GRAPHIC DESIGN

1 History
Main article: History of graphic design
While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively re-

Graphic symbols are often functionalist and anonymous,[1] as

these pictographs from the US National Park Service illustrate.

Graphic design is the methodology of visual communication, and problem-solving through the use of type,
space and image. The eld is considered a subset of visual
communication and communication design, but sometimes the term graphic design is used interchangeably
with these due to overlapping skills involved. Graphic designers use various methods to create and combine words,
symbols, and images to create a visual representation of
ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use a combination of typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce a nal result. Graphic design often
refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which
are generated.

Page from the Book of Kells: Folio 114v, Decorated text. Tunc
dicit illis

cent history, rst coined by William Addison Dwiggins

in 1922,[2] graphic design-like activities span the history
of humankind: from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes
Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the
Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of Ginza. In both
this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion
of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries,
there is sometimes a blurring distinction and overlapping
of advertising art, graphic design and ne art. After all,
they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same
benefactor or client. In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design,

Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos

and branding), publications (magazines, newspapers and
books), print advertisements, posters, billboards, website graphics and elements, signs and product packaging.
For example, a product package might include a logo or
other artwork, organized text and pure design elements
such as images, shapes and color which unify the piece.
Composition is one of the most important features of
graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
1

HISTORY

the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas,

expression and feeling to artifacts that document human
experience.[3]

1.1

The advent of printing

Main article: History of printing

During the Tang Dynasty (618907) between the 7th and
9th century AD, wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist
scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed
book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and
books were produced using movable type printing making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960
1279).[4] Sometime around 1450, Johann Gutenberg's
printing press made books widely available in Europe.
The book design of Aldus Manutius developed the book
structure which would become the foundation of western
publication design. This era of graphic design is called
Humanist or Old Style.

A Boeing 747 aircraft with livery designating it as Air Force One.

The cyan forms, the US ag, presidential seal and the Caslon
lettering were all designed at dierent times, by dierent designers, for dierent purposes, and combined by designer Raymond
Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.

1.3 Twentieth century design

The name Graphic Design rst appeared in print in the
1922 essay New Kind of Printing Calls for New Design by William Addison Dwiggins, an American book
designer in the early 20th century.[6]
Raes Graphic Design, published in 1927, is considered
to be the rst book to use Graphic Design in its title.[7]

1.2

Emergence of the design industry

The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example[8] of the modern era and used a typeface
designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.

In late 19th-century Europe, especially in the United

Kingdom, the rst ocial publication of a printed design
was released which marked the separation of graphic design from ne art.

In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in dierent spheres of production. The
movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects
In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater
design education in Great Britain, informing the govern- sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus,
ment of the importance of design in his Journal of Design etc.
and Manufactures. He organized the Great Exhibition as Jan Tschichold codied the principles of modern typoga celebration of modern industrial technology and Victo- raphy in his 1928 book, New Typography. He later rerian design.
pudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as beFrom 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press
published books that are some of the most signicant
of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts
movement, and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic renement and selling them to
the public. Morris created a market for works of graphic
design in their own right to create a profession for this
new type of art for aspiring individuals who wish to earn
a living through these skills. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as
it amounted to the rst signicant reaction to the stale
state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris work,
along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly inuenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic
design in general.[5]

ing fascistic, but it remained very inuential. Tschichold,

Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Lszl
Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky have greatly inuenced
graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout
the twentieth century. The following years saw graphic
design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance
and application.[9] A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration
of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in
1937 brought a mass-produced minimalism to America; sparking a wild re of modern architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers
and Frutiger; Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until
his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and

3
applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European
minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers
of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity; and Josef Mller-Brockmann, who designed posters
in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and
1970s era.
The growth of the professional graphic design industry has grown in parallel with the rise of consumerism.
This has raised some concerns and criticisms, notably
from within the graphic design community with the First
Things First manifesto. First launched by Ken Garland in
1964, it was re-published as the First Things First 2000
manifesto in 1999 in the magazine Emigre 51[10] stating
We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communication - a
mindshift away from product marketing and toward the
exploration and production of a new kind of meaning.
The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged
by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and resources of design.[11] Both editions
attracted signatures from respected design practitioners
and thinkers, for example; Rudy VanderLans, Erik Spiekermann, Ellen Lupton and Rick Poynor. The 2000 manifesto was also notably published in Adbusters, known for
its strong critiques of visual culture.

