Introduction to semiconductor

nanostructures
Peter Kratzer
Modern Concepts in Theoretical Physics: Part II
Lecture Notes

What is a semiconductor ?
The Fermi level (chemical potential of the electrons)
falls in a gap of the band structure.
Doping allows us to control the position of EF in the gap.

intrinsic

p-type

n-type

Either electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type) act as carriers

of charge.
Long-lived optical excitations.
Under which conditions does the quantum nature of the carriers show up ?

 a different answer

Basics of Transport
metal

semiconductor

(T) = e n(T) (T)

conductivity (T) = en(T)
n(T) depends both on doping
Fermi statistics,
and temperatureinsulator
F~10 eV,
kTmetal
<< F , kF~ alat semiconductor
(k)
mobility : similar physics in
metals
and semiconductors
1
1
>104
103 .. 109
<1010
( Drude:
cm )(T)=e(T)/m
k
replace electron mass by
1
effective mass
2
3
22
9
(k ) 1021 .. 1010
n (cm )
>10
<10

m=
Boltzmann statistics often
k k
i j
sufficient to describe temp.
dependence
2
-2
5
2
~10
10
..
10
(cmIs/Vs)
this ALL that quantum
sometimes k ~ 0.01 alat
mechanics has to tell us ?

Basics of Transport
metal

semiconductor

(T) = e n(T) (T)

conductivity (T) = en(T)
n(T) depends both on doping
Fermi statistics,
and temperature
F~10 eV,
kT << F , kF~ alat1
(k)
mobility : similar physics in
metals and semiconductors
Drude: (T)=e(T)/m
k
replace electron mass by effective
1
mass
2
(k )

m=
Boltzmann statistics often
k k
i j
sufficient to describe temp.
dependence
Is this ALL that quantum
sometimes k ~ 0.01 alat1
mechanics has to tell us ?

Excitons
Bound system of electron and hole,
cf. hydrogen atom
Exciton radius re = a0 /m*
1/m* = 1/me + 1/mh
GaAs: re ~ 112 a0
For structures of lateral dimensions
< re, quantum confinement effects
can be expected.

Nobel Prize in Physics 2000

25 %

25 %

Herbert Kroemer
Zhores I. Alferov
..for developing semiconductor heterostructures
in high-speed and optoelectronics

50 %

Jack S. Kilby
..for his part in the
integrated circuit

What is a heterostructure ?
A device build from different semiconductor materials, thus
exploiting the differences in band structure.
bipolar transistor

AlGaAs GaAs AlGaAs

collector base emitter

original drawing by Herbert Kroemer, 1957

Molecular Beam Epitaxy

thermodynamics of heteroepitaxy: growth

modes
= f + i s
Frank-van der Merwe: 0
wetting of the substrate,
layer-by-layer growth

f: film
s: substrate
i: interface

Volmer-Weber: > 0
no wetting, three-dimensional island growth
Stranski-Krastanow : 0 for the first
layer(s), later > 0 (e.g. due to lattice
mismatch)
island growth on the wetting layer

Heterostructures: Band gaps/Misfits

lattice constant []

Heterostructures: electrostatic potential

Ec

EF
EV

inversion

depletion

0 kT Ec
Ec
wI =
exp

2
2e n0 kT
2
kT

2 0 kT
wD =
e2 N D

Heterostructures: sub-bands
Quantization of electron motion in z-direction sub-bands

2F > kT
remote doping

h2
2
2
i (k ) = i +
(k x + k y )
2m *
> 105 cm2/Vs

Ballistic motion of the electrons for d < vF

Fractional Quantum Hall Effect

From 2D to 0D: Density of States

3D

2D

1D

0D

From 2D to 1D and 0D: Practical ways

By engineering
Lithography + etching
Cleaved-edge overgrowth
Confinement induced by
electrostatics (gate)
STM tip, ..
strain

By self-assembly
Colloidal quantum dots
Epitaxial quantum dots

Cleaved-edge overgrowth
Widening of the
potential well
quantum wire

Colloidal CdSe Quantum dots

wet chemical synthesis

tri-n-octyl phosphine +
bis-(trimethyl-silyl) selenide

1 sec
tri-n-octyl phosphine oxide +
di-methyl-cadmium

application: fluorescence markers in cells

nanocrystals of different sizes

(different growth conditions)

Self-Assembled Quantum Dots

Transmission electron micrograph (D. Gerthsen, TU Karlsruhe)

Epitaxial Quantum Dots: discrete DOS

cathodoluminescence

temperature-independent line width

Applications
2D heterostructures:
high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) highfrequency electronics (cell phone, satellite TV)
solar cells with high efficiency

Quantum dots:
light-emitting diodes, lasers
optical and IR detectors

mean free path of carriers in 2 DEG can be larger than gate length
ballistic transport

What is a laser ?
Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

Requirements:
lasing medium with many objects (atoms, molecules, quantum dots, )
capable of resonant electronic transitions
population inversion

Heterostructures in Non-Equilibrium
double-heterostructure diode in forward bias
e

DOS ?

quasi-Fermi level
for electrons
h+

n-AlGaAs

i-GaAs

p-AlGaAs

quasi-Fermi level
for holes

strong inversion
in i-GaAs !

Quantum Dot Laser

1 ps
20-40ps

lower threshold current than Quantum Well Laser

threshold current less temperature-dependent
varying the size and shape of the dot allows to tune emission
wavelength (without need to introduce different chemical
elements)

Semiconductor Lasers: graded-index waveguide

Ti-Pt-Au
p-GaAs

light-emitting
layer

p-AlGaAs
p-GaAs
n-GaAs
n-AlGaAs

(110) Cleavage plane

(semi-)transparent mirrors

n-GaAs

Ni-Ge-Au

Semiconductor Lasers: VCSEL

Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser
electrical contact
upper mirror
blind
laser medium
Galliumarsenide semicond. substrate

lower mirror
electrical contact

Summary
molecular beam epitaxy
semiconductor heterostructures
band structure engineering
many novel devices
semiconductors are an ideal playground to see
quantum confinement effects, due to small electron
wavevectors / large exciton radii
self-assembled structures advantageous over
engineered structures (small size, high density,..)

Literature
textbooks
P. Y. Yu and M. Cardona, Fundamentals of Semiconductors,
Springer, 1996
R. Enderlin and A. Schenk, Grundlagen der Halbleiterphysik,
Akademie-Verlag, 1992
D. Bimberg, M. Grundmann, and N.N. Ledentsov, Quantum
Dot Heterostructures, Wiley, 1999

articles
Zh. I. Alferov, V. M. Andreev, and N. N. Ledentsov ,
http://link.edu.ioffe.ru/pti80en/alfer_en
Zh. Alferov, Semiconductors 32 (1998), 1