less Cr-Ions are responsible for the laser effect. Cr-Ions have three energetic
levels 𝐸𝐸1 , 𝐸𝐸2 and 𝐸𝐸3 . 𝐸𝐸1 is the base energy level and 𝐸𝐸3 is the level when we
13
penetrate the ions with green light which has a short wavelength. To pump the
ions we usually use a xenon lamp.
Now that we have some ions pushed to the highest energy level they will
drop immediately back to 𝐸𝐸2 but without emitting any light only heat. The Cr-
Ions will stay a long time on this medium energy level therefore it is called meta
stable, see Figure(1.8).
If one ion drops back to 𝐸𝐸1 spontaneously it will emit a photon with the
energy ℎ𝑣𝑣 = 𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐸𝐸1 and forces the other Cr-Ions to initialise the laser process.
Figure(1.8): Three level of Ruby laser.
There are of course many other possibilities to build up a laser but the light
emitted by a ruby laser is red and in the visible part of the electro magnetic
waves.
Due to this fact and because of the possibility to run a ruby laser in almost
every surrounding this type of laser is very popular and it will be used for very
many physical experiments.
14
Chapter Two
Q-Switching Techniques
2.1 Introduction:
Q-switching, sometimes known as giant pulse formation, is a technique by
which a laser can be made to produce a pulsed output beam. The technique
allows the production of light pulses with extremely high (giga watt) peak
power, much higher than would be produced by the same laser if it were
operating in a continuous wave (constant output) mode. Q-switching was first
proposed in 1958 by Gordon Gould, and independently discovered and
demonstrated in 1961 or 1962 by R.W. Hellwarth and F.J. McClung using
electrically switched Kerr cell shutters in a ruby laser.
In Q-switching the Q-factor of the cavity is switched between low and high
values, or in other words, the loss in the resonator is switched from a high to a
low value. The component inducing the loss is called the Q-switch, and it can be
driven either actively or passively. In an active Q-switch, fast electronics is
required for modulating the loss in a time scale of a few nanoseconds. In a
passive Q-switch, the transition is driven by light itself through the process of
saturable absorption. Compared to active Q-switching, no electronics is required
but the laser is pulsed without external control. The choice of the switch type
depends on the application. Passive Q-switches are smaller, simpler and more
robust than active Q-switches, but they lack the ability to generate the pulse
accurately at a chosen time.
2.2 Principle of Q-switching:

Q-switching is achieved by putting some type of variable attenuator inside
the laser's optical resonator. When the attenuator is functioning, light which
leaves the gain medium does not return, and lasing cannot begin. This
15
attenuation inside the cavity corresponds to a decrease in the Q factor or quality
factor of the optical resonator. A high Q factor corresponds to low resonator
losses per roundtrip, and vice versa. The variable attenuator is commonly called
a "Q-switch", when used for this purpose.
Initially the laser medium is pumped while the Q-switch is set to prevent
feedback of light into the gain medium (producing an optical resonator with low
Q). This produces a population inversion, but laser operation cannot yet occur
since there is no feedback from the resonator. Since the rate of stimulated
emission is dependent on the amount of light entering the medium, the amount of
energy stored in the gain medium increases as the medium is pumped. Due to
losses from spontaneous emission and other processes, after a certain time the
stored energy will reach some maximum level; the medium is said to be gain
saturated. At this point, the Q-switch device is quickly changed from low to high
Q, allowing feedback and the process of optical amplification by stimulated
emission to begin. Because of the large amount of energy already stored in the
gain medium, the intensity of light in the laser resonator builds up very quickly;
this also causes the energy stored in the medium to be depleted almost as
quickly. The net result is a short pulse of light output from the laser, known as a
giant pulse, which may have a very high peak intensity.
There are two main types of Q-switching: actively Q-switched lasers and
passively Q-switched lasers discussed as follows.
2.3 Active Q-switching:

The most common type is the actively Q-switched solid state bulk laser.
Solid state gain media have a good energy storage capability, and bulk lasers
allow for large mode areas (such higher pulse energies and peak powers) and
shorter laser resonators (e.g. compared with fiber lasers). The laser resonator
contains an active Q-switch - an optical modulator, which is in most cases an
16
acousto-optic modulator, electro-optical modulator and mechanical modulator
are used for Q-switching also, see Figure(2.1). A small actively Q-switched solid
state laser may emit 100 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 of average power in 10 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 pulses with a 1 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
repetition rate and 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 pulse energy. The peak power is then 9 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾. The
highest pulse energies and shortest pulse durations are achieved for low pulse
repetition rates (below the inverse upperstate lifetime), at the expense of
somewhat reduced average output power.
Figure(2.1): Schematic setup of an actively Q-switched laser.
2.3.1 Mechanical Q-Switches:

Q-switches have been designed based upon rotational, oscillatory, or
translational motion of optical components. What these techniques have in
common is that they inhibit laser action during the pump cycle by either
blocking the light path, causing a mirror misalignment, or reducing the
reflectivity of one of the resonator mirrors.
Near the end of the pump pulse, when maximum energy has been stored in
the laser rod, a high Q-condition is established and a Q-switch pulse is emitted
from the laser.
The first mechanical Q-switch consisted of nothing more than a rotating disc
containing an aperture. This method was soon abandoned in favor of rotating
mirrors or prisms, which allow much faster switching times.
The spinning reflector technique for the generation of Q-switched pulses, as
shown in Figure(2.2), involves simply rotating one of the two resonant cavity
17
reflectors so that parallelism of the reflectors occurs for only a brief instant in
time. If a plane mirror is employed as the rotating element, the axis of rotation
must be aligned to within a fraction of a milliradian parallel to the face of the
opposing reflector. This difficulty can be overcome by using a roof prism as the
rotating element. If the roof of the prism is perpendicular to the axis of rotation,
then the retroreflecting nature of the prism assures alignment in one direction,
while the rotation of the prism brings it into alignment in the other direction.
Rotating-mirror devices are simple and inexpensive.
Figure(2.2): Diagram of a ruby laser employing a spinning prism Q-switch.
For most of the time, the alignment of two mirrors will be such that the loss
will be high and hence the Q low. This will allow a large population inversion to
develop. At the instant that the two mirrors are aligned, the Q will be high and a
large output pulse will be developed. Although this method was the first
developed for Q-switching, it does not give the performance in terms of peak
power of some of the newer methods of Q-switching.
18
3.2.2 Electro-Optical Q-Switches:
Very fast electronically controlled optical shutters can be designed by
exploiting the electro-optic effect in crystals or liquids. The key element in such
a shutter is an electro-optic element that becomes birefringent under the
influence of an external field. Birefringence in a medium is characterized by two
orthogonal directions called the “fast” and “slow” axes, which have different
indices of refraction. An optical beam, initially plane-polarized at 45𝑜𝑜 to these
axes and directed normal to their plane, will split into two orthogonal
components, traveling along the same path but at different velocities. Hence, the
electro-optic effect causes a phase difference between the two beams. After
traversing the medium, the combination of the two components results,
depending on the voltage applied, in either an elliptical, circular, or linearly
polarized beam. For Q-switch operation only two particular voltages leading to a
quarter-wave and half-wave retardation are of interest. In the first case, the
incident linearly polarized light is circular polarized after passing the cell, and in
the second case the output beam is linearly polarized; however, the plane of
polarization has been rotated 90𝑜𝑜 .
The two most common arrangements for Q-switching are shown in
Figure(2.3). In Figure(2.3a) the electro-optic cell is located between a polarizer
and the rear mirror. The inclusion of the polarizer is not essential if the laser
radiation is polarized. The sequence of operation is as follows: During the pump
pulse, a voltage 𝑉𝑉1 /4 is applied to the electro-optic cell such that the linearly
polarized light passed through the polarizer is circularly polarized. After being
reflected at the mirror, the radiation again passes through the electro-optic cell
and undergoes another 𝜆𝜆/4 retardation, becoming linearly polarized but at 90𝑜𝑜
to its original direction. This radiation is ejected from the laser cavity by the
polarizer, thus preventing optical feedback. Toward the end of the pump pulse
the voltage on the cell is switched off, permitting the polarizer-cell combination
19
to pass a linearly polarized beam without loss. Oscillation within the cavity will
build up, and after a short delay a Q-switch pulse will be emitted from the cavity.
Figure(2.3): Electro-optic Q-switch operated at (a) quarter-wave

