ADAPTATION OF A MOTOR

VEHICLE ENGINE FOR AVIATION

APPLICATION

A. F. BARNARD

JUNE 2003

ADAPTATION OF A MOTOR VEHICLE

ENGINE FOR AVIATION APPLICATION
by

ANDRIES FREDERIK BARNARD

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE
Mechanical Engineering - Design

at the

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

TECHNIKON PRETORIA

SUPERVISORS : DR A NURICK
MR D LOUWRENS

JUNE 2003

ABSTRACT
The maintenance and operational costs for light aircraft have escalated to such an
extent, that it has become financially very difficult to obtain and maintain a private
pilots licence. Furthermore, the engine technology of light aircraft engines dates
back to pre - 1962, which means the fuel consumption is unfavorable when
compared to modern automotive engines. The use of modern automotive engine

technology such as multipoint fuel injection, hot-wire air

induction sensors,

electronic ignition and knock control, can improve the performance, while reducing
the operating and maintenance costs of light aircraft significantly. The aviation
legislation in South Africa makes provision for this modification, on a
noncommercial basis under the category LS/1- type, for aircraft that need not
qualify for a certificate of airworthiness. This dissertation describes how an
automotive engine was selected and converted for operation in a light aircraft.
Emphasis was put on mass saving. After evaluating a number of automotive
engines regarding availability, power to weight ratio and the cost of some spare
parts, the Opel 200 iS engine was favoured. This engine develops a power of 95
kW at 5600 rev/min and a torque of 180 Nm at 4600 rev/min at sea level conditions.
It was then tested and evaluated on a dynamometer on both automotive fuel as
well as aviation gasoline. The decrease in power with increase in altitude up to
4000 m was also investigated. The power, torque and fuel consumption were then
compared to that of the existing aircraft engine, which is a Continental O-200-A
rated at 75 kW at 2750 rev/min at sea level. The aircraft for which this engine
conversion was developed is a twoseater Cessna 150 trainer aircraft with a gross
weight of 715 kg and a top speed of 195 km/h at sea level. It has a service ceiling
of 3962 m (13000 feet). Modifications which were made to the automotive engine
includes moving the distributor to a different position, modifying the cooling and
exhaust systems and converting the alternator for a vacuum supply for flight
instruments. Furthermore, a reduction drive to couple a propeller onto the
automotive engine was designed, manufactured and evaluated . An 8-mm pitch
High Torque Drive (HTD) synchronous belt was chosen for this reduction drive.
The width of the belt is 116 mm and it runs over two aluminium pulleys of
diameters 95,39 mm and 187,07 mm with their centers 332,8 mm apart. This belt
is used to reduce the maximum operational engine speed from 5200 rev/min to a
propeller speed of 2700 rev/min, and to increase the engine output torque from
170 Nm to 310 Nm at the propeller. The need for a belt tensioner arose whilst the
evaluations were done on the dynamometer. A rotating adjustable pulley tensioner
was designed and installed onto the reduction drive, which proved to arrest any

belt flutter as required. Endurance tests conducted with the complete adapted
engine and reduction drive on the dynamometer provided excellent results. With
this study, it was proved beyond any doubt that a modern automotive engine could
be used as a reliable, cheaper and more economical alternative power supply to
propel a light aircraft.

OPSOMMING
Die onderhouds - en operasionele koste vir ligtevliegtuie het sodanig geskaleer
dat dit finansieel baie moeilik geword het om n privaat vlieglisensie te bekom en
te onderhou. Voorts dateer die enjintegnologie vir ligtevliegtuigenjins terug tot voor
1962, wat n baie ongunstige brandstofverbruik lewer in vergelyking met moderne
motorvoertuigenjins. Deur moderne motor-voertuigenjintegnologie te gebruik soos
meervoudige brandstofinspuiting, gloeidraad - luginlaat - sensors, elektroniese
ontsteking asook klopbeheer, kan werkverrigting op ligtevliegtuie aansienlik
verbeter

word

terwyl

onderhoudskoste

verminder

kan

word.

Die

Lugvaartregulasies in SuidAfrika maak spesifiek hiervoor voorsiening op n nie kommersile basis onder die kategorie LS/1 tipe vir vliegtuie wat nie hoef te
kwalifiseer vir n lugwaardigheidsertifikaat nie. Hierdie verhandeling beskryf
hoedat n motorvoertuigenjin geselekteer en aangepas kan word vir gebruik in n
ligtevliegtuig.

Klem

is

gel

op

massabesparing.

Nadat

aantal

motorvoertuigenjins gevalueer is ten opsigte van beskikbaarheid, drywing tot

massaverhouding en die koste van sekere onderdele, was die Opel 200 iS die
gunsteling keuse. Hierdie enjin ontwikkel 95 kW teen 5600 omw/min en 180 Nm
torsie teen 4600 omw/min by seevlak. Dit is getoets en gevalueer op n
dinamometer met beide motorvoertuigbrandstof en lugvaartbrandstof. Die afname
in drywing met die toename in hoogte bo seevlak tot by 4000 m is ook ondersoek.
Die drywing, torsie en brandstofverbruik is ook vergelyk met di van die bestaande
vliegtuigenjin. Hierdie vliegtuigenjin is n Continental O-200-A wat 75 kW teen
2750 omw/min by seevlak lewer. Die vliegtuig waarvoor hierdie enjinombouing
ontwikkel is, is n twee-sitplek Cessna 150 opleidingsvliegtuig met n totale

opstygmassa van 715 kg en n maksimum snelheid van 195 km/u by seevlak. Die
diensplafon is 3962 m (13000 voet). Modifikasies wat op die motorvoertuignjin
gedoen is, sluit in die verskuiwing van die vonkverdeler na n ander posisie,
verandering van die verkoeling - en uitlaatstelsels asook die aanpassing van die
alternator om n vakuumbron te verskaf vir die vlieginstrumente. Voorts is daar n
reduksieaandrywing - om n lugskroef aan die enjin te koppel ontwerp, vervaardig
en gevalueer. n 8mm Steek Ho Wringkrag sinkrone Dryfband (HTD) is gekies
vir die reduksiedryf. Die wydte van die band is 116 mm en dit loop oor twee
aluminiumkatrolle met diameters van 95,39 mm en 187,07 mm onderskeidelik. Die
hartlynafstand van hierdie katrolle is 332,8 mm. Hierdie band word gebruik om die
maksimum operasionele enjin- spoed van 5200 omw/min te verminder na n
lugskroefspoed van 2700 omw/min, asook om die enjintorsie te verhoog van 170
Nm na 310 Nm by die lugskroef. Die behoefte aan n bandverspanner het ontstaan
terwyl die evaluasies op die dinamometer gemaak is. n Roterende verstelbare
katrolverspanner is ontwerp en op die reduksiedryf genstalleer. Dit het alle
bandwip uitgeskakel soos die vereiste was. Duurtoetse wat met die volledig
aangepaste enjin en reduksiedryf op die dinamometer uitgevoer is, het
uitstekende resultate opgelewer. Met hierdie studie is bo enige twyfel bewys dat
n moderne motorvoertuigenjin as n betroubare, goedkoper en meer ekonomiese
alternatiewe kragbron gebruik kan word om n ligtevliegtuig mee aan te dryf.

INDEX
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND

1.2

MOTIVATION

1.3

OBJECTIVES

1.4

APPROACH

1.5

OVERVIEW OF THESIS

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1

LITERATURE STUDY

2.2

THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

14

2.2.1 Stage one: Identify a suitable engine

14

2.2.2 Stage two: Evaluate this engine on a dynamometer

15

2.2.3 Stage three: Adaptation of the engine

15

2.2.4 Stage four: Design and development of an appropriate drive 15

2.3

THE HYPOTHESES

15

2.4

DELIMITATIONS

16

2.5

THE PROJECT DELIVERABLES

16

CHAPTER 3
ENGINE CHOICE AND COMPONENT DESIGN
3.1

INTRODUCTION

17

3.2

CHOICE OF AN ENGINE

17

3.3

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGINE

20 3.4

PERFORMANCE OF OPEL 200 iS ENGINE ON A

DYNAMOMETER
3.4.1 Experimental results on engine condition

23
24

ii

3.5

3.4.2 Engine performance: mogas versus avgas

25

3.4.3 Fuel consumption

28

CONCLUSION

29

CHAPTER 4
MODIFICATION OF THE OPEL ENGINE
4.1

INTRODUCTION

31

4.2

COMPONENTS TO BE MODIFIED

31

4.2.1 Distributor

31

4.2.2 Alternator

32

4.2.3 Exhaust manifold

33

4.2.4 Flywheel

34

4.2.5 Sump

34

4.2.6 Cooling system

36

4.3

ADAPTOR PLATE

36

4.4

REDUCTION DRIVE

38

4.4.1 Synchronous belt

38

4.4.2 Main shaft assembly

42

4.4.3 Upper-drive pulley

44

4.4.4 Lower-drive pulley

45

4.4.5 Belt tensioner

46

4.4.6 Propeller flange assembly

48

SAFETY MODIFICATIONS

48

4.5

CHAPTER

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF REDUCTION DRIVE

47

5.1 INTRODUCTION

47

5.2 INSTALLATION OF ENGINE ON DYNAMOMETER

47

5.3 ENGINE AND BELT-DRIVE EVALUATION

47

5.4 BELT FLUTTER

49

iii
5.5 ENDURANCE TESTS

50

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1

CONCLUSION

56

6.2

RECOMMENDATIONS

57

LIST OF REFERENCES

59

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1

First aircraft engine 1903 by the Wright Brothers

2.1

Rolls Royce Merlin engine

3.1

Effect of altitude on un-throttled engine performance at constant

fuel-air ratio

3.2

1
13

22

Decline of power output with increase in altitude for

Opel 200 iS and Continental O-200-A engines.