Applications

Readability and legibility is enhanced by improving the

visual presentation and layout of text.
Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through
eective visual communication. It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, packaging, and text. Together these are dened as
branding (see also advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services oered
by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity. Whilst the terms are often used interchangeably,
branding is more strictly related to the identifying mark
or trade name for a product or service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating to
the structure and ethos of a company, as well as to the
companys external image. Graphic designers will often
form part of a team working on corporate identity and
branding projects. Other members of that team can include marketing professionals, communications consultants and commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams. A common
example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of
human anatomy. Graphic design is also applied to layout
and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.
Graphic waynding signage systems have become important for large public spaces such as airports and convention centers. These systems often depend on graphic design to communicate information quickly and economically through a color or symbol that can be read and followed from a distance (as opposed to large amounts of
text). Such environmental graphic design systems allow
people to navigate unfamiliar spaces. The term architectural graphics was coined by Jane Davis Doggett, pioneer
designer of airport waynding systems, but the term more
commonly used in 2014 is environmental graphics.[12]
Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry
in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling. Other
examples of design for entertainment purposes include
novels, comic books, DVD covers, opening credits and
closing credits in lmmaking, and programs and props on
stage. This could also include artwork used for T-shirts
and other items screenprinted for sale.

Color

From road signs to technical schematics, from interofce memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge and visual messages.

From scientic journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information known as information design. Newspapers, magazines,
blogs, television and lm documentaries may use graphic
design to inform and entertain. With the advent of the
web, information designers with experience in interactive
tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to
illustrate the background to news stories.

SKILLS

Skills

glyphs (characters) are created and modied using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type is
A graphic design project may involve the stylization the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space
and presentation of existing text and either preexisting between all characters used), kerning (the space between
imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. two specic characters), and leading (line spacing).
Artistic pieces can be incorporated in both traditional and Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors,
digital form, which involves the use of visual arts, typog- typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical
raphy, and page layout techniques for publications and workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a spemarketing. For example, a newspaper story begins with cialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography
the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the to new generations of visual designers and lay users.
graphic designers job to organize the page into a reason- [13]
able layout and determine if any other graphic elements
should be required. In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original
pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Or 3.3 Page layout
the designer may utilize stock imagery or photography.
Contemporary design practice has been extended to the Main article: Page layout
modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG
user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or The page layout aspect of graphic design deals with the
multimedia design. Another aspect of graphic design is to arrangement of elements (content) on a page, such as
have good research skills, analyzing a work of art and si- image placement, and text layout and style. Beginning
multaneously seeing it in new ways. Graphic Design need from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the
skills such as power to convince the audience and selling Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern
the design. Communication is a key part in graphic de- magazine and catalogue layouts, structured page design
sign. The process of graphic design include the process has long been a consideration in printed material and
school which is an approach to the subject that is con- more recently in electronic displays such as web pages.
cerned with the actual process of communication; it es- Elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures),
pecially highlights the channels and media through which and (with print media) occasionally place-holder graphics
messages are transmitted and by which senders and re- for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser
ceivers encode and decode. Semiotic School on the other cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.
hand, is message as a construction of signs which through
interaction with receivers, produces meaning; communication as an agent. The process school is the like the way
in which a message is brought out to society.