and (b) half-wave retardation voltage
In the arrangement of Figure(2.3b) an electric voltage must first be applied to

the cell to transmit the beam. In this so-called pulse-on Q-switch, the cell is
located between two crossed polarizers. As before, polarizer 𝑃𝑃1 , located between
the laser rod and the cell, is not required if the active medium emits a polarized
beam. During the pump pulse, with no voltage applied to the cell, the cavity Q is
at a minimum due to the crossed polarizers. At the end of the pump pulse, a
voltage 𝑉𝑉1 /2 is applied to the cell, which causes a 90𝑜𝑜 rotation of the incoming
beam. The light is therefore transmitted by the second polarizer 𝑃𝑃2 . Upon
20
reflection at the mirror the light passes again through polarizer 𝑃𝑃2 and the cell,
where it experiences another 90𝑜𝑜 rotation. Light traveling toward the polarizer
𝑃𝑃1 has experienced a 180𝑜𝑜 rotation and is therefore transmitted through 𝑃𝑃1 .
3.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches:

In acousto-optic Q-switches, an ultrasonic wave is launched into a block of
transparent optical material, usually fused silica. By switching on the acoustic
field, a fraction of the energy of the main beam is diffracted out of the resonator,
thus introducing a loss mechanism that prevents laser action. When the acoustic
field is switched off, full transmission through the Q-switch cell is restored and a
laser pulse is created. The acousto-optic Q-switch is the device of choice for
repetitively Q-switching cw lasers. The low-gain characteristics of cw-pumped
solid-state lasers do not require very high extinction ratios, but do demand an
exceptionally low insertion loss. Since high optical quality fused silica with
antireflection coatings can be used as the active medium in the acousto-optical
Q-switch, the overall insertion loss of the inactive Q-switch can be reduced to
less than 0.5% per pass. The low-insertion loss of the acousto-optic Q-switch
offers the convenience of converting from Q-switched to cw operation simply by
removing the RF drive power.
2.4 Passive Q-switching:

A more common method of Q-switching is to use a saturable absorber (dye),
with an absorption characteristic similar to that shown in Figure(2.4). The dye is
usually pumped through a small jet, which sprays the liquid through the laser
beam. At the beginning of the pump cycle the incident intensity on the dye is
low. The dye is highly absorbing, which gives a low cavity Q. Later on during
the pump cycle, the irradiance is much higher, which bleaches the dye. Hence
21
the dye becomes transparent, giving a sharp increase in cavity Q. This increase in
Q gives rise to an overall gain and so a high amplitude out put pulse.
Figure(2.4): Schematic setup of a passively Q-switched laser. The saturable

absorber is a crystal within the laser resonator.
In this case, the Q-switch is a saturable absorber, a material whose

transmission increases when the intensity of light exceeds some threshold. The
material may be an ion-doped crystal like Cr:YAG, which is used for Q-
switching of Nd:YAG lasers, a bleachable dye, or a passive semiconductor
device. Initially, the loss of the absorber is high, but still low enough to permit
some lasing once a large amount of energy is stored in the gain medium. As the
laser power increases, it saturates the absorber, i.e., rapidly reduces the resonator
loss, so that the power can increase even faster. Ideally, this brings the absorber
into a state with low losses to allow efficient extraction of the stored energy by
the laser pulse. After the pulse, the absorber recovers to its high-loss state before
the gain recovers, so that the next pulse is delayed until the energy in the gain
medium is fully replenished. The pulse repetition rate can only indirectly be
controlled, e.g. by varying the laser's pump power and the amount of saturable
absorber in the cavity. Direct control of the repetition rate can be achieved by
using a pulsed pump source as well as passive Q-switching, see Figure(2.5).
22
Figure(2.5): Schematic of Ruby Passive Q-switch.
2.5 Passive Q-Switch Processes:

The process of passive Q-switching is illustrated in Figure(2.2). The
repeating cycle can be divided into four phases:
Figure(2.2): Q-switching cycle.
23
I: The population inversion and gain increase due to the pumping process. At
the onset of the pulse buildup, the gain in the laser crystal reaches the non
saturated loss level in the resonator.
II: The intra cavity intensity builds up by the process of stimulated emission,
seeded by a spontaneously emitted photon. The circulating light bleaches
the Q-switch and gives rise to a very large net gain due to the accumulated
population inversion. The pulse builds up rapidly.
III: The population inversion has been extracted to a level at which the gain
equals the saturated loss. The net gain is zero, and the pulse starts to
decay. The circulating light extracts more of the population inversion on
its way out of the resonator.
IV: The pulse has been extracted and light has left the resonator. The bleached
Q-switch relaxes back to its ground-state, increasing the loss back to its
non saturated value. The population inversion and gain build up for the
next cycle.
In an ideal passively Q-switched laser, increasing the pump power would just
shorten the pump phase and increase the repetition rate of the laser, while
keeping the pulse properties unchanged. In reality, the instabilities of the pulse
train increase along with the repetition rate, and at some point the laser output
turns chaotic.
24
Chapter Three
Passive Q-Switching
3.1 Introduction:
The idea of Q-switching is to delay the stimulated emission until a large
number of atoms are excited and a lot of photons are released during
spontaneous emission and the great number of photons starts the stimulated
emission together. Then, a strong beam of laser can be produced. Passive Q-
switching involves the addition of a material whose transmission is dictated by
the intracavity photon density in the laser cavity.
Q-switched lasers are often used in applications which demand high laser
intensities in nanosecond pulses, such as dentistry, metal cutting or pulsed
holography non linear optics often takes advantage of the high peak powers of
these lasers, offering applications such as 3D optical data storages and 3D micro
fabrication. However Q-switched lasers can also be used for measurement
purposes, such as for distance measurements (range finding) by measuring the
time it takes for the pulse to get to some target and the reflected light to get back
to the sender. Q-switched lasers are used to remove tattoos. They are used to
shatter tattoo pigment in to particles that are cleared by the body lymphatic
system. Full removal takes an average of eight treatments, spaced at least a
month apart using different lasers for different colored inks.
25
3.2 Rate Equations:
The following rate equations may be utilized to model a solid-state laser
passively Q-switched by a saturable absorber with excited state absorption.
These equations are based on the evolution of atomic population densities in the
laser and Q-switch materials:
dn
= [ K g N g − K a N a − βK a ( N a 0 − N a ) − γ c ]n (3.1)
dt
dN g
= R p − γ g N g − γK g N g n (3.2)
dt
dN a
= γ a ( Na0 − Na ) − Ka Nan (3.3)
dt
The population reduction factor γ equals to one for a four-level laser and
two for a three-level laser. Other parameters used in these coupled rate equations
are defined as following: n is the photon number inside the cavity; N g is the
population inversion of the laser; N a is the ground state population of the