23

3.3

Opel 200 iS engine, power and torque curve -Mogas

25

3.4

Opel 200 iS - Torque curve: Mogas versus Avgas

26

3.5

Opel 200 iS - Power curve: Mogas versus Avgas27

3.6

Opel 200 iS - Fuel consumption: Mogas versus Avgas

29

4.1

Composition of a synchronous belt

38

4.2

Comparison of the efficiency of synchronous belt and

V-belt drives

39

4.3

FEM of stress concentration on main shaft assembly

44

5.1

Engine power versus belt-drive power

51

5.2

Engine torque versus belt-drive torque, divided by

5.3

reduction ratio n

52

Belt-drive torque after speed reduction

53

iv
LIST OF TABLES

3.1

Performance and mass data of a selection of engines

4.1

Static tilt angle before oil pickup will run dry with 2,85 litres of
oil in the sump

19

35

v
LIST OF APPENDICES

Distributor drive

Rotor extension

Blank plug aluminium

Project assembly

Project exploded assembly

3D- display. Adaptor plate - steel

Adaptor plate

Eccentric adjusters

15-mm spacer J 16-mm spacer

22-mm spacer

Belt and pulley assembly

Main shaft assembly

Main shaft back plate

Main shaft

Shim back plate

Aluminium Collapsible spacer

Spacer ring

Upper pulley

Upper drive pulley (Aluminium) U Lower pulley

Lower drive pulley (Aluminium)

Lower pulley washer

Lower pulley locator

Tensioner assembly

Tensioner base 1

AA

Tensioner pulley shaft

AB

Tensioner spacer

AC

Tensioner pulley

AD

Tensioner bush

vi
AE

Tensioner adjuster

AF

Tensioner adjuster locating block

AG

Tensioner front plate

AH

Tensioner shroud

AI

Tensioner shroud shaft

AJ

Tensioner base 2

AK

Propeller flange assembly

AL

Propeller flange

AM

Drive lug

AN

Table 1 - Opel 200i S Mogas

AO

Table 2 - Opel 200i S Avgas

AP

Table 3 - Tests with belt drive fitted

AQ

Table 4 - International standard atmosphere

CHAPTER 1
INTRDUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND

For many centuries people wished they could fly through the sky like birds. In
1903 the Wright brothers designed and built the first heavier-than-air
controllable machine, that led the way for powered flight. The engine that
powered the Wright machine is shown in Figure 1.1.
At the outbreak of World War I, bi-planes and tri-planes were a common sight.

Figure 1.1 First aircraft engine 1903 by the Wright

Brothers
After World War II, the modern aircraft was firmly entrenched, and light aircraft
became more popular and sophisticated. However, light aircraft engines have
not kept up with the development in automotive engine technology.

The light aircraft market in South Africa grew considerably during the three
decades between 1960 and 1990, but nothing compared to the extent as
experienced in the United States of America (USA). In the USA currently more
than 320 000 civil aircraft are registered, compared to fewer than 4 000 in South

2
Africa. This means that in the USA, there is about 1 civil aircraft for every 1 000
people, whilst in South Africa the figure is about 1 for every 10 000 people.
South Africa, therefore lags far behind the USA regarding the number of civil
aircraft per capita.

In the 1960s, light aircraft were used only by wealthy private owners, but
recently the demand for travel by light aircraft has increased, as well as the
number of privately owned aircraft. Unfortunately the price of a new light aircraft
has escalated to such an extent that it has become almost impossible for
someone from the middle and lower income group to purchase and maintain a
light aircraft. One of the major reasons could be the extremely high purchase
price of a light aircraft. Furthermore, the cost of pilot training could also be a
reason for the small number of civil aircraft in South Africa. In addition,
maintenance and running costs for light aircraft have increased tremendously
during the last ten years due to the unavailability of aircraft spare parts for old
models. Other economic factors that have also contributed to increased costs,
are inflation, weakening of the South African Rand (as most parts are imported)
and import tariffs.

International Aviation law stipulates that a light aircraft engine should be rebuilt
between fifteen hundred and two thousand flying hours. This will depend on the
specific type of engine. Very recent aviation legislation recommends aircraft
engine rebuilding after twelve years, irrespective of engine hours. Rebuilding
such an engine, costs will be about ten times more than rebuilding a modern
automotive engine. In addition, in the aircraft industry, engine rebuilding or
aircraft maintenance can only be done by a qualified Aircraft Maintenance
Organisation (AMO). Furthermore, every licensed aircraft must undergo an
annual, or hundred-hour inspection,

whichever limit is reached

first

[Commissioner for Civil Aviation (1993)]. This stipulation adds substantionally

to the cost of maintaining a light aircraft.

Before 1962, the light aircraft industry supplied horizontally opposed four-and
six cylinder reciprocating engines for use in small aircraft. These engines used
old technology such as dual magneto systems, manual fuel mixture adjustment

3
mechanisms and updraft carburetion. Updraft carburetion was used because it
would not create such a serious fire hazard if fuel leaked from the system,
and dual magnetos were enforced by law because of the reliability risk
associated with one ignition system back in the 1920s. According to Finch
(1998), the small aircraft engine manufacturers have not bothered to change
this, because we have always done it that way. However, technological
changes in the automotive industry have rendered these engines as vintage
since 1962. One reason is that their fuel consumption does not compare
favourably with modern technology automotive engines.

On the contrary, modern automotive engine technology has developed so

rapidly during the last two decades, that it has overshadowed light aircraft
engine technology completely. State-of-the-art systems such as hot-wire
induction sensors (to regulate mixture strength according to changing
atmospheric conditions), electronic ignition with knock control and multi-point
fuel injection (MPFI) all contribute to increased power output. By using this
technology on light aircraft

engines, a considerable improvement in

performance and potentially also in fuel consumption can be achieved. Due to

the fact that aircraft engines are exposed to different environmental conditions
from those of motor vehicles, caution should be exercised and additional
investigation need to be carried out to ensure the safe use of this modern
automotive engine technology in light aircraft.

However, aviation law prohibits the use of any uncertified power pack in any
commercial aircraft. No certificate of airworthiness will be issued for such an
aircraft. According to Aviation Law in South Africa, a light aircraft with a
timeexpired engine could be re-registered in the experimental category for
aircraft which do not qualify for the issue of a South African certificate of
airworthiness [Commissioner for Civil Aviation (1993)]. Such a light aircraft
could be equipped with a different engine - perhaps an automotive engine provided certain requirements are met. An Authority to Fly will then be issued
in the name of the owner. In this way flying and maintenance costs can perhaps
be reduced considerably. This will allow experimental aircraft owners to make
use of modern automotive engine technology.

4
1.2

MOTIVATION

Currently flying a light aircraft is so expensive that very few ordinary people
can afford to do so. To hire and fly a two-seater light aircraft from a flight school
during the year 2000 would have cost at least R360 per hour with an additional
R130 per hour for fuel. One of the contributory factors is the high cost of spare
parts and maintenance. For example eight spark plugs for a four-cylinder light
aircraft engine will cost about R1500 to replace, compared with approximately
R35 for a set of four spark plugs for a four-cylinder automotive engine of the
same power output. This ratio is about 43 to 1.

If nothing is done to curb this ever-spiralling cost escalation, fewer new private
pilots would be trained. This in turn could lead to a long term imbalance in the
aviation industry. More small aircraft are no longer operational because of
expiring dates on engines which need to be rebuilt. Rebuilding is just too costly.
It could cost well in excess of R60 000 to rebuild a light aircraft engine today.

A good solution to this ever-growing problem that can contribute to the aviation
industry as a whole, is the installation of significantly cheaper motor vehicle
engines into suitable light aircraft. More scrapped aircraft could be re-registered,
which in turn could provide more pilots with cheaper flying hours.
The objective of this study is to demonstrate that a much cheaper and more
economical automotive engine can be modified for use in a light aircraft. It could
be proved practicable, and perhaps results in a challenging study.

In view of the available light aircraft technology and the South African light
aircraft industry, the lack of affordable light aircraft and improvement of light
aircraft engine technology needs to be addressed. The purpose of this research
project is to investigate an alternative engine for use in a Cessna 150 light
aircraft, to adapt and to evaluate it. This could optimise flying and maintenance
costs, as well as providing a cheaper alternative power plant for light aircraft,
which in turn could minimise flying and maintenance costs and put more people
in a position to take up the flying sport.

5
1.3

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to identify, modify and evaluate a suitable
motor vehicle engine that could be a reliable power pack for a light aircraft.

A further objective was to provide a more fuel efficient engine for a light aircraft
with lower operating and maintenance costs. The method of the research used
was the exploratory type where selection, design, manufacture and evaluation
were the cornerstones. The envisaged outcome of this study is to make flying
more affordable in South Africa.
1.4

APPROACH

In order to accomplish the objectives, the project was divided into four stages
which were performed in chronological order. These four stages were: 1) the
choice of a suitable standard automotive engine; 2) an evaluation of this engine
on a dynamometer; 3) the design and manufacture of components to be added
to the engine in order to drive a propeller; and 4) an evaluation and comparison
of the results with those of an existing aircraft engine.

Firstly, the problem of selecting a suitable replacement engine was addressed.

Six different makes of engines were evaluated with regard to the mass of the
engine, power-to-weight ratio, power and torque output, availability and cost of
certain common spare parts as well as modern technology utilised in these
engines. A particular engine was then selected, obtained and prepared for
modification.

Secondly this engine was installed onto an Eddy current water-cooled

dynamometer to evaluate its condition. Furthermore, the engine was run on
aviation gasolene (avgas) to evaluate its adaptability, performance and fuel
consumption on avgas. The results obtained from these tests were then
compared with the values published in the literature relating to this specific
engine.

Thirdly a few modifications were designed, manufactured and fitted to the

engine. These included: 1) moving the distributor to a different location; 2)

6
designing an adaptor-plate and pulley-drive assembly to fit a reduction drive via
a cog belt; 3) lightening the entire engine to reduce its mass; 4) providing a
vacuum source for the flight instruments; and 5) converting the exhaust and
cooling systems for use in aviation conditions.

Fourthly the modified

engine was installed onto the dynamometer and

endurance tests were performed. An evaluation was made of the modifications

that were carried out. The results and data obtained were then logged and
compared to existing specifications on that particular engine to be able to make
suggestions and to reach a conclusion.
1.5

OVERVIEW OF THESIS

A literature survey is given in chapter two where the origin and development of
light aircraft engine technology is discussed. Data on various automotive
engines that could be used as a suitable replacement power pack in a light
aircraft were collected. A comparison was made between existing aircraft
engines and modern automotive engines. The choice of a specific type of
reduction drive is also explained. The problem statement that was made, was
divided into four stages. A few hypotheses were put forward. Some
delimitations were addressed. The envisaged outcomes for the project were
then stipulated.

In chapter

three, six modern automotive engines were compared. These

engines were evaluated on a power-to-weight ratio with the emphasis on

modern engine-management systems. A specific engine was chosen which
was acquired and evaluated on a dynamometer. This engine was also tested
on avgas while its fuel consumption was evaluated and compared with that of
mogas.