3.4 Printmaking

3.1

Visual arts design

Main article: Visual arts

Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means
of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer. Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using
anything from traditional media, to photography or digital
art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each
graphic art element individually as well as to the nal
composition.

3.2

Typography

Main article: Typography

Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type. Type

Main article: Printmaking

Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces. Except in
the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a
print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is
not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on
the other hand, creates a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface,
known technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for
engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks
of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there are many other
kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate
create an edition, in modern times usually each signed and
numbered to form a limited edition. Prints may also be
published in book form, as artists books. A single print
could be the product of one or multiple techniques.

4.1

Computers and the creative process

Tools

5
and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil
and paper.[14] Others use many dierent mark-making
tools and resources from computers to sculpture as a
means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of
graphic design is that it makes a tool out of appropriate
image selection in order to possibly convey meaning.[15]

4.1 Computers and the creative process

There is some debate whether computers enhance the
creative process of graphic design.[16] Rapid production
from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be
achieved by traditional hand-rendering or paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process
The pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
more quickly.[17] However, being faced with limitless
choices does not help isolate the best design solution and
The mind is an important graphic design tool. Aside can lead to endless iterations with no clear design outfrom technology, graphic design requires judgment and come.
creativity. Critical, observational, quantitative and an- A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multialytic thinking are required for design layouts and ple or complex ideas quickly[18] without the distractions
rendering. If the executor is merely following a solution and complications of software. Hand-rendered comps are
(e.g. sketch, script or instructions) provided by another often used to get approval for an idea execution before
designer (such as an art director), then the executor is not a designer invests time to produce nished visuals on a
usually considered the designer.
computer or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly rene
medium) may be equally important to the design. The and produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process.
[19]
appropriate development and presentation tools can sub- This hybrid process is especially useful in logo design
stantially change how an audience perceives a project. where a software learning curve may detract from a creThe image or layout is produced using external traditional ative thought process. The traditional-design/computermedia and guides, or digital image editing tools on com- production hybrid process may be used for freeing ones
puters. Tools in computer graphics often take on tradi- creativity in page layout or image development as well. In
tional names such as scissors or pen. Some graphic the early days of computer publishing, many traditional
design tools such as a grid are used in both traditional graphic designers relied on computer-savvy production
artists to produce their ideas from sketches, without needand digital form.
ing to learn the computer skills themselves. However, this
In the mid-1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and
practice has been increasingly less common since the adgraphic art software applications introduced a generation vent of desktop publishing over 30 years ago. The use of
of designers to computer image manipulation and crecomputers and graphics software is now taught in most
ation that had previously been manually executed. Com- graphic design courses.
puter graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the
eects of layout or typographic changes, and to simu- Nearly all of the popular and industry standard software
late the eects of traditional media without requiring a programs used for graphic design since the early 1990s
lot of space. However, traditional tools such as pencils are products of Adobe Systems Incorporated. They
or markers are useful even when computers are used for are Adobe Photoshop (a raster-based program for photo
nalization; a designer or art director may hand sketch editing), Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for
numerous concepts as part of the creative process. Some drawing), Adobe InDesign (a page layout program), and
of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early Adobe Dreamweaver (for Web page design). Another
stage approval, before the designer develops the idea fur- major page layout tool is QuarkXpress (a product of
ther using a computer and graphic design software tools. Quark, Inc., a separate company from Adobe). Both
QuarkXpress and Adobe InDesign are often used in the
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the nal stage of the electronic design process. Raster images
graphic design industry. Computers and software ap- may have been edited in Adobe Photoshop, logos and ilplications are generally seen by creative professionals as lustrations in Adobe Illustrator, and the nal product asmore eective production tools than traditional methods. sembled in one of the major page layout programs. Most
However, some designers continue to use manual and tra- graphic designers entering the eld since about 1990 are
ditional tools for production, such as Milton Glaser.
expected to be procient in at least one or two of these
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools programs.