saturable absorber; N a 0 is the initial value of N a ; γ g is the effective decay rate of
the upper laser level; γ a is the effective saturable absorber relaxation rate; R p is
the pumping rate; γ c is the cavity decay rate; 𝐾𝐾𝑔𝑔 = 2𝜎𝜎𝑔𝑔 ⁄𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 is a coupling
coefficient, where 𝜎𝜎𝑔𝑔 is the laser emission cross-section, 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟 is the cavity round-
trip transit time, and 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 is the effective laser beam area; 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 = 2𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 ⁄𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 , where
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 is the saturable absorber ground state absorption cross-section and 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 is the
saturable absorber beam area; and 𝛽𝛽 is the ratio of the excited state absorption
cross-section, to the ground state absorption cross-section of the saturable
absorber. Notice that 𝛽𝛽 must be less than unity, otherwise a giant pulse will
never develop.
Equation (3.1) models the cavity photon density as a function of time and
consists of a series of gains and losses that contribute to the overall photon
density. The first term models the contribution of photons from the stimulated
26
emission process within the laser material. The next two terms model losses
associated with the production of excited states within the saturable absorber
while the last term represent losses due to decay. The final term concern the bulk
optical losses within the cavity. Equation (3.2) models the excited state
popluation density within the laser material with respect to time and contains one
gain and two loss terms. The gain term is the excited state production rate or
pump rate. The loss terms describe reductions in the excited state density due to
both stimulated and spontaneous emission respectively. Equation (3.3) models
the saturable absorber ground state population density and consists of a gain and
a loss term. The gain term concerns the repopulation of the ground state due to
spontaneous decay within the absorber excited states. The loss term concerns the
excited state population production within the absorber material.
In order to compare the population inversion of the laser to the loss of the
overall laser system, it is convenient to define a normalized loss factor of the Q-
switched laser system from equation (3.1) as:
K a N a + βK a ( N a 0 − N a ) + γ c
Loss = (3.4)
Kg
The differential equations (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) need to be solved numerically
to obtain the behavior of a specific Q-switched laser system. However, important
characteristics of a saturable absorber Q-switched laser system can be found
from analyzing these three coupled rate equations.
Since the build-up time of the Q-switched laser pulse is generally very short
compared to pumping and relaxation times of the gain medium, it is reasonable
to neglect pumping and spontaneous decay of the laser population inversion
during pulse generation. With this assumption equation (3.2) becomes:
dN g
≅ −γK g N g n (3.5)
dt
27
When the light intensity is low almost all the population of the saturable
absorber are in the ground state. Hence, the initial population inversion required
for laser action can be approximated by setting the right hand side of Eq. (3.1) to
zero and assuming N a ≅ N a 0 , and N g ≅ N g 0 i.e.
Ka Na0 + γ c
Ng0 ≅ (3.6)
Kg
When the light intensity is high most population in the ground state of the
saturable absorber are promoted to the excited state. Therefore, the threshold
population inversion after the bleaching of the saturable absorber can be taken by
setting the right hand side of equation (3.1) to zero and assuming N a ≅ 0 , and
N g ≅ N th i.e.
βK a N a 0 + γ c
N th ≅ (3.7)
Kg
Then, equation (3.1), can be rewrite as:

dn
≅ K g [ N g − N th ]n (3.8)
dt
Equations (3.5) and (3.8) leads to the following equation which relates n and
Ng :
1 Ng0 
n≅  N g 0 − N g − N th ln( ) (3.9)
γ  N g 
As indicated in equation (3.8) the photon number reaches to a peak value n p
when N g is equivalent to N th . Hence, from equation (3.9):
1 Ng0 
np ≅  N g 0 − N th − N th ln( ) (3.10)
γ N th 
After the release of the Q-switched laser pulse, the laser population inversion
N g is depleted by the photon flux and reduces to a value below N th . This final
population inversion N f can be derived from equation (3.9) by setting n ≅ 0 ,
28
since the photon number is small after the release of the Q-switched laser pulse.
Let N g = N f and n = 0 , then equation (3.9) becomes:
Ng0
N g 0 − N f − N th ln( )≅0 (3.11)
Nf
Equation (3.11) is transcendental and can be solved numerically. When N g 0
and N f are known, the pulse width τ pulse , and the output energy Eout of the Q-
switched pulse can be approximated by the following equations:

Ng0 − N f
τ pulse ≅ τ c (3.12)
Ng0
N g 0 − N th − N th ln( )
N th
Ng0 − N f
Eout ≅ (hv)ηc (3.13)
γ
where τ c is the cavity lifetime, hv is the photon energy and ηc is the output
coupling efficiency. Equations (3.5) to (3.13) may be used to quantitatively
evaluate the optical performance of a Q-switched laser analytically.
3.3 Runge-kutta Fehlberg:

One way to guarantee accuracy in the solution of an initial values problems
(I.V.P.) is to solve the problem twice using step sizes h and h/2 and compare
answers at the mesh points corresponding to the larger step size. But this requires
a significant amount of computation for the smaller step size and must be
repeated if it is determined that the agreement is not good enough.
The Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method (denoted RKF45) is one way to try to
resolve this problem. It has a procedure to determine if the proper step size h is
being used. At each step, two different approximations for the solution are made
and compared. If the two answers are in close agreement, the approximation is
accepted. If the two answers do not agree to a specified accuracy, the step size is
29
reduced. If the answers agree to more significant digits than required, the step
size is increased.
Thus, the approach yields the error estimate on the basis of only six function
evaluations!
Then an approximation to the solution of the I.V.P. is made using a Runge-
Kutta method of order 4:
37 250 125 512
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘3 + 𝑘𝑘4 + 𝑘𝑘 � ℎ (3.14)
378 621 594 1771 6
A better value for the solution is determined using a Runge-Kutta method of
order 5:
2825 18575 13525 277 1
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘3 + 𝑘𝑘4 + 𝑘𝑘5 + 𝑘𝑘6 � ℎ
27648 48384 55296 14336 4
(3.15)
Where:
𝑘𝑘1 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 ) (3.16)
1 1
𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + ℎ, 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + 𝑘𝑘1 ℎ� (3.17)
5 5
3 3 9
𝑘𝑘3 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + ℎ, 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + 𝑘𝑘1 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘 ℎ� (3.18)
10 40 40 2
3 3 9 6
𝑘𝑘4 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + ℎ, 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + 𝑘𝑘1 ℎ − 𝑘𝑘2 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘3 ℎ� (3.19)
5 10 10 5
11 5 70 35
𝑘𝑘5 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + ℎ, 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑘𝑘1 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘2 ℎ − 𝑘𝑘3 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘4 ℎ� (3.20)
54 2 27 27
7 1631 175 575 44275
𝑘𝑘6 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + ℎ, 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 + 𝑘𝑘1 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘2 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘3 ℎ + 𝑘𝑘 ℎ
8 55296 512 13824 110592 4
253
+ 𝑘𝑘 ℎ� (3.21)
4096 5
Thus, the ODE can be solved with equation (3.15), and the error estimated as
the difference of the fifth- and fourth- order estimates. It should be noted that the
particular coefficients used above were developed by cash and karp (1990).
Therefore, it is sometimes called the cash-karp RK method.
30
Chapter Four
Results and Discussion
4.1 Introduction:
High energy laser pulses of short durations may be obtained by passive Q-
switching techniques, where energy is stored in the gain medium through
pumping source while the quality factor of the laser resonator is decreased to
prevent laser oscillation. The passive Q-switching with a saturable absorber is
economical and simple because it requires less optical elements inside the laser
cavity and no outside driving circuitry. Passive Q-switching is a better choice for
those applications where compactness of the laser is a prime requirement.
The dye cell is highly absorptive at low light intensity and can be bleached
when the light becomes intense. Short laser pulses with high peak power can be
obtained with the use of a dye Q-switch. However, dye Q-switches suffer from
poor chemical stability and inadequate thermal properties. To overcome this
problem, a flow system has been used at the expense of compactness and
simplicity.
4.2 Solution of Rate Equations:

The laser rate equations (3.1) to (3.3) are numerically solved using the
Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method to investigate the performance of the ruby laser
(Cr4+:Al 2 O 3 ) with Dy2+:CaF 2 solid-state saturable absorber as a passive Q-
switch.
The parameters used in this simulation, obtained from experiments published
articles, are as following: laser wavelength= 694.3nm , K g = 7.22 ×10−10 sec−1 ,
K a = 3.46 × 10 −8 sec −1 , γ c = 3.42 ×108 sec −1 , γ g = 333 sec −1 , γ a = 6667 sec −1 , β = 0.75 ,
31
R p = 1.7 × 1021 sec −1 and N a 0 = 5.18 ×1015 . The population reduction factor γ of the
ruby laser has a value of 2 since it is a three-level laser.

The behavior of the laser population inversion 𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔 , the loss of the Q-switched
laser Loss , and photon number inside the laser resonator 𝑛𝑛 as functions of time,
are shown in Fig (4.1). The giant laser pulse is devloped 463.6𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 after pumping
starts. Another three laser pulses are developed 502.7𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, 517.0𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, and 530.8𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇,
after the pumping starts.
Evidently, the amplitudes of these three pulses are much smaller than that of
the first giant laser pulse. This is due to the fact that the Dy2+:CaF 2 has a very
long lifetime. Moreover, the population inversion dose not decrease to zero after
the release of the first laser pulse. Hence it requires much less time to develop
the second and subsequent laser pulses (about 14𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇), and the energy contained
in each of the second and subsequent laser pulses is much smaller than that of the
first giant laser pulse.
Fig (4.2), is an expanded picture of Fig (4.1), near the occurrence of the first
giant laser pulse. The output energy of the giant laser pulse is 3.04 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 with a
pulse-width of 150.14 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (full width at half maximum).
32
Fig (4.1): The population inversion of the laser𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔 , the loss of the Q-switched
laser 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿and photon number inside the laser resonator 𝑛𝑛 as functions of time.
Fig (4.2): Expanded picture of Fig (4.1), near the occurrence of the
first giant laser pulse.
The results indicate that when the phonon number is low, N a is close to N a 0
and the loss of the laser system has an initial value of about 7.22 ×1017 . For the
laser action to occur the laser has to be pumped, so that the gain is greater than
the loss, i.e. N g > Loss . When this condition is satisfied the photon number starts
to build up from the noise by depleting the laser population inversion and the
saturable absorber starts to saturate. The photon number reaches to the maximum
value of about 5.8 ×1014 when the laser population inversion equals the cavity
loss, i.e., when N g = Loss ≅ 6.63 ×1017 . Beyond this point the laser gain is smaller
than the total loss of the laser system and the Q-switched laser pulse dies out
33
quickly while the laser population inversion decreases gradually to a minimum
value of about 6.24 ×1017 .
The theoretical predictions of all pulse characteristics, such as output energy

and pulse duration were in very good agreement with experimental results. Thus,
it allows us to assume that the numerical model proposed is correct and can be
applied for different saturable absorbers.
The accuracy of evaluating the output energy and pulse-width of the Q-
switched laser pulse are within 0.77% and 0.20% when compared to the
experimental results ( 2.6mJ and 150n sec ) respectively.
4.3 Effect of concentration of the saturable absorber:

To investigate the effect of concentration of the saturable absorber on the
performance of laser, the different values of 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 were used from 1 × 1015 to
9 × 1015 , and all the parameters were calculated for each case, like the
maximum photons number, Period life time (FWHM), time of the first pulse
generation, and the energy of Q-Switched pulse.
Numerical simulation of the ruby passive Q-switching performance, i.e. the
population inversion of the laser 𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔 , the loss of the overall laser system 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿,
and the photon number inside the cavity 𝑛𝑛, as a function of time, and near the
occurrence of the first giant laser pulse, for different values of 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 are shown in
Fig (4-3) through to Fig (4.11).
34
Fig (4.3): Numerical simulation of the ruby passive Q-switching
performance, 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1 × 1015 (a) 𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔 , 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿, and 𝑛𝑛 as a function of time. (b) near
the occurrence of the first giant laser pulse.
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
The energy of the laser output pulse, the pulse-width (full width at half
maximum), and the peak photon number, are solved numerically as functions of
the initial population in the ground state of the saturable absorber 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 , assuming
other parameters remain unchanged. The results are shown in Fig (4.12) to Fig
(4.14) respectively.
The output energy, and the pulse-width, are shown as a function of the initial
population in the ground state of the saturable absorber 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 in Fig (4.12) and Fig
(4.13), assuming other parameters remain unchanged. Obviously, the output
energy increases and the pulse-width decreases when 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 increases. In other
words, the passive Q-switching laser system has a better performance when a
higher doping concentration of the saturable absorber is used.
6
5
Output Energy (mJ)
0
0.00E+00 2.00E+15 4.00E+15 6.00E+15 8.00E+15 1.00E+16
Nao
Fig (4.12): The output energy as a function of initial value of saturable absorber
𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 .
44
600
500
pulse-width (nsec)
400
300
200
100
0
0.00E+00 2.00E+15 4.00E+15 6.00E+15 8.00E+15 1.00E+16
Nao
Fig (4.13): The pulse-width as a function of initial value of saturable absorber

𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 .
1.80E+15
1.60E+15
nmax (peak photon number)
1.40E+15
1.20E+15
1.00E+15
8.00E+14
6.00E+14
4.00E+14
2.00E+14
0.00E+00
0.00E+00 2.00E+15 4.00E+15 6.00E+15 8.00E+15 1.00E+16
Nao
Fig (4.14): The peak photon number as a function of initial value of saturable
absorber 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 .
In general, when 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 increases the peak photon number of the Q-switched
laser pulse increase, as shown in Fig (4.14). Since the saturable absorber is used
to store or delay the laser oscillation. During this storage, more molecules can be
45
excited to the upper level. Once the bleaching occurred, the photons can pass
through and strike with many excited molecules, hence produced many
stimulated emission. This condition results in the production of giant pulse. The
pulse will emit within a very short time.
The temporal profile of the photon number has a narrower width and higher
peak for a larger number of 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 , as expected. It indicates that better passive Q-
switching performance, i.e., a shorter pulse with higher output energy, can be
obtained if a saturable absorber of higher concentration is used.
Fig (4.15) shows the time required to develop the first laser pulse as a
function of the initial value of saturable absorber 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 . It is obvious that the time
required to develop the first laser pulse increase when 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 increases. This is
reasonable since it takes a longer time to bleach the saturable absorber and the
laser population inversion becomes larger when 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 increases.
7.00E+05
Developed time of first pulse (nsec)
6.00E+05
5.00E+05
4.00E+05
3.00E+05
2.00E+05
1.00E+05
0.00E+00
0.00E+00 2.00E+15 4.00E+15 6.00E+15 8.00E+15 1.00E+16
Nao
Fig (4.15): The time required for developing the first laser pulse as a function of
initial value of saturable absorber 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎0 .
46
4.4 Conclusion:
Characteristics and performance of ruby laser passive Q-switching with

Dy2+:CaF 2 solid state saturable absorber was studied numerically using the
Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method. The important factors such as the initial
population inversion required for laser action, the threshold population inversion
after the bleaching of the saturable absorber, the final population inversion after
the release of the Q-switched laser pulse, and the peak photon number inside the
laser resonator are calculated.
The characteristics of the Q-switched laser parameters such as the pulse
energy, the pulse width, and the pulse repetition frequency have been explored as
function of saturable absorber doping concentration.
The overall results of this study were summarized below:
1- The simulation results indicate that better passive Q-switching

performance, i.e., a shorter pulse with a higher output energy, can be
obtained by using a higher concentration of Dy2+:CaF 2 inside the laser
cavity.
2- The giant laser pulse is developed 463.6 microsecond after pumping starts.
The sequence of other three laser pulses developed were (502.7,517.0 and
530.8) microsecond respectively, after the pumping starts.
3- The amplitudes of these three pulses are much smaller than that of the first
giant laser pulse. This is due to the fact that the Dy2+:CaF 2 has a very long
life time.
47
4- The energy of the second and subsequent laser pulses much smaller than
that of the first giant laser pulse. The output energy of the giant laser pulse
is 3.04𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 with pulse-width of 150.14 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (full width at half maximum).
5- The condition at which results in the production of giant pulse is occurring

the bleaching, that makes photons pass through and strike with many
excited molecules, hence produce many stimulated emission.
7- The time required to develop the first laser pulse increase when
concentration of Dy2+:CaF 2 inside the laser cavity increases.
8- The very good agreement between experimental and theoretical results

obtained in this study may be very useful in designing of such lasers.
9- Several useful performance curve are provided in this work, which can be
used as an aid for the design and improve a performance of a passive Q-
switch laser system.
48
References
[1] Azzous I.M., A. El-Nozahy, "Numerical Study of Cr4+:YAG Passively Q-

switching Nd:GdVO 4 Laser", Egypt. J. Solids, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 215-225,
(2006).
[2] Swiderski J., M. Skorczakowski, A. Zajac, and P. Konieczny, " Numerical

analysis of a passively Q-switched Nd-YAG laser with a Cr4+:YAG
exhibiting ESA", Opto-Electronics Review, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 43-50,
(2005).
[3] McIntyre D.L., "A Laser Spark Plug Ignition System for a Stationary Lean-
Burn Natural Gas Reciprocating Engine", PhD Dissertation, West Virginia
University, (2007).
[4] Munajat N.F.B., "Study of saturable absorber materials for Q-switching DYE
laser", MSc thesis, University Technology Malaysia, (2005).
[5] Kuo Y.K., H.M. Chen, and C.C. Lin, "A Theoretical Study of the
Cr:BeAl 2 O 4 Laser Passively Q-switched with Cr:YSO Solid State Saturable
Absorber", Chinese Journal of Physics, Vol. 38, No. 3-I, pp. 443-460,
(2000).
[6] Spiekermann S., "Compact diode-pumped solid-state laser", PhD thesis,

Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, (2004).
[7] Longbotham N.W., "Experimental Characterization of Cr4+:YAG Passively

Q-switched Cr:Nd:GSGG Lasers and Comparison with a Simple Rate
Equation Model", PhD thesis, University of New Mexico, (2008).
[8] Kuo Y.K., W. Chen, R.D. Stultz, and M. Birnbaum, "Dy2+:CaF 2 saturable-
absorber Q switch for the ruby laser", Applied Optics, Vol. 33, No. 27, pp.
6348-6351, (1994).
[9] Kuo Y.K., and M. Birnbaum, "Passive Q switching of the alexandrite laser
with a Cr4+:Y 2 SiO 5 solid-state saturable absorber", Appl. Phys. Lett. Vol. 67,
No. 2, pp. 173-175, (1995).
[10] Kuo Y.K., H.M. Chen, and J.Y. Chang, "Numerical study of the Cr:YSO Q-
switched ruby", Opt. Eng., Vol. 40, No. 9, pp. 2031-2035, (2001).
49
[11] Koechner W., “Solid-State Laser Engineering”, Sixth edition, Springer
Science-Business Media, Inc., (2006).
[12] Kuo Y.K., Y. Yang, and . Birnbaum, "Cr4+:Gd 3 Sc 2 Ga 3 O 12 passive Q-switch

for the Cr3+:LiCaAlF 6 laser", Appl. Phys. Lett. Vol. 64, No. 18, pp. 2329-
2331, (1994).
[13] Kuo Y.K., and M. Birnbaum, "Characteristic of ruby passive Q switching

with a Dy+2:CaF 2 solid-state saturable absorber", Applied Optics, Vol. 34,
No. 30, pp. 6829-6833, (1995).
[14] Luo Y.K., M.F. Huang, M. Birnbaum, “Tunable Cr4+:YSO Q-switched