In chapter four the components that needed to be modified on this engine were
discussed. They are the distributor, alternator, exhaust manifold, cooling
system, flywheel and sump. Each component is discussed separately. A
reduction drive consisting of a toothed belt was also designed and
manufactured. This belt drive was then mounted onto the engine for evaluation.

7
Chapter five dealt mainly with the experimental evaluation of the reduction-drive
system. Power and torque comparisons were made from dynamometer results.
A belt-flutter prevention device

was needed, which

was designed,

manufactured, fitted and also evaluated. Endurance and cyclic load tests were
then performed on the complete engine and reduction drive.

In chapter six, conclusions were reached and recommendations based on the

outcome of the study were made. Certain recommendations concerning safety
were also put forward.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1

LITERATURE STUDY

At various stages, people have shown an interest in investigating

methodologies and techniques for reducing the operating and maintenance
costs of small aircraft. During the last twelve years, a number of small aircraft
in the USA have been fitted with automotive engines of different makes and
sizes. According to Finch (1998) automotive engines are the way to fly when it
comes to saving money in the design and construction of experimental
aeroplanes.

In a report published by the US-based General Aviation Manufacturers and

Traders Association during January 1999, the emphasis was on the need for a
new generation of aero engines to replace the outdated gas-guzzling
technology currently available. [Wilson M (1999)].

During the early 1990s the Mooney Aircraft Corporation, experimented with a
German manufactured six-cylinder Porsche engine, which was fitted into a

8
Mooney 201 four-seater aircraft. This all-aluminium engine was fitted with a
propeller speed-reduction gearbox at the front, and dual distributors at the rear
of the engine. Fuel injection was also incorporated. This Mooney aeroplane was
flown around the world making numerous public relations stops along the way,
to prove that this modified automotive engine performed as well as any
traditional aircraft engine. However, Mooney Aircraft Corporation terminated
this project because of the extremely high purchase price of this specific
Porsche engine. Also, the costs involved in certifying this engine for use in a
commercial aeroplane were extremely high. If, however, this conversion had
been made for an experimental aircraft, a completely different scenario would
have been evident, with much more lenient legislation by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA)

regarding the conversion of auto engines for

experimental aircraft.

In the larger commercial aircraft market the use of gas turbine engines has
become more common. This is because of the much greater reliability of gas
turbine engines. These also have lower maintenance cost per hour, better
power to weight ratios, and higher speeds and altitudes. However, according
to Ogston (1981) the reciprocating engine will be retained for use in aeroplanes
where low power and relatively low speeds are expected. That is why the focus
of this study will remain on reciprocating engines only, and especially cheaper,
converted automotive engines.

The maintenance costs for a Lycoming or Continental light aircraft engine is in

the region of 10 to 20 times as much as that for a modern automotive engine.
Finch (1998) maintains he can replace an entire automotive engine with a brand
new engine for less than he would spend on a ring-and -valve overhaul on a 75
kW Continental O-200-A

light aeroplane engine. Furthermore,

Finch

anticipates that the fuel consumption on a 1990-era designed water-cooled

automotive engine could be 20% better than on a 1930-era designed air-cooled
light aircraft engine. Furthermore, Finch also states that one of the major
reasons that he would use automotive power for converting his home-built
aeroplane, is the fact that he could get as much as 50% more power out of the
same weight automotive engine as he could from an aeroplane engine. Finch

9
bases this statement on the fact that an automotive engine can be reworked
with off-theshelf racing components, while a certified aircraft engine has to
remain stock standard. In fact, there are no racing components available for
any aircraft engine.

This could however, give rise to increased fuel consumption and a

proportionally shorter engine life, but few home-built aeroplanes are ever flown
more than 200 hours per year [Finch (1998)].
Modern automotive engines can produce 46 kW per litre (1 HP per cubic inch)
displacement with great ease, compared with aeroplane engines that produce
only about 20 kW per litre (0,4 to 0,5 HP per cubic inch) displacement. A
common, standard-fitted 2-litre (122 cubic inches) automotive engine easily
produces 85 kW to 97 kW (115 HP to 130 HP) in most passenger cars today.
On the other hand a Continental O-200-A aeroplane engine with a displacement
of 3,3 litres (200 cubic inches) only produces 75 kW (100 HP). Also, the
Lycoming IO-540 aircraft engine with a displacement of 8.8 litres (540 cubic
inches) only produces 187 kW (250 HP). This illustrates how automotive engine
technology has improved and become superior to the aeroplane engine
technology during the last two or three decades.

Lightweight, high-quality and dependable car parts can be obtained from almost
every automotive dealership worldwide. These automotive engine parts are
very dependable and inexpensive compared to those of aircraft engines.
According to Finch (1998), it very seldom happens that an autos engine valve
head comes off and punches a hole into a piston. However, this is a common
occurrence in light aircraft engines even today. Lycoming, an aircraft engine
manufacturer, celebrated in mid 1978 that they had built 230 000 aircraft
engines over a fiftyyear period. On the other hand, General Motors (GM) built
250 000 Chevrolet Corvair engines during 1960 and 329 632 Corvair engines
during 1961 [ Finch (1998)]. So in one year with one engine model, GM
exceeded the fifty years of production of the entire range of Lycoming aircraft
engines. It is clear that the automotive engine manufacturers have a great
superiority over aircraft engine manufacturers as far as production is concerned.
Regarding quality, it is common knowledge that an automotive engine could

10
easily last 200 000 km before it requires an overhaul. This could represent at
least two thousand trouble free running hours calculated at an average speed
of 100 km/h, which is more than any aircraft piston engine is certified for without
minor maintenance. Most aircraft engines wont even make 800 flying hours
without a top overhaul in clean air at altitude [Finch (1998)].
Aluminium automotive engines are not necessarily lighter than cast iron engines.
The Nissan 200 STI all aluminium engine produces 104 kW with a complete
mass of 152 kg. This mass includes items such as the starter, alternator,
exhaust manifold and even oil. On the other hand the Opel 200i S engine which
has a cast-iron block with an aluminium cylinder head only weighs 137 kg and
delivers 95 kW. This means an output of 0,693 kW/kg for the cast-iron Opel
engine compared to 0,684 kW/kg for the all-aluminium Nissan engine. A further
advantage of a cast-iron engine compared to an aluminium engine is the fact
that a cast-iron engine is much more compact with thinner engine webs that
allow more space around the engine for installation of other components in a
restricted engine bay. If a choice for an automotive engine to be installed in an
aircraft must be made, a cast-iron engine block would be favoured. Other
considerations, however, such as initial purchase price, cost of spare parts,
cost of rebuilding, availability and reliability, could also influence the engine
choice.

Regarding the fuel and oil systems of aircraft engines, it is also common
knowledge that most production-type aircraft engines cannot be driven upside
down. To fly upside down in a Cessna or Piper factory-built standard aeroplane,
the certified Continental or Lycoming aircraft engine must be equipped with a
special custom-made engine oil system that is custom built for inverted flight.
This oil system that works on aeroplane engines will also work on automotive
engines converted to fly an aeroplane upside down. Also, the fuel tank of
aerobatic aircraft must be specially equipped with a flop tube for fuel pick up.
Actually, very few aircraft engines are ever used for inverted flying, which
proves that the normal fuel and lubricating systems for an automotive engine
should be adequate, if this engine is to be used for flying purposes other than
aerobatics.

11
Whilst an aircraft flies in a normal co-ordinated turn, the lift vector is always
perpendicular to the aircrafts wings [Houghton and Brock (1972)], thus, engine
oil will not drain to one side of the sump. Small aircraft cannot climb at steeper
angles than those suitable for normal highway-driven cars [Finch (1998)]
consequently the engine oil pickup in a conventional automotive engine should
be suitable. According to Finch, at altitude where an aircraft flies, the air is also
cleaner and cooler than on the surface of the ground where auto engines are
forced to do a lot of hard, hot, dirty driving. This implies that the standard cooling
system fitted to an automotive engine should perform even better in an aircraft
environment, provided that the engine mass involved is not excessive. The
minimisation of engine mass therefore forms an important part of this study.

Back in 1929 Ford vehicles used inefficient side-draft carburettors and up-draft
manifolds so that when the gravity flow carburettor flooded, the fuel would drip
onto the ground and not onto the hot engine. This helped to eliminate engine
fires. Small aircraft engines still use the same kind of carburettor for the same
reasons today [Finch (1998)]. On the other hand modern automotive engines
make use of Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) or Multi-Point Electronic Fuel
Injection (MPFI). These modern engines are much more fuel efficient than older
generation carburettor engines. Normally these engines adapt the air-fuel
mixture automatically to any changes in air density due to altitude changes,
unlike small aircraft engines where the pilot has to adjust the mixture manually.
This automatic mixture adjustment makes driving a modern vehicle a pleasure
because one could drive a car from sea level, for example in Durban, to
Mountaux-sources in the Drakensberg, at an altitude of 3261 metres (10700
feet) above sea level on the same day without having to consider changing the
fuel mixture or the ignition timing.

The ignition systems of modern automotive engines are far superior to the
magneto systems of the 1920s which are still commonly used in the Continental
and Lycoming aircraft engines today. These modern automotive electronic
ignition systems, with knock control, protect the engine against detonation and
high coolant temperatures due to high compression ratio and lean mixture

12
under high engine loads. [Curello & Garibaldi(1991)]. This in turn enhances the
nett thermal efficiency and increases the power output.

Back in 1938/39 the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, (see Figure 2.1) which was
highly supercharged and fitted to warplanes such as the Spitfire, also
encountered detonation problems. These were controlled by enriching the
mixture as the intake manifold pressure increased. It was done by means of an
aneroid capsule that was closed to atmosphere and connected to manifold
pressure which regulated a taper needle in the main jet of the carburettor.
Another capsule connected to atmosphere, regulated mixture strength
according to altitude, in the same way. Rolls-Royce decided that a fighter pilot
would be too busy in combat to fuss with manual mixture control. [History of
aircraft Lubricants (1997)].

If an automotive engine is to be fitted to a light aircraft, it will be best to mount

the engine back to front. This will ensure that the rotation of the crank shaft is
clockwise as viewed from the cockpit. Most small aircraft propellers rotate
accordingly, therefore it will not be difficult to find a suitable propeller to drive it.
Furthermore, the rotational speed for small aircraft engines is relatively slow.
Between 2500 rev/min and 2750 rev/min are required to drive a light aircraft
propeller directly. This renders a maximum propeller tip speed of just less than
Mach 1,0 to retain best propeller efficiency.

