Pracs

Modelling Equilibrium
H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI(g)

Set up 2 beakers
Beaker A: 10 black counters representing H2, 10 blue counters representing I2
Beaker B: 20 red counters representing HI
Take a black and blue counter out of Beaker A and place them into beaker B. Take 2 red
counters out of Beaker B and place them into beaker A
Repeat 3
Take a black and blue counter out of beaker B and place them into beaker A. Take 2 red
counters from beaker A and place them into beaker B
Repeat the above 2 steps

Analysis/Explanation

Removing a blue and black counter demonstrates that these reactants have enough EK to
react. This shows the forward reaction, and is done twice. The reverse is done once to show
that the forward reaction is faster than the reverse reaction
Once equal numbers of coloured counters are in each beaker, equilibrium has been reached,
and you only need to take a blue/black counter from A and put a red into A, and do the
reverse.

Equilibrium Prac

Fill a medium sized test-tube with 10mL of Potassium Chromate solution

Record the colour of the solution
Slowly add 10 drops of HCL solution and record the colour
Slowly add 10 drops of NaOH solution, and record the colour
Repeat using 10mL of Potassium Dichromate, by first adding NaOH, and then HCl
2 CrO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) Cr2O72-(aq) + H2O(l)

Analysis

Equilibrium can be reached from either side, and can be shown by the colour
If you start with chromate (yellow) and dropwise add HCl, it shifts the equilibrium (LCP)
slowly to the right, and the orange colour appears
The dropwise addition of acid/base demonstrates when the system is in equilibrium

Sulfuric Acid as a Dehydrating Agent

Carbohydrates (such as sugars) can be dehydrated by concentrated Sulfuric Acid.

Place 10g of sugar in a 250mL beaker, and place this inside a larger (1L) beaker, which in
turn, is placed in a fume cupboard
Add 10mL of concentrated sulfuric acid, and mix thoroughly
The mixture turns black, and the heat of reaction causes the water produced to become
steam, which makes the black mass expand

Sulfuric Acid as an Oxidant

In dilute solutions of sulfuric acid, the hydronium ions act as oxidants. Reactive metals are oxidised
by dilute sulfuric acid, and release H2 gas when they do so
Zn(s) + 2H3O+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
Sn(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) SnSO4 (aq) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
Dwindling Natural Resource (Rubber)
Properties/Uses

Used in erasers
Used in electrical insulation as it is an insulator of electricity
Used in raincoats and waterproof clothing due to being waterproof
Largest and most important use is in tyres and conveyor belts. Rubber here is usually a
combination of synthetic and natural rubber, which is resistant to heat, abrasion and tearing
Other properties of rubber include its high elasticity, and resistance to oils, solvents and
other chemicals
Rubber can be vulcanised to improve its resistance to heat, cold, abrasion and oxidation,
improve its elasticity, and improve its resistance to degradation by UV light

Natural Sources of Rubber

Hevea Brassiliensis, grown in the Amazon Basin and other tropical areas
The guayule plant
Gutta-Percha Tree
Russian Dandelion

Issues associated with Natural Sources

Limited Natural Resource, and in tropical areas, many trees are being cut down to plant
rubber trees
It takes 6 years of growth for a rubber tree to produce an economically harvestable amount
of rubber. The amount of rubber produced by each tree is limited per year
In raw states, natural rubber becomes sticky when hot and brittle when cold
ZnO catalyst used in vulcanisation is toxic to aquatic organisms
There are large amounts of CO2 emissions associated with the production of rubber

Causes of shrinkage in global supplies

Up until 1940s, all rubber was sourced from plantations of rubber trees in tropical areas,
such as Malaya and Burma. The latex sap in the trees was extracted by tapping the tree, and
refined into useable rubber. Natural rubber is formed by the addition polymerisation of 2methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene). The polymer formed is polyisoprene
Demand for rubber greatly increased during WWII/Industrial Revolution (mainly for use in
tyres of military vehicles) as supply routes were interrupted by conflict (And inflation). The
natural sources could not cope with the large demand and synthetic polymers were
developed by scientists in Germany and USA that could replace rubber

Artificial Replacements

Styrene Butadiene

Durable, resistant to abrasion, heat and cold, so used in tyres, shock absorbers,
gaskets, hoses and abrasives
Polybutadiene rubber
o Highly elastic, resistant to abrasion, heat and cold, so is usually blended with SBR
Butyl Rubber
o Resistant to oxygen, heat and acids, so used in electrical insulation, hoses and
adhesives
All current replacements are produced from materials sourced from Petroleum

Evaluation of progress

Rubber which is more suited for its uses and can be synthesised is commercially available, so
solid development
However, the source of the material for this rubber is derived from petroleum, and so more
development needs to go into researching a renewable source of rubber which is
commercially viable and can meet current demands

Contact Process
Sulfur Dioxide Production

Molten Sulfur and dry air (scrubbed of water vapour by dehydrating with 99% concentrated
Sulfuric Acid) is combusted in a sulfur burner (typically a furnace)
The Sulfur reacts with the oxygen, forming Sulfur Dioxide
S(l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
As this is a highly exothermic reaction, (the temperatures can reach in excess of 1000OC),
heat exchangers are used to cool the SO2 to 500OC. They also recycle heat, increasing the
efficiency of the system.