Cr:LiCAF laser”, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronic, Vol. 31, No. 4,
(1995).
[15] Chen H.F., S.W. Hsieh, and Y.K. Kuo, "Simulation of tunable Cr:YSO Q-
switched Cr:LiSAF laser:, Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 5627, pp. 488-498,
(2005).
[16] Walter Koechner, "Solid-State Laser Engineering", Sixth Revised and

Updated Edition, Springer Science Business Media, Inc., (2006).
[17] www.scientific_web.com/en/physics/optics/Q switching.htm
[18] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-switching
[19] www.unc.edu/~dtmoore/laser_intro.html
[20] www.hazemsakeek.com/QandA/Laser/Laser.htm
[21] www.laserinternational.org/info/laserintroduction
1TU U1T
50
Appendix
Matlab program to solve the rate equation of passive Q-switching
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Numerical Solution of %%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Rate Equation of Passive Q-Switch %%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% Sulaimani University %%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% College of Science - Physics Department %%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%% (c) Omed Ghareb Abdullah 2009 %%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% ka: Coupling coefficient for active medium (1/sec)
% kg: Coupling coefficient for saturable absorber material (1/sec)
% ga: Decay rate of the first exited level of the saturable absorber
material
% gc: Cavity decay rate
% gg: Decay rate of the upper laser level
% rt: Relaxation time of the first excited level of the saturable absorber
material
% rp: Pumpin rate
% b: Ratio of the absorption x-secs of the first excited to the G.S. of
% the saturable absorber levels
% lambda: LASER wavelength (nm)
% clight: light speed (cm/sec)
% gama: Population reduction factor, is 1 for a four-level laser,
% and 2 for a thre-level laser.
% imax: Position of maximum number of photons
% no: initial photon numbers
% ph: Maximum photons numbers
% calstep: Number of calculated steps
% nstep: number of steps
% tio: initial time (nsec)
% tfo: final time (nsec)
% tt: times from tio to tfo (nsec)
% dt: time interval (nsec)
% pr: The period of the Q-Switched pulse
% tt(lleft): Position of left
% tt(lmax): Position of center
% tt(right): Position of right
% rise: Rising time (nsec)
% fall: Falling time (nsec)
% e: The energy of Q-Switched pulse (J)
% power: The power of Q-Switched pulse (Watt)
% imax=position of the maximum number of photons
% nao: Initial number of suturable absorber molecules in G.S
% R: Output coupler reflectivity
% np: Initial number of photons
% nth: Threshold population inversion
% ph: Photons number as a function of time
% ng: Population inversion as a function of time
% na: Number of saturable absorber material
% loss: Photon losses
% loabs: Rate absorption of G.S.
% upabs: Rate absorption of first E.S.
% totabs: Total Rate absorption
51
% pr: Period life time (nsec)
% rise: Pulse Rising time (nsec)
% fall: Pulse Falling time (nsec)
% phmax: Maximum number of photons
% hphmax: Wave half mean
% This program need approximatelly 95 minutes to RUN
clc
clear all
tfo=600000; % number of steps (nsec)
tio=0; % initial time (nsec)
dt=5; % time interval (nsec)
nstep=(tfo-tio)/dt;
kg=7.22e-10;
ka=3.46e-8;
ga=6667;
gc=3.42e8;
gg=333;
b=0.75;
rp=1.7e21; % 1/sec
lambda=694.3; % nm
lambda=lambda*1e-9; % m
nao=5.18e15;
gama=2;
clight=3e8; % m/sec
kg=kg*1e-9; % 1/nsec
ka=ka*1e-9; % 1/nsec
ga=ga*1e-9; % 1/nsec
gc=gc*1e-9; % 1/nsec
gg=gg*1e-9; % 1/nsec
rp=rp*1e-9; % 1/nsec
rt=1/ga;
tc=1/gc;
nth=(b*ka*nao+gc)/kg;
ngo=(ka*nao+gc)/kg;
npeak=1/gama*(ngo-nth-nth*log(ngo/nth));
R=0.78;
ph(1)=3e6; % initial Photon number ---> zero