This is why aircrafts engine

displacement is relatively large for the low power developed versus the high
torque output, and hence low volumetric efficiencies.

Another reason for mounting an automotive engine back to front in a light

aircraft, is the need for a strong rigid adaptable platform at the back of the
engine to fit

13

Figure 2.1 Rolls Royce Merlin engine

a reduction drive between the crankshaft and the propeller. This reduction drive
is necessary to reduce propeller speed and increase the torque, to adapt to the
propellers requirements. The optimum torque and peak power for a modern
automotive engine occur at a much higher engine speed than will be required
to drive a light aircraft propeller, hence the need for a reduction drive.

The reduction drive can be either a gearbox, a chain drive or a cog belt-drive.
According to Finch (1998) it is preferable to use a dry cog belt reduction drive,
because gears are heavy and chains need oil.

2.2

THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

The objective of this study is to identify, adapt and evaluate a modern motor
vehicle engine to drive an aircraft propeller through a reliable reduction drive in
order to minimise running and maintenance costs, and to contribute towards
more affordable flying in the experimental aircraft sector.

From this objective the following four subordinate problems arose which were
addressed in the following stages:

14
2.2.1 Stage one: Identify a suitable engine
The first subproblem is to compare existing modern motor vehicle engines in
the 90 kW to 110 kW power ranges and to identify a suitable replacement
engine for a Continental O-200-A aircraft engine to be used in a Cessna 150
aircraft.
2.2.2 Stage two: Evaluate this engine on a dynamometer
The second subproblem is to acquire and evaluate the chosen motor vehicle
engine on a dynamometer, to verify its condition and to determine if it is feasible
to run it on aviation gasoline (avgas) within the altitude envelope for light aircraft
application.
2.2.3 Stage three: Adaptation of the engine
The third subproblem is to modify existing automotive engine components and
systems, with the focus on mass saving and safety, to compare favourably with
current small aviation engines on a power-to-weight ratio.
2.2.4 Stage four: Design and development of an appropriate drive
The fourth subproblem is to design, manufacture, install and evaluate a light
weight reduction drive, in order to attach a propeller to the selected motor
vehicle engine.
2.3

THE HYPOTHESES

Four hypotheses were made, namely:

! The first hypothesis is that it is possible to find a suitable automotive

replacement engine to modify for use in a light aircraft.

! The second hypothesis is that it is feasible to run an automotive engine on

avgas within the related altitude envelope to propel an aircraft, provided
the correct compression-ratio engine is used.

! The third hypothesis presupposes a mass saving for an automotive engine

using modified components with the emphasis on power-to-weight ratio,

15
durability and safety, when compared

to current available aircraft

engines.

! The fourth hypothesis is that a light-weight reduction drive fitted to an

automotive engine can safely drive a propeller. Tests on a dynamometer
can verify this.
2.4

DELIMITATIONS

The study will not attempt to analyse, identify or perform the following:

design engine mountings and engine cowlings;

write specifications for maintenance schedules;

carry out destructive testing;

design a propeller;

fit an auxiliary oil or fuel system for inverted flight or

mount the engine in an aircraft and conduct flight tests.

2.5

THE PROJECT DELIVERABLES

It is envisaged that this project will deliver the following outputs:

! a suitably converted automotive engine which could be installed in a twoseater

Cessna 150 aircraft, in order to reduce operating and maintenance costs
and to contribute to general aviation as a whole, and as a result to put
more people within the reach of affordable aviation.

! Analysis, selection, design and evaluation of a suitable light-weight reduction

drive to couple an aircraft propeller to an automotive engine to provide a
safe reduction drive for a light aircraft.

16

CHAPTER 3
ENGINE CHOICE AND COMPONENT DESIGN
3.1

INTRODUCTION

As the aim of this project is to reduce the costs associated with light aircraft, the
group of engines from which a selection is to be made has to be an affordable
and commonly available group of engines. This will ensure ease of
maintenance for the common pilot as well as low maintenance costs.

In this chapter, a specific automotive engine will be selected from a few

available engines on the basis of power-to-weight ratio. The objective is to
select an engine with a similar or better power- to-weight ratio as the
Continental O-200-A engine. Thereafter, this engine will be evaluated
extensively on a dynamometer to verify its overall condition. Furthermore, this
engine will also be subjected to evaluation tests on a dynamometer regarding
its power, torque and fuel consumption for both mogas and avgas.

A few engine components will then be modified to create a basic engine

platform for which a reduction belt drive for a propeller will be designed,
manufactured, fitted and evaluated.
3.2

CHOICE OF ENGINE

For this project six automotive engines in the 2-litre range were compared. The
criteria used were engine displacement versus torque and power output. A
further comparison was done based on engine mass, type of material of the
engine block and cylinder head and power output in terms of W/kg engine mass.
In each case the complete engine mass with starter, alternator and oil was used,
contrary to the mass published for light aircraft engines, which excludes items
like starters, magnetos, alternators and oil. These engines were weighed and
the masses compared. Relevant performance figures were obtained from the
Auto Data Digest 1995/96 [Calcut and Duchen (1995/96)]. The results are
tabulated in Table 3.1 on page 19.

17
From the comparison made in Table 3.1, it can be clearly seen that the Opel
Kadett 200iS engine compares most favourably on a power-to-weight ratio.
What is interesting though is that the heavier all-aluminium engines of the Alfa
Romeo and the Nissan 200 STi produce a lower power-to-weight ratio than the
lighter cast-iron block Opel engine.

The standard Continental 0-200-A aircraft engine as fitted in a Cessna150

aircraft, has a total mass of 118 kg, a maximum power output of 75 kW at 2750
rev/min and a torque output of 260 Nm at sea level. [Cessna Aircraft Company
(1969)]. This results in a power-to-weight ratio of 636 W/kg for the Continental
engine which is still less than that of the Opel 200 iS engine with its 693 W/kg.
Also, the maximum torque output for the Opel engine is 180 Nm, which can
increase to about 325 Nm with a 1,9:1 reduction drive if the drive efficiency is
about 95%.

From the information provided, it is clear that the Opel engine is 16% heavier
but 26% more powerful, than the Continental engine. For the Cessna 150
aircraft with an empty weight of 443 kg and an all-up weight limitation of 727 kg
[Cessna Aircraft Company (1969)] it means a reduction of 19 kg or 6,7% in the
payload for a gain of 20 kW or 26,7% in power at sea level, with the Opel engine
fitted.

Reasons such as availability of engines, price for secondhand engines as well

as a cost comparison of a few spare parts for these engines, proved that the
Opel 200 iS engine is a very competitive choice to convert for aviation purposes.
These considerations motivated the choice of an Opel 200 iS engine to be
adapted for use in a Cessna 150 aircraft.

The Opel 200 iS engine is a new-generation high-technology engine, equipped

with a single computerised Bosch Motronic system. This system combines
fuelmanagement and ignition control in a single Electronic Control Unit (ECU),
which optimises air-fuel ratios at varying atmospheric conditions, improves fuel
efficiency and reduces toxic emissions in the exhaust gases. This ECU has
further advantages regarding the adaptation of the injected fuel quantity as well

18
as spark advance under all operating conditions including idle, part-load,
fullload, warm-up, overrun and transient modes. In addition, a number of
auxiliary functions such as, overrun, fuel cut-off, cold-start control, and
crankshaft position are also monitored. Any fluctuation in air density, which is a
result of change in altitude and/or air temperature, is measured by a hot-wire
airmass meter. [Calcut and Duchen (1995/96)]. These results in very easy
engine operation under varying altitude. These characteristics makes such a
system very favourable for light aircraft use.
3.3

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGINE

The volumetric efficiency of a normally aspirated four-stroke engine is defined

as, the ratio of volume of air or gaseous mixture induced in a given time, to the
total displacement of induction strokes for the same period of time. The volume
induced is related to the atmospheric pressure and temperature conditions
surrounding the engine. [Lichty (1951)]. Also, the volumetric efficiency is used
as an overall measurement of the effectiveness of a four-stroke engine and its
intake and exhaust systems as an air-pumping device. [Heywood (1988)].

The volumetric efficiency is influenced by a number of variables like fuel type,

fuel-air ratio, temperature and atmospheric pressure. Furthermore, it is also
influenced by a number of engine parameters such as ratio of exhaust to
inletmanifold pressure, compression ratio, engine speed, intake and exhaust
manifold and port design, as well as intake and exhaust valve geometry, size,
lift and timing. [Ferguson (1986)].

The parameter brake mean effective pressure (bmep) rules out the effect of
engine size. The bmep is the work done per unit displacement volume.

With the same engine under varying altitude at wide open throttle (WOT) and
constant engine speed, the number of engine parameters mentioned above
will not have any effect on the bmep, because these parameters are fixed within
the engine design and configuration.

19
The effect of power loss with increase in altitude is an important factor which
will be adversely affected by the corresponding decrease in temperature and
atmospheric pressure.

Ferguson stated that for unthrottled four-stroke engines the ratio of bmep at
altitude compared to the bmep at sea level was given by the relationship

(bmep)a

Pa

To (bmep)o

Po

Ta

(3.1)
where the subscript a denotes conditions at altitude and the subscript o
denotes conditions at sea level. P is the atmospheric pressure in kPa and T is
the temperature in Kelvin. This ratio is graphically expressed in figure 3.1.

The international standard atmospheric conditions as shown in Appendix AQ,

were used to calculate the decline in power output with increasing altitude.
[Houghton and Brock (1972)].

20

1
0.9

0.8
0.7

0.6
0.5

1000

2000
3000
Altitude (m)

4000

Figure 3.1 Effect of altitude on unthrottled engine performance at

constant fuel-air ratio

From the graph in figure 3.1 it can be seen that at an altitude of 4000 metres
the brake mean effective pressure decreases to about 58% of its value at sea
level. This compares favourably with the experimental work done by Ferguson
where he compared liquid-cooled four-stroke spark ignition aircraft engines with
twostroke and four-stroke compression ignition engines.