5
5.1

6 OCCUPATIONS

Modern graphic design subelds

Interface design

Main article: User interface design

Since the advent of the World Wide Web and computer
software development, many graphic designers have become involved in interface design, in an environment
commonly referred to as a Graphical User Interface
(GUI). This has included web design and software design, when end user interactivity is a design consideration
of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of
user interaction and online branding, graphic designers
often work with software developers and web developers
to create both the look and feel of a web site or software
application and enhance the interactive experience of the
user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface
design is icon design.

5.2

User experience design

Main article: User experience design

Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the creative

spectrum and often overlap. Employment within Graphic
Design involves workers performing specialized tasks,
such as design services, publishing, advertising, and public relations, while receiving a median pay of $44,150.00
per year. The main job responsibility of a Graphic Designer is the arrangement of visual elements in some type
of media. The main job titles within the industry can vary
and are often country specic. They can include graphic
designer, art director, creative director, animator and the
entry level production artist. Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have dierent titles
such as "DTP Associate" or "Graphic Artist", but despite
changes in title, graphic design principles remain consistent. The responsibilities may come from, or lead to, specialized skills such as illustration, photography, animation
or interactive design. Todays graduating graphic design
students are normally exposed to all of these areas of
graphic design and urged to become familiar with all of
them as well in order to be competitive. Graphic designers will face strong competition when applying for
positions, in which organizations are looking for candidates with convincing talents and a college-level education; eld requirements consist of having strong portfolio
and a Bachelors degree. Due to the increase in technology, employment rates within computer systems design
are expecting a 35% increase, while traditional designs,
such as publications, are facing slower rates of 16% or
less.

User experience design considers how a user interacts

with and responds to an interface, service or product and
adjusts it accordingly.
Graphic designers can work in a variety of environments.
Whilst many will work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or
5.3 Experiential graphic design
branding agencies, others may work within publishing,
marketing or other communications companies. IncreasMain article: Environmental Graphic Design
ingly, especially since the introduction of personal computers to the industry, many graphic designers have found
Experiential graphic design is the application of commu- themselves working within non-design oriented organizanication skills to the build environment. This area of tions, as in-house designers. Graphic designers may also
graphic design requires practitioners to possess knowl- work as free-lance designers, working on their own terms,
edge of creating large scale physical installations which prices, ideas, etc.
have to be manufactured and withstand the same sort of A graphic designer reports to the art director, creative dienvironmental conditions as buildings. As such, it is a rector or senior media creative. As a designer becomes
cross-disciplinary collaborative process involving design- more senior, they may spend less time designing media
ers, fabricators, city planners, architects, manufacturers and more time leading and directing other designers on
and large project building teams.
broader creative activities, such as brand development
Experiential graphic designers try to solve problems that
people encounter while interacting with buildings and
space. Examples of practice areas for environmental
graphic designers are waynding, placemaking, branded
environments, exhibitions and museum displays, public
installations and digital environments.

Occupations

Main article: Graphic design occupations

and corporate identity development. They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example
taking and interpreting briefs.

6.1 Crowdsourcing in graphic design

Main article: Crowdsourcing creative work
Je Howe of Wired Magazine rst used the term
Crowdsourcing in his 2006 article, The Rise of
Crowdsourcing.[20][21] Creative work spans creative do-

7
mains such as graphic design, crowdsourcing architec- [16] Designtalkboard.com,
topic
1030
and
Designtalkboard.com, topic 1141.
retrieved 3-18ture, apparel design, writing, illustration. Tasks may be
2007
assigned to individuals or a group and may be categorized
as convergent or divergent. An example of a divergent [17] Jann Lawrence Pollard and Jerry James Little, Creative
task is generating a large number of designs for a poster.
Computer Tools for Artists: Using Software to Develop
An example of a convergent task is selecting one poster
Drawings and Paintings, November 2001 Introduction
design.
[18] Jacci Howard Bear, desktoppub.about.com Retrieved 319-2008

See also

7.1

Related areas

7.2

Related topics

References

[1] Currie, Nick. Design Rockism.