ng(1)=0; % initial Population inversion=zero
na(1)=nao;
loss(1)=(ka*na(1)+b*ka*(nao-na(1))+gc)/kg;
loabs(1)=ka*na(1);
upabs(1)=b*ka*(nao-na(1));
totabs(1)=loabs(1)+upabs(1);
tt(1)=tio;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Solveing the Rate equation for three-level model
% Using Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
for j=1:nstep
yph=ph(j);
yng=ng(j);
yna=na(j);
tt(j+1)=tt(j)+dt;
52
kna(1)=(ga*(nao-yna)-ka*yna*yph);
kng(1)=(rp-gg*yng-gama*kg*yng*yph);
kph(1)=(kg*yng-ka*yna-b*ka*(nao-yna)-gc)*yph;
yph=ph(j)+1/5*kph(1)*dt;
yng=ng(j)+1/5*kng(1)*dt;
yna=na(j)+1/5*kna(1)*dt;
yph=ph(j)+3/40*kph(1)*dt+9/40*kph(2)*dt;
yng=ng(j)+3/40*kng(1)*dt+9/40*kng(2)*dt;
yna=na(j)+3/40*kna(1)*dt+9/40*kna(2)*dt;
yph=ph(j)+3/10*kph(1)*dt-9/10*kph(2)*dt+6/5*kph(3)*dt;
yng=ng(j)+3/10*kng(1)*dt-9/10*kng(2)*dt+6/5*kng(3)*dt;
yna=na(j)+3/10*kna(1)*dt-9/10*kna(2)*dt+6/5*kna(3)*dt;
yph=ph(j)-11/54*kph(1)*dt+5/2*kph(2)*dt-
70/27*kph(3)*dt+35/27*kph(4)*dt;
yng=ng(j)-11/54*kng(1)*dt+5/2*kng(2)*dt-
70/27*kng(3)*dt+35/27*kng(4)*dt;
yna=na(j)-11/54*kna(1)*dt+5/2*kna(2)*dt-
70/27*kna(3)*dt+35/27*kna(4)*dt;
yph=ph(j)+1631/55296*kph(1)*dt+175/512*kph(2)*dt+575/13824*kph(3)*dt+44275/
110592*kph(4)*dt+253/4096*kph(5)*dt;
yng=ng(j)+1631/55296*kng(1)*dt+175/512*kng(2)*dt+575/13824*kng(3)*dt+44275/
110592*kng(4)*dt+253/4096*kng(5)*dt;
yna=na(j)+1631/55296*kna(1)*dt+175/512*kna(2)*dt+575/13824*kna(3)*dt+44275/
110592*kna(4)*dt+253/4096*kna(5)*dt;
ph4(j+1)=ph(j)+dt*(37/378*kph(1)+250/621*kph(3)+125/594*kph(4)+512/1771*kph
(6));
53
ng4(j+1)=ng(j)+dt*(37/378*kng(1)+250/621*kng(3)+125/594*kng(4)+512/1771*kng
(6));
na4(j+1)=na(j)+dt*(37/378*kna(1)+250/621*kna(3)+125/594*kna(4)+512/1771*kna
(6));
ph5(j+1)=ph(j)+dt*(2825/27648*kph(1)+18575/48384*kph(3)+13525/55296*kph(4)+
277/14336*kph(5)+1/4*kph(6));
ng5(j+1)=ng(j)+dt*(2825/27648*kng(1)+18575/48384*kng(3)+13525/55296*kng(4)+
277/14336*kng(5)+1/4*kng(6));
na5(j+1)=na(j)+dt*(2825/27648*kna(1)+18575/48384*kna(3)+13525/55296*kna(4)+
277/14336*kna(5)+1/4*kna(6));
ph(j+1)=2*ph5(j+1)-ph4(j+1);
ng(j+1)=2*ng5(j+1)-ng4(j+1);
na(j+1)=2*na5(j+1)-na4(j+1);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
if ph(j+1)<ph(1)
ph(j+1)=ph(1);
end
loss(j+1)=(ka*na(j+1)+b*ka*(nao-na(j))+gc)/kg;
loabs(j+1)=ka*na(j+1);
upabs(j+1)=b*ka*(nao-na(j));
totabs(j+1)=loabs(j+1)+upabs(j+1);
end
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%% whitebg
%figure(1)
plot(tt,ng,'r-');
hold on;
plot(tt,loss,'b--');
title(' ');
xlabel('Time (nsec)');
ylabel('Ng configuration & Loos');
legend('Ng ', 'Loss ');
xtext=tt(1)+max([tt])/15;
ytext=max([ng loss]);
ytext=max([ytext]);
text(xtext,0.9*ytext,['Wave length = ',num2str(lambda),' nm']);
text(xtext,0.8*ytext,['Nao = ',num2str(nao),' ']);
text(xtext,0.7*ytext,['B = ',num2str(b),' ']);
hold off
pause
%colordef black
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(2)
plot(tt,ph,'r.-');
hold on;
title(' ');
ylabel('n configuration');
xtext=max([xtext]);
ytext=max([ph]);
54
ytext=max([ytext]);
pause
hold off
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(3)
plot(tt,loss,'r-');
hold on
[AX,H1,H2] = plotyy(tt,ng,tt,ph,'plot');
set(get(AX(1),'Ylabel'),'String','Ng configuration & Loos')
set(get(AX(2),'Ylabel'),'String','n configuration')
set(H1,'LineStyle','--')
set(H2,'LineStyle',':')
title(' ');
title(' ');
ytext=max([ng loss ph]);
ytext=max([ytext]);
pause
hold off
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Estimating the principal parameters of first pulse
%% by Analytical method, and some approximation
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
k=1;
tol=1e3;
nf(k)=1000;
ff=ngo-nf(k)-nth*log(ngo/nf(k));
fd=-1+nth/nf(k);
nf(k+1)=nf(k)-ff/fd;
while abs(nf(k+1)-nf(k))>tol;
k=k+1;
ff=ngo-nf(k)-nth*log(ngo/nf(k));
fd=-1+nth/nf(k);
nf(k+1)=nf(k)-ff/fd;
end
nff=nf(k+1);
disp(['****** Analytical Estimate ****** ']);
disp(['Initial population inversion = ',num2str(ngo),' ']);

disp(['Threshold population inversion = ',num2str(nth),' ']);
disp(['Final population inversion = ',num2str(nff),' ']);
disp(['Number of iteration = ',num2str(k+1),' ']);
disp(['Maximum photons number = ',num2str(npeak),' ']);
hv=6.625e-34*clight/(lambda);
eout=(ngo-nff)/gama*hv*(1-R);
tpulse=tc*(ngo-nff)/(ngo-nth-nth*log(ngo/nth));
power=eout/(tpulse*1e-9);
disp(['Period life time (FWHM) = ',num2str(tpulse),' nsec']);

disp(['The energy of Q-Switched pulse = ',num2str(eout*1e3),' mJ']);
55
disp(['The power of Q-Switched pulse = ',num2str(power),' Watt']);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% by Numerical method (Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
disp(['****** Firest Pulse ****** ']);
no1=92500;
no2=93000;
tt1=tt([no1:no2]);
ng1=ng([no1:no2]);
ph1=ph([no1:no2]);
loss1=loss([no1:no2]);
na1=na([no1:no2]);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(4)
plot(tt1,loss1,'r-');
hold on
[AX,H1,H2] = plotyy(tt1,ng1,tt1,ph1,'plot');
title('Firest Pulse');
title('Firest Pulse');
xtext=tt1(1)+max([tt1])/15;
ytext=max([ng1 loss1 ph1]);
ytext=max([ytext]);
hold off
pause
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
phmax=max([ph1]);
nstep1=no2-no1;
for i=1:nstep1
if ph1(i)==phmax;
imax=i;
end
end
hphmax=(phmax-ph1(1))/2;
tmax=tt1(imax);
for i=1:imax
if ph1(i)<=hphmax;
ileft=i+1;
end
end
for i=imax:nstep1
if ph1(i)>=hphmax
iright=i+1;
end
end
56
tl=((hphmax-ph1(ileft-1))/(ph1(ileft)-ph1(ileft-1)))*(tt1(ileft)-tt1(ileft-
1))+tt1(ileft-1);
tr=((hphmax-ph1(iright))/(ph1(iright-1)-ph1(iright)))*(tt1(iright-1)-
tt1(iright))+tt1(iright);
pr=tr-tl;
rise=tt1(imax)-tl;
fall=tr-tt1(imax);
disp(['Position of left = ',num2str(tt1(ileft)),' ']);
disp(['Position of center = ',num2str(tt1(imax)),' ']);
disp(['Position of right = ',num2str(tt1(iright)),' ']);
disp(['Position of maximum number of photons = ',num2str(imax),' ']);
disp(['Maximum photons number = ',num2str(ph1(imax)),' ']);
disp(['Period life time (FWHM) = ',num2str(pr),' nsec']);