By applying equation 3.1 to an Opel 200 iS engine and also a Continental O200A aircraft engine, both under wide-open throttle conditions, the
corresponding curves corelate very well as shown in figure 3.2 with
experimental data presented by Ferguson.

the

21

100
90
80
70
60
50
40

1000

Opel
Figure 3.2:

2000
3000
Altitude (m)

4000

Continental
Decline of power output with increase in altitude for

Opel 200 iS and Continental O-200-A engines

From the graph in figure 3.2 it can be seen that the Continental engines power
output ranges from 75 kW at sea level to as little as 43,5 kW at 4000 m above
sea level. The Opels power output on the other hand varies from 95 kW at sea
level to about 55 kW at 4000 m above sea level. In both cases the decrease in
output power is about 42% compared between sea level and 4000 m.
3.4

PERFORMANCE OF OPEL 200 IS ENGINE ON A DYNAMOMETER

Before using this Opel engine in an aircraft, it would be advisable to evaluate

its performance characteristics on a dynamometer on avgas to ensure safe
operation on avgas. The reason for the use of avgas is that it is generally more
freely available than mogas, at airfields and airports where light aircraft are
likely to operate from.

22
The dynamometer that will be used for the evaluation is an Eddy Current water
dynamometer. It is situated in Pretoria, South Africa at an altitude of 1332 m
(4370 feet) above sea level. This dynamometer is computer controlled by a
number of PLCs and various sensors. Because of the lower air density above
sea level, a power factor is calculated by the computer for each reading. This
power factor is then multiplied with the torque reading from the Eddy current
brake to display the real torque and power values, and simulated for sea level
conditions to make any comparisons easier. This power factor takes into
account engine air-inlet temperature, barometric pressure, engine-test-cell
relative humidity, water vapour pressure and engine speed. At an altitude of
1332 m above sea level, the average power correction factor according to the
dynamometer testing was about 1,15 which means that the engine lost about
13% of its power, compared to the power at sea level. The ambient air
temperature varied between 23 0 C and 27 0 C through the testing phase, whilst
the ambient air pressure was between 634 mm mercury and 640 mm mercury.
The resulting data was then logged and reproduced in table and / or graphic
format for further use.
3.4.1 Experimental results on engine condition
The acquired Opel 200 iS engine with 36 000 km on the clock was mounted on
the dynamometer and was evaluated between fast idle and maximum power
output to compare this particular engines overall condition with the
manufacturers specification. The results for power and torque output was
tabulated and expressed graphically in figure 3.3. It is clear from the graph that
this particular engine is still in reasonably good condition. The manufacturer
specifies a maximum power output of 95 kW at 5 600 rev/min. The
dynamometer test revealed a converted maximum power output of 94 kW at
5680 rev/min. The peak torque from the evaluation was 170 Nm at 4584 rev/min
compared to the manufacturers specification of 180 Nm at 4600 rev/min.
[Calcut and Duchen (1995/96)].

23

180
160
140

120
100
80
60
40

20
0
1025 2420 3820 4584 5680 Engine speed (rev/min)
Torque Power
Figure 3.3: Opel 200 iS engine, power and torque curve - mogas
3.4.2 Engine performance: mogas versus avgas
To be able to verify the use of avgas in the Opel engine extensive tests were
done on the dynamometer to determine engine power, torque, temperature
and fuel consumption while it was first operating on mogas. Each test took
about 30 minutes. The engine was started and operated for about 3 minutes at
3000 rev/min to warm up and to stabilise. Thereafter, the throttle was opened
up slowly to full throttle position whilst the dynamometer load on the engine was
increased simultaneously until full throttle and full load conditions were reached.
Then, full throttle position was maintained and the load was gradually increased
so that the engine speed decreased to about 2000 rev/min. Data were recorded
at intervals of about 200 revs each as the speed declined. The load was then
removed slowly whilst the throttle was reduced to idle. The engine was stopped,
and without any modifications to the engine or the fuel system, it was then
switched over to avgas and retested under the same conditions as for mogas.

24
Continuous tests were performed for about 10 hours on mogas before the
engine was switched to avgas. A total of 12 hours was then run on avgas. The
engine inlet and exhaust manifolds, as well as the valves and spark plugs, were
then dismantled and inspected for any deposits or carbon build up, but none
were found.

Numerous runs were performed under different engine loads ranging from full
throttle, full load to almost idle at full load. All these results were obtained,
logged and rearranged for comparison in Table 1 and Table 2 in Appendices
AN and AO. The graphs are shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.5 respectively.

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

1025

2036

3053

4021

4811

Engine speed (rev/min)

Mogas

Avgas

5204

5920

25
Figure 3.4: Opel 200 iS - Torque curve: mogas versus avgas

100

80

60

40

20

1025

2036

3053

4021

4811

5204

5920

Engine speed (rev/min)

Mogas

Avgas

Figure 3.5: Opel 200 iS - Power curve: mogas versus avgas

Studying the results of the dynamometer tests for the torque and power checks,
for mogas and avgas for this Opel iS engine, the following came to light.

The torque and power output for avgas is the same as that for mogas with a
deviation of not more than three per cent (Refer to Figures 3.4 and 3.5) . This
could be a result of the heat energy values of the two fuels being the same, as
well as the efficiency of fuel consumption that is the same for both fuels.
Although avgas has an Octane rating of 100 compared to the 97 of mogas, it is
also clear from the graph that higher Octane will not necessarily give better
power output.

The use of a higher Octane rating for avgas is mainly to prevent detonation in
engines with a high compression ratio under high work loads and a too
advanced timing setting at sea level. However, this particular Opel engine

26
makes provision for the prevention of detonation by means of a timing
adjustment mechanism in the ECU which will be triggered by the knock sensor
if any detonation starts occurring. The ignition timing will then immediately be
retarded electronically by about 5 degrees to prevent detonation, after which
the timing will be automatically advanced progressively to maintain best engine
efficiency.
3.4.3 Fuel consumption
A comparison of fuel consumption was also made for the Opel 200 iS engine
between mogas and avgas. This data is captured in Appendix AN and Appendix
AO. It is represented graphically in figure 3.6.

From this graph it is clear that there is no significant difference in fuel

consumption between mogas and avgas for this particular Opel engine because
the two graphs intersects at various points.

Under wide-open throttle conditions at full load and 4200 rev/min on the
dynamometer, a fuel consumption of 22 litres per hour was recorded for the
Opel engine. This is more or less the engine speed at which this Opel engine
would perform at aircraft cruising speed. However, for normal cruising, the
throttle will not even be fully opened. This compares favourably with the fuel
consumption of the Lycoming O-200-A aircraft engine of 21 litres per hour
under cruising conditions at 75% engine power setting at 2273 m (7500 feet).
[Cessna Aircraft Company (1969)].

This illustrates that the fuel consumption for the Opel engine, under cruising
conditions, can be even better than that for the Continental engine.

27

30

25

20

15

10

0
1025 2036 3053 4021 4811 5204 5920
Engine speed (rev/min)
Mogas Avgas
Figure 3.6: Opel 200 is - Fuel consumption, mogas versus avgas

3.5

CONCLUSION

In the light of the results of the power, torque and fuel consumption evaluation
on the Opel 200 iS engine, it could be envisaged that this particular engine
could be a suitable alternative for the Continental O-200-A aircraft engine to
propel a Cessna 150 aircraft.

Furthermore, it was proved on a dynamometer evaluation test, that there would

be no harm in operating this particular type of Opel engine on avgas, which is
more readily available in the aircraft environment.

Lastly it was also proved that the fuel consumption of the Opel engine is very
close to that of the Continental engine under cruising conditions at a 75%
power setting. It could

improve even more than the consumption

of the

28
Continental, if only part throttle setting is required for cruising conditions. This
can, however, only be verified once the engine has been installed and tested in
the aircraft under real flying conditions, which test is not within the scope of this
thesis.

29

CHAPTER 4
MODIFICATION OF THE OPEL ENGINE
4.1

INTRODUCTION

To be able to fit this Opel 200 iS engine into a light aircraft, it will be necessary
to make a few small changes to the existing engine, in order to reduce its mass
and to ensure ease of installation. Parts to investigate for a reduction in engine
mass were identified to be the flywheel, exhaust manifold and cooling
equipment hardware. A further investigation should also be performed
regarding a vacuum supply from the engine to operate the flying instruments of
the aircraft.
4.2

COMPONENTS TO BE MODIFIED

The following components were found to be problematic in the sense that they
either impeded the installation of this Opel engine in an aircraft, or carried
excessive mass. ! Distributor,
!

Alternator,

Exhaust manifold,

Flywheel,

Sump and

Cooling system

The modification of these components will be discussed in full detail in the

following paragraphs.
4.2.1 Distributor
To be able to bolt an adaptor plate onto the rear side of the Opel engine, the
engine should be very clean and vertically flat above the flywheel to be able to
keep the adaptor plate as close as possible to the rear side of the engine. The
main reason for this is to keep the Opel engines centre of gravity at the same
distance from the firewall as that of the Continental engine. This particular Opel
engine meets this specification except for the ignition distributor cap that is
driven off the rear end of the single overhead camshaft. However, there is no

30
mechanical advance mechanism inside this distributor cap which makes it
relatively easy to remove it and perhaps fit it to the front side of the cam shaft,
in order to obtain a flat vertical rear side for the engine. If the distributor cap is
moved to the other side of the engine, the rotational direction of the rotor will
differ. For this particular engine this will not pose a problem because only the
number two and number three plug leads need to be swopped to maintain the
right firing order of one-three-four-two.
Referring to Appendix A and B, an Aluminium base plate L and lid G was
machined to substitute the upper part of the front side timing cover. This was to
obtain a rigid platform onto which to bolt the distributor cap. A rotor extension
part J was also made from aluminium to simulate the rear side of the camshaft
at the front end of the engine in order to bolt the standard rotor onto it. The rotor
adaptor was also modified to fit this coupling. The distributor cap was then
bolted onto the lid, and the high tension leads number two and three were
changed around to retain the correct firing order for the engine. A further blank
plug (Appendix C) - was machined to cover the hole at the rear end of the cam
shaft where the distributor had been removed.
4.2.2 Alternator
To be able to use this Opel engine in an aircraft, it is necessary to provide a
vacuum supply for the flight instruments. The vacuum required is between 114
mm and 135 mm of mercury (4.5 and 5.3 inches of mercury) [Cessna Aircraft
Company (1969)]. To fit an externally driven vacuum pump to the engine will
be very costly and it will also add weight.

An alternator with an incorporated vacuum pump at the rear end proved to be

a good light weight alternative. The Bosch alternator of the Opel was replaced
by a Motorola model A00-043 alternator with an external voltage regulator and
an integral vacuum pump. Engine oil was tapped from the oil pressure sender
unit to lubricate this vacuum pump. The return oil line was connected to the
sump 30 mm above the full oil level in order to gravitate the return oil back into
the sump.