[2] Drucker, Johanna and McVarish, Emily, 'Graphic Design
History: A critical Guide'. Pearson Education, 2009
[3] Meggs, Philip B., 'A history of graphic design'. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983
[4] Printing The Silk Road Foundation. Retrieved May 31,
2008. Silk-road.com
[5] Fiona McCarthy, William Morris, London: Faber and
Faber, 1996 ISBN 0-571-17495-7
[6] Drucker, Johanna and McVarish, Emily, 'Graphic Design
History: A critical Guide'. Pearson Education, 2009.
[7] Baker, Steve (1990). The Sign of the Self in the
Metropolis. Journal of Design History (Oxford University Press) 3 (4): 228. JSTOR 1315763.
[8] Designing Modern Britain - Design Museum Exhibition. Retrieved December 10, 2009.
[9] Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art Design and
Architecture, New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-31221830-3 (cloth) ISBN 0-312-21832-X (pbk)
[10] Emigre Essays. Emigre.com. Retrieved 2012-01-01.
[11] max bruinsma. Maxbruinsma.nl. Retrieved 2012-0101.
[12] Turner, Tracy; Knapp, Pat Matson (2013). Jane Davis
Doggett, Environmental Graphics Pioneer. Experiential
Graphics Magazine 5.
[13] Butterick, Matthew. Buttericks Practical Typography.
Buttericks Practical Typography. Jones McClure, 201014. Web. 17 Feb. 2015.
[14] Milton Glaser Draws & Lectures. retrieved 31-01-2011
[15] Mike Rohde, Loosewireblog.com, Rohdesign.com Wall
Street Journal Mention in Jeremy Wagstas Loose Wire,
Retrieved 3-19-2007

[19] Gregory Thomas, How to Design Logos, Symbols and

Icons: 24 Internationally Renowned Studios Reveal How
They Develop Trademarks for Print and New Media, April
2003, pp:48
[20] Howe, Je. The Rise of Crowdsourcing. WIRED Magazine. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
[21] Gilmour, Julia. The Long History of Crowdsourcing
and Why Youre Just Now Hearing About It. http://www.
crowdsource.com/. Retrieved 24 October 2013.

9 Bibliography
Fiell, Charlotte and Fiell, Peter (editors). Contemporary Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers, 2008.
ISBN 978-3-8228-5269-9
Wiedemann, Julius and Taborda, Felipe (editors).
Latin-American Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-3-8228-4035-1

10 External links
Accessible Design HOW Interactive Design Conference Washington 2014
Graphic Design Statistics
The Universal Arts of Graphic Design Documentary produced by O Book
SEGD The Society for Experiential Graphic Design

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Graphic design Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic%20design?oldid=655015626 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Derek Ross,