Alternative

Some Sulfuric Acid plants are built near Copper or Zinc smelters to obtain sulfur dioxide from
the waste gasses produced by roasting metal sulfide ores
This has the advantage of disposing potentially polluting sulfur dioxide from smelters and
providing a relatively cheap starting material
CuS(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) + Cu(s)
Conditions for Production of Sulfuric Acid

Reaction is carried out in a combustion furnace

Molten/liquid sulfur is used as opposed to solid sulfur to increase the surface area of
the reactants, increasing the number of exposed reacting particles, which increases
the rate of reaction
Oxygen-rich air/excess oxygen to increase the likelihood of sulfur undergoing
complete combustion, increasing the efficiency of the process
Dry air is used to avoid the production of acid mist, which can corrode downstream
pipes
As the reaction goes to completion, no equilibrium factors need to be accounted for

Sulfur Trioxide Conversion (Catalytic Oxidation)

Sulfur Dioxide and leftover dry air (N2 and H2) are fed into a multi-layered tower (Conversion
Tower), where it is converted into Sulfur Trioxide
The multiple bed layers are required to maximise both yield and rate
o The gas mixture is passed over the first catalyst bed at about 500OC resulting in a
conversion of about 70%, a fairly high yield. Reacting SO2 and O2 are absorbed onto
the surface of the catalyst
o It is then passed over the second bed which is cooled to about 400OC, increasing
yield to about 97%, but at a slower rate
o Finally, after the SO2 has been condensed at the absorber tower, remaining gasses
are passed back over the third bed, also at 400OC, which converts 99.7% of the SO2
to SO3, lowering the emissions of SO2 to .3% (within govt. regulations)
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g) (H < 0)

Since this is an equilibrium, both yield and rate need to be considered

Yield

Excess Oxygen (More reactant, according to LCP, eqm shifts right). The [SO2] usually cannot
be increased as this is determined by how much Sulfur is obtained from the Frasch Process
High Pressure (100-200 kPa), increases the number of gaseous moles, and so the equilibrium
shifts right according to LCP to reduce the pressure. However, high pressure is expensive and
dangerous, so 1-2 atm is used, as this is sufficient for the reaction
Low Temperatures (400-500oC) favour the forward reaction, which is exothermic.

Rate

V2O5 is used as a catalyst, which is supported on porous silica pellets

Increasing Temp/Pressure

Conditions Used

Pressure of 1-2 atm is used to compromise between yield, rate, cost and safety
Temperatures of 400-500oC are used to compromise between yield, rate, and cost. Also,
high temperatures can damage the catalyst

Converting SO3 to H2SO4

When Sulfur trioxide is dissolved in water, it forms Sulfuric acid, however, this reaction is extremely
exothermic, reacting explosively and spraying sulfuric acid mist. This is not suitable as an industrial
process, as it is both dangerous, and expensive to separate the acid mist from the air
To overcome this, the SO3 gas stream is passed into concentrated sulfuric acid and dissolved to form
oleum (H2S2O7). The oleum reacts with purified water in a dilution tank to form sulfuric acid
SO3(g) + H2SO4 (l) H2S2O7(l)
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
Overall SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l) ( = 133 /
The state of sulfuric acid is liquid. Overall, although sulfuric acid is needed to produce itself, there is
a net production of sulfuric acid (Use 1, Produce 2)

Modern sulfuric acid plants use 2 absorber towers, one which absorbs the bulk of the sulfur trioxide
formed, passing the residual gad back to the final catalyst tray of the converter. The 2nd absorbs the
final amounts of SO3 formed and then vents its residual gas to the atmosphere. The product drawn
of is 98% sulfuric acid and 2% water (concentrated)
Safety Precautions in using/diluting sulfuric acid

Protective clothing (Safety glasses, gloves, apron and coat)

If contacts skin, wash off with copious amounts of running water. If larger amounts are
spilled, first wipe with a paper towel, then wash with large volumes of water as large
volumes in water will cause heat release
Add small amounts of acid to large amounts of water.
o This allows the heat of ionisation to disperse throughout the water, preventing
boiling
Continuously stir the mixture to aid smooth dilution
Neutralise any spills immediately using Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Conduct experiments in a fume hood as sulfuric acid vapours are poisonous.

Dilution

Always place acid into water

This is because the ionisation of sulfuric acid is extremely exothermic, so if water is added to
acid, it will boil and agitate the acid. This can result in acid being splashed. If acid is added to
water, the splashes and the heat produced are absorbed by the surrounding water
molecules, since water has a high heat capacity
When using concentrated sulfuric acid, it is important to ensure that no water enters the
bottle, as this can create enough heat that the bottle will explode

Safety precautions for the transport and storage of sulfuric acid

Transport

Concentrated sulfuric acid is completely molecular, and so can be transported in steel

containers without reacting with the steel. This is preferred, as steel is generally stronger
than plastic or glass
Dilute sulfuric acid is ionised, so will react with steel. Glass or plastic containers are generally
inert, and so are used in transporting dilute sulfuric acid

Storage

Should be stored in a cool, well ventilated area, and away from light so it doesnt vaporize
Should be stored in well-sealed containers and in a non-moist environment
Stored in clear, plastic, labelled bottles, and poured from the side which does not have a
label.

Exothermic Nature of Sulfuric Acid

Energy required to break the bond is less than the energy released than the bond formed due to the
strong affinity with water

The exothermic nature of the ionisation of sulfuric acid is due to the difference between the
energy required to break the bonds of the reactants and the energy released in the
formation of the products. Asx more energy is released by the formation of the products
than was required to break the bonds of the reactants the reaction is exothermic.

H2SO4(aq)
HSO4 (aq)

H+(aq) +
H SO4(aq)
+
H (aq)
+ SO42(aq)

K is very large
K= 1.2 x 10-2