31
The drive pulley for the alternator was removed, and an aluminium pulley was
machined to drive the alternator. The diameter of this pulley was increased from
63 mm to 95 mm. This was done to ensure that this particular model alternator
would run at its normal speed of about 7000 rev/min if the Opel engine cruised
at 4800 rev/min - a bit faster than during normal automotive operation.

The vacuum source was evaluated with the aid of a Tee-valve into the vacuum
line connected to the vacuum port of an artificial horizon flight instrument from
a light aircraft. The other end was connected to a U-tube Mercury Manometer
(vented to atmosphere) with an appropriate aircraft instrument

vacuum

regulator teed into this line. The engine was run at 3000 rev/min to evaluate the
vacuum. The supply of vacuum proved to be satisfactory for the required flow
rate of this flight instrument, because the bypass vacuum regulator had to be
opened substantially in order to prevent the vacuum from exceeding 135 mm
of mercury.
4.2.3 Exhaust manifold
The mass of the standard Opel cast-iron exhaust manifold was 18,2 kg. This
cast-iron manifold with a four-into-two and then a two-into-one configuration
was evaluated on the dynamometer. It was then substituted with a wildcat fourinone steel branch manifold with a mass of only 7,1 kg. It was also evaluated
under the same conditions on the dynamometer. Surprisingly,

the

dynamometer reading proved that there was neither power nor torque gain
using the steel branch.

Contact was made with the design engineers at Opel Motor Sport and they also
confirmed that the cast-iron manifold of the Opel engine was a good design.
The advantage of the steel branch however, was a mass saving of 11,1 kg
above the stock cast-iron manifold. Needless to say, the choice was the lighter
steel branch.

4.2.4 Flywheel
To be able to save additional mass on the Opel engine, the 15,4 kg flywheel
was removed. It was substituted with a flex plate with a mass of 2,8 kg as fitted

32
on the automatic model vehicles. Idle tests were performed on the bare engine
with a flex plate only, which indicated no significant change in the smooth
operation of the engine.

The mass saving however was a further 12,6 kg because of the much lighter
flex plate. The ring gear is still part of the flex plate which will not require any
modifications when using the standard starter motor.
4.2.5 Sump
Because the Opel engine is transversely mounted in the vehicle, the oil pump
pickup is situated in the deeper part of the dish in the oil pan, close to the
flywheel. For the aircraft application, this engine will be mounted back to front,
which renders the oil pump pickup at a different position in relation to the
forward motion.

Tests were performed on the Opel engine on the dynamometer with a vertical
site glass connected to the sump plug, and the other end open to atmosphere.
The purpose of this was to determine the amount of oil remaining in the sump
while the engine was running at 4500 rev/min.

With a total oil capacity of 4,25 litres including the oil filter, it was determined
that the minimum amount of oil present in the sump at any stage was 3,6 litres.
If another 750 ml was subtracted for allowable engine usage, the absolute
minimum oil content in the sump will not drop below 2,85 litres whilst the engine
was running.
Static tests were then performed on the removed sump, with a simulated oil
pump pickup in the same position as for normal operation. The sump was filled
with the minimum required volume of 2,85 litres of oil at 80/C for static
inclination evaluation. An electrically driven oil pump was installed

to re-

circulate the oil.

The sump was then tilted in all four directions to simulate climb, left and right
bank as well as descent operations in an aircraft under a-symmetric conditions.
The purpose of this test was to determine the different angles of inclination at

33
which the oil pump pick-up would start to run dry. The results are tabulated in
Table 4.1.
Nose up

52/

Nose down

63/

Bank left

66/

Bank right

65/

Table 4.1: Static tilt angle before oil pickup will run dry with 2,85 litres of

oil in the sump

Table 4.1 shows that very steep climb or descent angles of more then 50
degrees can become risky because the oil pump pick up will start running dry.

In normal co-ordinated flight it is very unlikely to exceed angles of 30 degrees

for climb and descent with a Cessna 150 aircraft. It is even more unlikely to
reach an a-symmetric bank angle of 65 degrees for any co-ordinated turn.

According to Opel engineers, it is possible for this engine to run without a

continuous oil supply for a maximum period of only about 12 seconds at a time
without imminent major engine damage.

Care should be taken when flying this Opel engine in an aircraft, not to overbank
or over-pitch the aircraft in any a-symmetric flight conditions, or negative gravity
conditions to severe angles of more than 50 degrees.

It is advisable to fit a bright red oil-low pressure indicator light close to the vital
flying instruments right in front of the pilot to ensure corrections whenever these
conditions are experienced.
4.2.6 Cooling system
The standard Opel engine is fitted with a cross-flow aluminium tubular radiator
with an electric fan. The total coolant capacity is 7,8 litres and the thermostat

34
opens at 92/C [Calcut and Duchen (1995/96)]. If in an aircraft environment the
coolant is substituted with pure Glycol, it is anticipated that the total coolant
capacity is reduced by 20 per cent [Finch (1998)]. This can mean a smaller
radiator with a total cooling capacity of only 6,24 litre, which will save another
1,5 kg on mass. The radiator must be perpendicular to the air-flow direction. It
will also be necessary to fit a thermo-switched electrically driven fan to the
radiator for those times when holding for take-off clearance at an airport can
take several minutes.

Fine tuning of the performance of the cooling system can be done once the
aircraft has been fitted with the automotive engine and while it is undergoing
ground and flight tests.
4.3

ADAPTOR PLATE

To be able to bolt a propeller shaft onto the engine, it was necessary to fit an
adaptor plate onto the engine. Most designers would use a 12-mm aluminium
backplate with a front cover and dual flange bearings on a built-in shaft. [Finch
(1998)]. The steel adaptor plate as shown in Appendix F and G was designed
using a 6 mm thick mild steel plate, strengthened by two stiffener plates of mild
steel at the back, and two smaller stiffener plates in front. These stiffener plates
were made of 6 x 40 mm flat bar, in which holes were drilled to save mass.
These holes were drilled at a pitch of 30 mm. The bigger ones at the centre
were 20 mm in diameter, whilst the smaller holes on the outside were 12 mm
in diameter. These holes led to a reduction of 50% in weight of the stiffener,
while only sacrificing 32% of the bending stiffness according to bending
moment calculations.

This adaptor plate was bolted onto the engine with 7 steel bolts with a diameter
of 12 mm, and 3 steel bolts with a diameter of 8 mm at the normal place where
the bell-housing should have been fitted. Three of the 12 mm bolts were
mounted into slots A, F and G on the adaptor plate (see Appendix G), to
provide a sliding action to fit the belt onto the pulleys. The other two bolts B
and E (Appendix G), were mounted through eccentric adjusters made of mild
steel to provide the sliding motion on the adaptor plate for belt tensioning.

35
(Appendix H). The last two 12-mm diameter bolts C and D (Appendix G),
were installed only after the belt had been assembled and adjusted to the
appropriate tension.

The complete adaptor plate was then bolted onto the engine using various
aluminium spacers ranging from 15 to 22 mm in thickness for different positions.
(see appendix F, I, J and K.)

A slot 35 mm wide was made in the adaptor plate to fit and accommodate the
upper pulley shaft using four 8 mm bolts fitted through the adaptor plate into
tapped holes in the flange of the main shaft.

The adaptor plate was also bolted onto the engine with an 8 mm bolt at position
J (Appendix G), which made the fixture very rigid. Because this bolt is above
the upper pulley shaft, it will prevent bending of the adaptor plate and for this
reason it was found that there was no need to do any bending calculations of
the complete adaptor plate.

Numerous holes were drilled into the adaptor plate to save mass. After
completion, the total mass of the adaptor plate was only 4,9 kg.
4.4

REDUCTION DRIVE

It is important to design and build a reliable reduction drive in order to couple a

propeller to the engine. A synchronous toothed belt type reduction drive was
chosen for this application, because it is strong, quiet, light weight, and also
readily available.
4.4.1 Synchronous belt
In a synchronous belt the teeth are precisely moulded to provide positive
engagement between the belt and the sprocket groove. Curvilinear tooth
profiles allow these belts to be used in higher-torque applications than for
normal V-belts.

The tooth and body of the synchronous belt are constructed of neoprene or
polyurethane. The tooth is protected by a nylon facing with a low coefficient of

36
friction. The load-carrying member is a high-module low-stretch fibreglass cord.
Synchronous belts are based on tooth grip rather than on wedging action.
[Dalgarno et al (1991)] Refer to figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Composition of a synchronous belt

According to experiments that were performed by Harrington and Gaynor

(1988), the efficiency of synchronous drives are greater than that of V-belt
drives. Furthermore, they also proved that the efficiency of a synchronous belt
remains relatively constant for increasing torque load. They quoted typical
maximum efficiency values for synchronous belts as 95 % to 98 % compared
to 94 % for V-belts. See figure 4.2.

For the reduction drive of the Opel engine, a Gates High Torque Drive (HTD)
synchronous belt with a pitch of 8 mm and length of 1120 mm containing 140
teeth was chosen. The width of this HTD belt is 116 mm. The continuous safe
power capacity for this belt is 90 kW with a built in safety factor of 1,4.

37
100
90
80
70
60
50

20

32

44
56
68
80
Increasing driven torque (% capacity)

Synchronous-belt drive 97.8%

92

V-belt drive 94.0%

Figure 4.2: Comparison of the efficiency of synchronous belt and Vbelt

drives [Harrington and Gaynor (1998)]

The lower drive pulley on the engine crankshaft has 38 teeth, whilst the upper
driven pulley has 74 teeth. This gives a speed reduction of 1,947368:1. That
means for the lower drive pulley, the outer diameter will be 95,39 mm. This is
to ensure a minimum of at least 12 teeth constantly in contact with the smaller
pulley. The outer pulley diameter for the upper driven pulley will be 187,07 mm.
The tensioned centre-to-centre distance for the pulley is 332,8 mm. [Gates
(1998)].

The reason for not using a 2:1 reduction ratio is the belt- pulley hysteresis. If
the belt is running at a ratio where the same tooth on the belt is always in
contact with the same slot on the pulley, this will increase the rate of wear
between the belt and the pulley substantially [Gould (1988)].

At a maximum engine speed of 5200 rev/min for take-off conditions the HTD
belt will have a peripheral speed of 26,3 m/s. This is within the limits for
maximum speed for this particular belt - which should be lower than 40 m/s

38
[Gates (1998)]. The torque from the smaller-drive pulley on the engine crankshaft will then be about 160 Nm, and that of the larger-drive pulley about 300
Nm.