disp(['Pulse Rising time = ',num2str(rise),' nsec']);
disp(['Pulse Falling time = ',num2str(fall),' nsec']);
for m=2:nstep1
if ph1(m)>(ph1(1));
li=m;
end
end
disp(['Final population inversion = ',num2str(ng1(li)),' ']);

disp(['Final number of absorber molecules in the G.S. =
',num2str(na1(li)),' ']);
disp(['Final number of absorber molecules in the first excited state =
',num2str(nao-na1(li)),' ']);
hv=6.625e-34* clight/(lambda);
eout=(ngo-ng1(li))/gama*hv*(1-R);
power=eout/(pr*1e-9);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
disp(['****** Second Pulse ****** ']);
no1=100000;
no2=101200;
tt1=tt([no1:no2]);
ng1=ng([no1:no2]);
ph1=ph([no1:no2]);
na1=na([no1:no2]);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(5)
hold on
57
title(' ');
title('Second Pulse');
ytext=max([ytext]);
hold off
pause
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
phmax=max([ph1]);
nstep1=no2-no1;
for i=1:nstep1
if ph1(i)==phmax;
imax=i;
end
end
tmax=tt1(imax);
for i=1:imax
if ph1(i)<=hphmax;
ileft=i+1;
end
end
for i=imax:nstep1
if ph1(i)>=hphmax
iright=i+1;
end
end
1))+tt1(ileft-1);
pr=tr-tl;
rise=tt1(imax)-tl;
fall=tr-tt1(imax);

for m=2:nstep1
if ph1(m)>(ph1(1));
li=m;
end
end
58
eout=(ng1(1)-ng1(li))/gama*hv*(1-R);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Estimating the principal parameters of last pulse
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
disp(['****** Third Pulse ****** ']);
no1=102800;
no2=104000;
tt1=tt([no1:no2]);
ng1=ng([no1:no2]);
ph1=ph([no1:no2]);
na1=na([no1:no2]);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(6)
hold on
title(' ');
title('Third Pulse');
ytext=max([ytext]);
hold off
pause
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
phmax=max([ph1]);
nstep1=no2-no1;
for i=1:nstep1
if ph1(i)==phmax;
imax=i;
end
end
tmax=tt1(imax);
59
for i=1:imax
if ph1(i)<=hphmax;
ileft=i+1;
end
end
for i=imax:nstep1
if ph1(i)>=hphmax
iright=i+1;
end
end
1))+tt1(ileft-1);
pr=tr-tl;
rise=tt1(imax)-tl;
fall=tr-tt1(imax);

for m=2:nstep1
if ph1(m)>(ph1(1));
li=m;
end
end


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Estimating the principal parameters of last pulse
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
disp(['****** Fourth Pulse ****** ']);
no1=105500;
no2=106600;
tt1=tt([no1:no2]);
60
ng1=ng([no1:no2]);
ph1=ph([no1:no2]);
na1=na([no1:no2]);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%figure(7)
hold on
title(' ');
title('Fourth Pulse');
ytext=max([ytext]);
hold off
pause
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
phmax=max([ph1]);
nstep1=no2-no1;
for i=1:nstep1
if ph1(i)==phmax;
imax=i;
end
end
tmax=tt1(imax);
for i=1:imax
if ph1(i)<=hphmax;
ileft=i+1;
end
end
for i=imax:nstep1
if ph1(i)>=hphmax
iright=i+1;
end
end
1))+tt1(ileft-1);
pr=tr-tl;
rise=tt1(imax)-tl;
fall=tr-tt1(imax);
61

for m=2:nstep1
if ph1(m)>(ph1(1));
li=m;
end
end


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
62

Numirical Simulation of Laser Pulse Generation

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Numirical Simulation of Laser Pulse Generation

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Kurdistan Iraqi Region

Ministry of Higher Education

Rebar F. Karem Gashaw O. Abdullah

Dr. Omed Ghareb Abdullah

Praise be to Allah for providing us the willingness and strength

Rebar, Zhilan, & Gashaw

Chapter One: Basic Concepts

1.2 Construction of a laser

Chapter Two: Q-Switching Techniques

2.2 Principle of Q-switching

2.3 Active Q-switching

2.3.1 Mechanical Q-Switches

3.2.2 Electro-Optical Q-Switches

3.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches

2.4 Passive Q-switching

2.5 Passive Q-Switch Processes

3.2 Rate Equations

3.3 Runge-kutta Fehlberg

Chapter Four: Results and Discussion

4.2 Solution of Rate Equations

4.3 Effect of concentration of the saturable absorber

Q-switching, sometimes known as giant pulse formation, is a technique

1.2 Construction of a laser:

Figure (3.2): Construction of Laser.

Excitation Source: Population inversion is achieved by "pumping energy"

1.3 Absorption and Emissions:

Figure(1.2): Diagram of Spontaneous emission.

The optical cavity, a type of cavity resonator, contains a coherent beam of

Figure(1.4): Relative populations in two energy levels as given by the

Figure(1.5): Simplified energy level diagram of a three-level laser.

Figure(1.6): Simplified energy level diagram of a four-level laser.

1.7 The Gain in Laser:

1.8 The Loss in Laser:

1.9 The ruby laser:

Figure(1.8): Three level of Ruby laser.

2.2 Principle of Q-switching:

2.3 Active Q-switching:

Figure(2.1): Schematic setup of an actively Q-switched laser.

2.3.1 Mechanical Q-Switches:

Figure(2.2): Diagram of a ruby laser employing a spinning prism Q-switch.

Figure(2.3): Electro-optic Q-switch operated at (a) quarter-wave

In the arrangement of Figure(2.3b) an electric voltage must first be applied to

3.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches:

2.4 Passive Q-switching:

Figure(2.4): Schematic setup of a passively Q-switched laser. The saturable

In this case, the Q-switch is a saturable absorber, a material whose

2.5 Passive Q-Switch Processes:

Figure(2.2): Q-switching cycle.

population inversion of the laser; N a is the ground state population of the

Then, equation (3.1), can be rewrite as:

As indicated in equation (3.8) the photon number reaches to a peak value n p

when N g is equivalent to N th . Hence, from equation (3.9):

population inversion N f can be derived from equation (3.9) by setting n ≅ 0 ,

Equation (3.11) is transcendental and can be solved numerically. When N g 0

switched pulse can be approximated by the following equations:

3.3 Runge-kutta Fehlberg:

4.2 Solution of Rate Equations:

ruby laser has a value of 2 since it is a three-level laser.

The theoretical predictions of all pulse characteristics, such as output energy

4.3 Effect of concentration of the saturable absorber:

Fig (4.13): The pulse-width as a function of initial value of saturable absorber

Characteristics and performance of ruby laser passive Q-switching with

The overall results of this study were summarized below:

1- The simulation results indicate that better passive Q-switching