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Black Orchid, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, Ex nihil, Laughingcat, Slakr, Aleph73, Chaitanyak, Martinp23, Dicklyon, MrArt, Davemon, Treyp,
Peter Horn, Koweja, Hu12, Fan-1967, Wizard191, Simon12, Iridescent, Dreamingawake, Bmays, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Gushka,
Drwarpmind, Nativos, Tawkerbot2, Thetourist, Mikelima, JForget, Ale jrb, Insanephantom, Mattressmm, Rawling, KyraVixen, Nunquam
Dormio, Dgw, Badseed, Sopoforic, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Meno25, RadariG, Gogo Dodo, Odie5533, Tawkerbot4, Chrislk02, Starionwolf, Daven200520, Salzstar, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Standpipe, Sry85, Thecatat7, N5iln, Headbomb, Tcturner2002, Marek69, West
Brom 4ever, John254, ProfL, BarryWorley, Remi de, Ram4eva, MattIndustries, NigelR, WKB7000, Folic Acid, Adamfc, Mentisto,
AntiVandalBot, EarthPerson, Goldenrowley, Rlanda, Scepia, 3Easy, Seanie16, Gkhan, Res2216restar, Alabama2, JAnDbot, MER-C,
Ericoides, Erikvlie, Billmurray6, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Osmil, Sinbarambam, Kerotan, Furminger, Nscommission, Rastaman 99, Freshacconci, Timdew, Nirvanacinema, Vexcom, Iamrecognized, Bennybp, VoABot II, Lz Li, Drachis, Tunabrain, Fortuitous1, Trugster, Moweryg,
Leventozler, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Dunaevam, DerHexer, Oicumayberight, Sesler, B. Wolterding, AVRS, Jdigital, Jtir, MartinBot, STBot, Chelt, Designer23, Joeadair, Bonzobonce, Anaxial, Bus stop, Matt@Xposure, Dierdre, LedgendGamer, BGOATDoughnut, J.delanoy, Rlsheehan, Yinyang042, Bogey97, Kittylover435679, Uncle Dick, Darth Mike, Eskimospy, Weakmassive, Dobie Gillis,
FrummerThanThou, Johnbod, McSly, Rizoglou, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Nzk, Motorolla, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, STBotD,
Merzul, DMCer, Bonadea, Nelson Medina, Pdcook, Tkgd2007, Nz2006, Ryansales, Beatmasterpete, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Xnuala,
VolkovBot, Morenooso, Sporti, A.Ou, Je G., Indubitably, Al.locke, BillSung, Mcewan, Philip Trueman, Mmdler, Ask123, Lradrama,
Martin451, Leafyplant, Dlae, LeaveSleaves, ^demonBot2, Artaxerex, Usamarine1, Johnlau, Andy Dingley, Goldburg, Df747jet, Newsaholic, Rosewater77, Insanity Incarnate, Truthanado, Monty845, HiDrNick, Synther, Petteri Aimonen, Oyama52, Illogirl, Logan, PGWG,
Nickzdon, Designo, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, D. Recorder, Radrocks, Josef120290, Rachel design, SieBot, Jsc83, Tbo 157, YourEyesOnly,
Dawn Bard, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Lucasbfrbot, Yintan, Bentogoa, Mgracen, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, Alrofaee, Techman224, Vanished user jfj23rina9j23r9jmwefsuihf783, Fratrep, Rejoice84, StaticGull, Mygerardromance, WikiLaurent, Superbeecat,
Denisarona, Sparkleforce, Zeebah360, Knowledgeispowerandihavetheknowledge, Kookro, Atif.t2, Gerard Dolan, Martarius, ClueBot, Allartschools, Rumping, Robcat2075, The Thing That Should Not Be, Londoner1961, Brocowiki, Wysprgr2005, Cgchapin, Freebullets,
Drmies, Vic joseph, DanielDeibler, Harland1, Neverquick, Slajay, Trebory6, Mspraveen, Jagger27, Prepressguru, Somno, Forgottenvariable, Josephrudi, Jinjo236, Excirial, Jusdafax, Bvlax2005, BMenconi, SpikeToronto, XTrain, Upsidedown 04, NuclearWarfare, Arotolo,
ATS 500, Iohannes Animosus, Tnxman307, Kaiba, David2525, Maine12329, Surgeo15, Shark bites, Kytsai, Apparition11, Mechwd,
XLinkBot, Rror, Theredproject, Skarebo, Professionalgraphicdesigner, Hopedspeak, Shoemakers Holiday, HellaBAD, Karynannestuckey,
Wiki Power Editor Dude, Flamecreative, Addbot, Xp54321, ConCompS, Ncas, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Jafeluv, Texterone,