For cruising conditions, at an engine speed of about 4800 rev/min, the

maximum torque on the belt will increase to about 170 Nm for the smaller drive
pulley, and about 318 Nm for the larger drive pulley. This will be obtained at
about 75% cruise power setting.

To determine the maximum stress in the belt, Shigley (1986) states that the
ratio between the force on the tension side of the belt F1, and the force on the
slack side of the belt F2, is given by the equation:

F1 / F 2 = e ^ (: 2)

(4.1)

where e is 2,718, : is the frictional coefficient between the belt and the pulley,
and 2 is the contact angle of the smaller pulley measured in radiants.
Shigley also states that the power P (measured in Watts) transmitted by the
belt drive is given by the equation:

P = (F1 - F2) v

(4.2)

with v the linear velocity of the belt.

Furthermore, the centrifugal force Fc in the belt is the product of the belt density
D, the cross sectional area of the belt A and the square of the linear velocity v
for the belt. Hence,
Fc = DAv2

The maximum force in the belt F1 max is also given by the equation:

(4.3)

39
F1 max = F1 + Fc

(4.4)

Finally, according to Shigley, the ratio between F1 max and A will give the
maximum stress Fmax in the belt.

F max = F 1 max / A

(4.5)

For this particular belt drive, with the torque and belt speed as previously stated,
the maximum stress in the belt will not exceed 16 MPa. This is much lower than
the permissible tension of 30 MPa for the 8 m HTD synchronous belt. [Gates
(1998)].

Because the HTD belt is 116 mm wide, which is quite wide for any application,
rain water can be trapped in the grooves underneath the belt which can cause
belt floating. To prevent this, a small groove of 1 mm wide by 0,5 mm deep
was cut into each tooth-groove of the two pulleys. See Appendix S. The edges
of these minute grooves were rounded to minimise any possible fatigue cracks.
These grooves will allow air and water to be displaced out of the pulley grooves.
It will also abolish the vacuum effect forming at the lead side of the belt, which
tends to make the belt more sticky, thus increasing friction and wear.
4.4.2 Main shaft assembly
Bolted from the back side through the slot onto the adaptor plate is the main
shaft which houses the upper drive pulley. The following parts are listed. Refer
to Appendix M.
1.

Oil seal SM 427210

2.

Bearing 7207 BEGAM SKF

3.

Collapsible spacer

4.

Bearing 7207 BEGAM SKF

5.

Oil seal SM 427210

6.

Oil seal wear spacer

7.

Nut M34 x 1,5 left-hand thread

8.

Spider washer

40
9.

Locknut M34 x 1,5 left-hand thread

10.

Shim spacers 0,1 mm and 0,2 mm

11.

Main shaft back plate

12.

Main shaft.

The back plate for the main shaft was made of mild steel. Refer to Appendix N.
The centre was chamfered at 45/ to a depth of 4 mm on each side, to provide
a deep weld preparation. Four holes were drilled and tapped M8 to bolt this
backplate onto the adaptor plates back.

The main shaft, Appendix O, was machined from EN 8 steel, with a 20mmdiameter hole though it. Two bearing surfaces were machined onto this
main shaft. It was also threaded at the front end with M34 x 1,5 mm left-hand
thread, and a slot of 25 x 6 x 2,5 mm deep was end-milled to locate the spider
lock washer. The left-hand thread has been specifically designed to prevent
loosening of the nut assembly whilst the pulley is rotating.

This main shaft was then welded with CO2 onto the backplate on both sides. It
was machined to be square and to size. The 20-mm-diameter internal hole was
also reamed with a parallel reamer to relieve any stresses and to give it a
smooth internal finish.

The main shaft was then subjected to a Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The
Abaqus TM commercially available finite element analysis software package
was used to perform the analysis. In the finite element model, Youngs modulus
(E) was taken as 207 GPa, while Poissons ratio (() was taken as 0,3. These
values are standard values used in the design of structures [Shigley (1986)].

The forward lateral force from the propeller as well as the radial pull from the
belt was simulated. Even though the shaft assembly will support a rotating
pulley, there will be slight fluctuating loads on the pulley assembly. This
eliminates the need for a fatigue analysis. Only a static stress analysis with
representative loads were performed. Figure 4.3 shows a schematic diagram
indicating the sizes and positions of the loads the shaft is to carry. These loads

41
include the lateral force from the propeller as well as the radial tension from the
belt.

Eight Node quad elements were used to construct the FEA model. These
elements proved to be sufficient as long as there was no severe stress change
from one element to the other in order to avoid unacceptable errors in the
interpolation of the real stress field. A mesh generator was used to generate
the mesh. The mesh generator automatically increased the element density in
areas where radii were present. Finally, the applicable boundary conditions and
loads were applied to the model in order to evaluate the response of the shaft
assembly.

Figure 4.3: FEM of stress concentration on main shaft assembly

From figure 4.3 it can be seen that the maximum stress is concentrated at the
end where the shaft will be bolted onto the backplate. However, the maximum

42
stress level is still within acceptable limits smaller than 70 MPa for a stationary
shaft of this size.

After the upper pulley had been assembled onto the main shaft, it was bolted
onto the adaptor plate and then onto the engine. The shaft alignment was
adjusted with the aid of shims. (See detail in appendix P). This alignment was
finally adjusted only after the HTD belt had been fitted and tensioned, to the
precise belt track between the two pulleys.
4.4.3 Upper-drive pulley
The upper pulley was made from 7075-TF age-hardening aircraft-type
aluminum.
This material is relative strong with an 0,2% proof stress of 570 MPa and a
tensile strength of 505 MPa [Aluminium Federation (1981)]. It also produces
the best stress-to-weight ratio for the aluminum group of materials. A solid billet
of 200 mm in diameter was used. (Detail in appendix S and T). The outer
diameter was reduced to 187,07 mm to facilitate 74 drive grooves for the 8M
HTD belt. A total width of 121 mm was used to accommodate the HTD belt
which is 116 mm wide. Six holes of 10,5 mm in diameter were drilled through
the pulley onto a pitch circle diameter (PCD) of 120 mm. This was done to bolt
the propeller flange onto the pulley. These holes were then flat-reamed to a
diameter of 34 mm and a depth of 81 mm from the rear end, to provide access
for the washers and nuts tightening the propeller flange. A recess of 2 mm at
the front side was also cut up to a diameter of 140 mm to align the propeller
flange that will be bolted onto the pulley.

On the outer diameter at both ends another recess of 1,5 x 3 mm was cut to
facilitate two belt retainer rings onto the pulley. Refer to detail D on Appendix S.
These steel rings were machined and rolled onto their grooves to ensure a tight
fit with the pulley. Furthermore, another six holes of 20 mm in diameter, evenly
staggered with the previous six holes, were drilled onto a PCD of 140 mm to
reduce weight. The inside of the pulley was machined out to a diameter of 62
mm, with two 72-mm-diameter holes 27 mm deep from each side to facilitate
the bearings. The total weight of this upper pulley is only 4,7 kg.

43
4.4.4 Lower-drive pulley
The lower-drive pulley was also made from 7075 -TF age hardening aircrafttype aluminum. The outer diameter of this pulley is 95,39 mm. A total of 38
grooves were cut into this pulley to facilitate the 8M HTD belt. Six holes of 10,5
mm in diameter were drilled onto a PCD of 69 mm. Five of these were spaced
at 60/ to one another, whilst the sixth one was spaced at 55,5/ to align with the
holes on the flange of the Opel engines crank-shaft. These six holes were
reamed to a diameter of 15 mm for a depth of 68 mm from the back side, to
facilitate the heads for the 10 x 1,25-mm cup screws bolting this pulley onto the
crankshaft.

The total length of this pulley was 152 mm with grooves cut to a distance of 121
mm from the rear end to accommodate the drive belt. The inside was then
recessed for a depth of 68 mm from this rear side on a PCD of 72,9 mm to
reduce mass.

A stainless steel washer 1 mm thick, (Detail in appendix W), was hand made
to take up the thrust of the six cup screws bolting down the pulley onto the
crank shaft. The inside of the pulley at the rear end was then machined out to
a diameter of 39 mm. A locator made of mild steel, and knurled onto the outside
diameter of 39 mm, Refer Appendix X, was bolted onto the centre of the
crankshaft inside the lower pulley. The reason for the locator was to assist in
taking up any bending hysteresis which could occur onto the pulley attachment
bolts whilst running under high torque loads.
4.4.5 Belt tensioner
Because of the relative high linear belt speed at maximum engine speed, as
well as the somewhat large pulley centre-to-centre distance, the belt started to
flutter on the dynamometer evaluation under a full-power, high-speed
simulation.

To reduce this belt flutter, a belt tensioner assembly was designed and fitted to
the adaptor plate as shown in appendix Y. The parts listed are as follow.

44
1.

Tensioner pulley shaft. Refer to Appendix AA.

2.

Bearings 6001-2Z SKF

3.

Tensioner spacer. Refer to Appendix AB.

4.

Tensioner pulley. Refer to Appendix AC.

5.

Bearing. 6001-2Z SKF

6.

Tensioner bush. Refer to Appendix AD.

7.

Tensioner adjuster locating block. Refer to Appendix AF.

8.

Locknut M8

9.

Tensioner adjuster. Refer to Appendix AE.

10.

Bolts M6 x 25mm

11.

Tensioner front plate. Refer to Appendix AG.

12.

Tensioner shroud. Refer to Appendix AH.

13.

Tensioner shroud shaft. Refer to Appendix AI.

14.

Tensioner base 2. Refer to Appendix AJ.

15.

Tensioner base 1. Refer to Appendix Z.

The tensioner pulley shaft 1 was welded onto the tensioner base 15. This base
15 was slotted to provide adjustment of the tensioner pulley laterally towards to
belt. The pulley with a diameter of 40 mm and a maximum rotational speed of
12000 rev/min, was mounted onto the shaft with two bearings, 6001-2Z. The
dynamic load rating for these bearings is 5070 N each, whilst the speed is rated
at 26000 rev/min [SKF (1994)]. Between these two bearings is a spacer tube
(item 3, appendix Y), that takes up any axial play.

The cubical tensioner adjuster locating block (item 7, appendix Y), was welded
onto the tensioner front plate. There was also a slot made into this tensioner
front plate of 17 mm by 8 mm to provide adjustment of the tensioner pulley.

The tensioner shroud to be fitted close to the drive side of the belt was made of
stainless steel, because it is more resistant to wear than mild steel. See
appendix AH. Three stainless steel stiffeners were welded onto this shroud
plate to provide a rigid surface. This whole shroud plate was then welded onto
the two tensioner shroud shafts. These were again welded onto the tensioner

45
base 14, and bolted onto the adaptor plate. A static gap of 1 mm was sustained
between the belt and the tensioner shroud. This was all done to minimize belt
flutter, without the belt scoring too much against the shroud plate when running.
4.4.6 Propeller flange assembly
To be able to bolt a propeller onto the upper pulley, it was necessary to design
a propeller flange adaptor. This propeller flange adaptor was also made of
7075TF age hardening aircraft-type aluminium. See appendix AK. The items
listed are as follow.

1.

Propeller. Ivo prop, three-blade ground adjustable

2.

Propeller hold down bolts (7/16" x 2 UNC)

3.

Propeller nose cone

4.

Propeller flange assembly

5.

Drive lugs. See Appendix AM.

6.

Steel nuts M10 Nylock

7.

Flat washers 10 mm

8.

Steel bolts M10 x 65 mm

The propeller flange assembly will be bolted onto the front side of the upper
pulley. A recess of 140 mm diameter will locate with that on the pulley. The six
holes of 10,5 mm in diameter will line up with those of the upper drive pulley,
and will be bolted down with the six steel bolts. The centre portion of the
propeller flange which is recessed to a diameter of 60 mm will fit over the upper
pulley shaft without any interference to the nut and locknut assembly. Six drive
lugs made of EN-19 steel will be pressed from the rear onto the front face of
the propeller flange. These are to provide a strong and durable platform for the
propeller locating bolts. The propeller hold-down boss with a diameter of 57,15
mm ( 2 inch) and drive lugs spaced at 60/ with a PCD of 101,6 mm (4 inch)
will fit a standard category II propeller.
4.5

SAFETY MODIFICATIONS

It will also be wise to connect a 4 mm steel cable of length about 400 mm

between the aircrafts fire wall and the engine. Such a steel cable has a safe

46
load capacity of 480 kg. If the engine becomes detached during flight for any
reason, the steel cable will ensure that the engine does not fall away from the
aircraft, thus fatally changing the centre of gravity of the aircraft. This can render
the aircraft uncontrollable in the air.

The throttle return spring should also be connected in such a way that in case
of a throttle cable failure, the spring will pull the throttle wide open. It is much
safer to land an aircraft with a fully opened throttle, instead of an engine which
can only idle.

47

CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF REDUCTION DRIVE

5.1

INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, various components were designed to bolt onto the
Opel 200 iS engine in order to drive a propeller. All these components were
manufactured in a mechanical workshop. After these components had been
carefully fitted onto the engine, they were ready for evaluation tests.
5.2

INSTALLATION OF ENGINE ON DYNAMOMETER

The Opel engine was mounted onto the dynamometer as before. A new drive
flange was made to adapt the upper-drive pulley onto the drive shaft of the
dynamometer. The torque and power was transmitted through the HTD
synchronous belt to the dynamometer.

First the engine was started and run at idle speed, until the system reached
operating temperature. It was noted that the HTD belt did not run true on the
upper-drive pulley. Fine adjustments were made with 0.1 mm shim stock at the
upper rear end of the main shaft flange. Refer to item 10 of Appendix M. After
a few attempts the belt tracking proved to be aligned at the centre of the pulleys.
5.3

ENGINE AND BELT-DRIVE EVALUATION

The engine was accelerated slowly with no load on the dynamometer. The belt
was running exceptionally smoothly. Engine speed was increased up to 5200
rev/min which simulated 2700 rev/min on the propeller flange. The load on the
dynamometer was slowly increased, and the engine throttle was adjusted
accordingly. After a few minutes full load was applied to the engine at full
throttle opening.

48
The belt tracking was monitored continuously. No changes were observed in
belt tracking under full load conditions. This proved that the main shaft for the
upper pulley was rigid enough and that parallelism and alignment was correct,
and that the belt tracking had also been adjusted correctly.

Power and torque values were recorded as before for different engine speeds
from full load towards idle.
It is clear from the results in figures 5.1 and 5.2 that under full load condition
there was a power and torque transmission loss of about 5 per cent. This was
because of belt and bearing friction. It is very much in line with the specifications

100

80

60

40

20

0
1025

2988

Power belt-drive

3492 4132 4584 4958 5180

Engine speed (rev/min)

5680

Power engine

Figure 5.1: Engine power versus belt-drive power supplied by the belt
manufacturers. According to the Gates design manual [Gates (1998)], belt
efficiency should be between 95% and 99%. The torque increased because of
the reduction drive ratio was as expected.

Figure 5.3 shows that a maximum torque of about 310 Nm was obtained with

49

Figure 5.3: Belt-drive torque after speed reduction

Engine torque versus belt-drive torque, divided by

Figure 5.2:

reduction ratio n
the belt drive fitted. This is in line with the torque output requirements as
expected for this engine.

Although the fuel used for this test was automotive fuel, there was no noticeable
difference between these test results and the pre-modification test results
regarding fuel consumption or torque outputs.
5.4

BELT FLUTTER

It was noted that at maximum continuous power the belt picked up a severe belt
flutter. This could be caused by engine vibrations and even resonance from the
engine as well as oscillating belt teeth at a high constant speed. It was decided
to design a belt tensioner and flutter damper device as described in paragraph
4.4.5. With this belt tensioner and flutter damper device installed, the belt was

50
running very smooth under high power loads and rotating speeds. Now the
reduction drive was ready for cyclic and endurance testing.
5.5

ENDURANCE TESTS

The purpose of endurance tests was to ensure that the reduction drive fitted to
the Opel engine was safe, and that it operated as expected under continues
loads at working temperatures. With the belt drive functioning smoothly, the
number of power tests were increased. At intervals of 15 minutes, numerous
acceleration tests for a simulated take-off were performed. The engine was
started, and power was progressively added until full power at 5200 rev/min
engine speed was maintained under full load from the dynamometer. This
power setting was then maintained for 5 minutes. Power was gradually
decreased until the engine oil operating temperature returned to below 80/C.
The engine was stopped for about 4 minutes, after which the tests were
repeated. After four cycles, the tests were interrupted and the complete
reduction drive was inspected. Belt temperature was measured with a
thermometer. It was found to be not more than 62/C at any place. This was
done without any external cooling of the belt. For real flying conditions the
cooling of the belt with ram-air would be extensive. Furthermore, the cooling air
temperature under real flying conditions would be much lower than the 36/C of
the engine test cell. It is expected that under flying conditions, the belt drive will
not be subjected to such high temperatures which can cause failures.

These take-off cycles were repeated for a few days, until a total of 60 take-offs
were simulated. No excessive wear or deterioration of any of the belt or drive
components were detected throughout this period.

Endurance tests were also performed. The engine was started, and then
progressively accelerated to 80% of full load at an engine speed of 4800 rev/min.
This was done to simulate cruising conditions at altitude. The engine was run
for periods of 30 minutes at a time. A visual inspection was done after each
cycle of the complete reduction drive. These endurance cycles were repeated
until a total of 30 cycles had been completed. After these endurance cycle tests,
the whole reduction-drive system was dismantled. A thorough check was

51
performed on items such as the belt, pulleys, bearings, tensioner mechanism,
main shaft and adaptor plate. Special attention was given to crack detection,
bending of any components and visual belt wear. No irregularities have been
found.

Furthermore, the components in the distributor drive that had been modified
were again disassembled. Thorough checks

for wear and cracks were

performed as well, using the Color Die Penetrant - crack detection method-,
but neither visible wear nor any cracks were found.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1

CONCLUSION

A suitable automotive engine was selected to meet certain criteria. A safe

lightweight propeller drive was successfully designed, manufactured, fitted and
evaluated. The complete modified engine with propeller drive was also
successfully evaluated and verified on a dynamometer.

From the study performed, it is clear that a modern automotive engine can be
adapted for use in a light aircraft. The Opel 200 iS engine that was converted
for this project, proved to be an excellent alternative choice regarding its powertoweight ratio and also its performance and durability as measured on the
dynamometer. Therefore, it is recommended that such an engine can be
installed in a Cessna 150 aircraft, if it is re-classified under the LS-1 category

52
for an aircraft which does not qualify for the issue of a certificate of air
worthiness [Commissioner for Civil Aviation (1999)].

Furthermore, it can be said from the outcome of the study, that this Opel engine
can be operated on avgas as a fuel that is freely available at any airport. It is
also clear that the fuel consumption for the Opel engine, if installed in an aircraft,
will compare very favourably with that of the existing aircraft engine. It can also
be derived from the study that engine maintenance costs will be considerably
lower for an automotive engine when compared to the costs of its aircraft
counterpart.

Regarding the reduction drive, it is shown from the design that a light weight
reliable reduction drive can be fitted to an automotive engine in order to drive
a propeller. Such a reduction drive could look like the one pictured in
appendices D and E. The HTD belt that was used in this project proved to be a
suitable selection, yielding good power transfer efficiencies.

For engine systems such as exhaust manifold, flywheel, alternator and others,
it is possible to reduce the engine mass significantly for aircraft application. The
author managed to fit a reduction drive to this Opel engine without increasing
the mass of the bare engine which is fitted to a motor vehicle. The saving in
mass of the aforementioned components paid for the extra mass of the
reduction drive, so to speak.
6.2

RECOMMENDATIONS

From this study it is evident that a substantially cheaper alternative power pack
can be fitted to a light aircraft. This can make a considerable contribution to the
light aircraft enthusiast who can not afford to compete in the formal aviation
sector. It is therefore recommended that the approach described in this
dissertation be communicated to the private sector in order to notify it of the
possibilities of cheaper alternatives in the experimental aviation industry. A
possible means to do this is by an article in some of the recognized aviation
magazines.

53
For further development of reduction drives the use of newer technology
Polychain GT2 belts is recommended because of their increased capacity of
power transfer per unit width, compared to ordinary HTD belts. This do however
come at a considerable larger price tag, and it can be regarded as a complete
different study all together.

Fuel consumption should also be calculated once the aircraft is flying with the
adapted engine, because the fuel consumption can improve whilst cruising at
part throttle at higher altitude and lower temperatures when compared to the
static evaluation of the engines fuel consumption on the test bench.

As a last recommendation, the author would like to emphasize the fact that
safety should never be sacrificed in order to accomplish any goal in aviation.
Cheap solutions are not an option. Rather be safe than sorry.

56

57

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