Sionscott, Fluernutter, MrOllie, Mentisock, Glane23, Favonian, Kurosuna, LinkFA-Bot, Jetsprint2, Branden55, Lightbot, Kb04090,
Gail, Crt, Kendil, PlankBot, Bediphilips, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Sudarevic, Jadabihanna, OrgasGirl, Fraggle81, ATNwebdesign, Joe3311,
Fourmiz59, ArchonMagnus, Max, Knownot, Charybdisz, Iroony, Crross4, Synchronism, Tianee, AnomieBOT, AmritasyaPutra, Robertfalco, Jim1138, Gobstopperdesigns, Piano non troppo, Ubergeekguy, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Kenandruk, JodiCaroline, Maxis ftw,
Frankenpuppy, Dataleft, Xqbot, Zad68, Character.assassin, Capricorn42, Corwinstephen, TechBot, Opengragra, Ched, Crzer07, Jane McCann, Ruy Pugliesi, Nasa-verve, Bookman3380, Stutailor, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Jjkodesign, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, Gideon-london,
Mohamed Hazem Abbas, 3DCH, Dan6hell66, Gunart, FrescoBot, Chatruz, Kldw2009, Ramiehab, Michael93555, Mike3488, Vishnu2011,
Amithsathi, Mike.bolingbroke, Nerdy1232, HamburgerRadio, Davydoo, AstaBOTh15, Daisy graphics, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Inscape Design College, Getinihavecandy, Notedgrant, Qaismx, Calmer Waters, SpaceFlight89, R r245, Hendrixtjaden, Mikrosam Akademija
1, Tbrunelle, Ukandyt, ActivExpression, Bellehome, Mjs1991, Ayushrocks6, PierreToromano, Lotje, Vrenator, Aoidh, Dusty777, Unknowntolife, Tbhotch, Lord of the Pit, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, TjBot, Tay7287, Skamecrazy123, DASHBot, Jeweldesign, Onef9day, EmausBot, Lutfur, Gfoley4, Konpalmansoor, Candyer, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Artitup, John Cline, Ida Shaw,
Kingzealer1, 1234r00t, Rhartgerink, Emmadreamsbig, Dakingofwiki, Kilopi, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, Erianna, Thepixelvixen, Jay-Sebastos,
Axelldotcom, Zenao1, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Socialservice, Hansann, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Morgankevinj huggle, This lousy T-shirt, Creativechris, Snotbot, Jasnab, Atypo, Balendrasingh, Widr, DAZ bfurner, FrauKramer, JordoCo, Nightenbelle, Strike Eagle, Graphiczen1,
BobShitHead, Juro2351, Zengraphic1, MusikAnimal, J991, Mark Arsten, Ldileo, Erkajerk, Jdiaz923, Cupidboyneo, Nollinator, Ricordisamoa, Snow Blizzard, Ganstamichael, Njth, Guanaco55, Riley Huntley, Pratyya Ghosh, Pestopinan, Haiquancn2, Khazar2, Rally24,
Tdavies24, Dexbot, Kerbymaca, Codename Lisa, Sagirkhan, Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Mediadesigntools, WMartin74, Acraneld, Pbuck-

11.2

Images

ley6794, Epicgenius, Pbennings, Christina119, SteveColin00, Rockonomics, Alvinacharlotte, Chetron, Lloyd Blackett, JonathonSelf,
Tentinator, RK1212, Microartsbiz, Ibjennyjenny, SingerGal, LieutenantLatvia, Graphic Design Stu, NottNott, Ginsuloft, Kaitymh,
Pauldmitchell13, Charmediagroup, HeyHeyHeyHey1234, Leonardo the Florentine, Atsmith227, Author2be, Compprof9000, S21345,
Astonmico02, Ach8, SlavaBest, Logodesignbizz, Clive Roux, Orange-quarter, AndrewNall, Skylee123, Hustlecat, Kesterton, Metoshi,
Guidefortech, Technokar, KH-1, Niloyrahman10000, Kaileygeary and Anonymous: 1372

11.2

Images

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artist: ?
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File:Secretary.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Secretary.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
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Public domain Contributors:
http://www.af.mil/photos/index.asp?galleryID=55
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rst version Flu
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svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0