I. Early China, 2000221 B.C.E.

A. Geography and Resources

1. China is divided into two major geographical regions: the steppe, desert, and high plateau west
and northwest; and the eastern zone, more suitable for settled agriculture.
2. The eastern zone is subdivided into two areas: north and south. The northern area includes the
Yellow River Valley and has a dry, cold climate; the southern area includes the Yangzi Valley, has
plentiful rainfall, and is relatively warm.
3. Chinas natural resources include timber, stone, and metals. The loess soil and cool climate of the
north are suitable for growing millet; rice may be cultivated in the warmer and rainier south.
4. Agriculture in this region required the coordinated effort of large numbers of people. They had to
clear forests, construct earthen dikes to protect fields from recurrent floods on the Yellow River, to
cope with periodic droughts, had to dig reservoirs to store river water and rainfall, and built
retaining walls to partition the hillsides into flat arable terraces.
5. Seedlings sprout in a nursery and are transplanted to the paddy, which is then flooded. Flooding
eliminates weeds and rival plants and supports microscopic organisms that keep the soil fertile.
When the crop is ripe, the paddy is drained; the rice stalks are harvested with a sickle; and the
edible kernels are separated out. Rice feeds more people per cultivated acre than any other grain

B. The Shang Period, 17501045 B.C.E.

1. Pre-Shang China was a land of Neolithic communities. Pigs, chickens, and millet were
domesticated; silk textiles were developed; stone tools were used; and bronze metallurgy was
begun (ca. 2000 B.C.E.)
2. There are no contemporary documents to confirm the existence of the legendary Xia dynasty.
Later documents concerning the Xia may be referring to one of the late Neolithic societies of the
Yellow River Valley.
3. Little is known about how the Shang rose to dominance ca. 1750 B.C.E., since written documents
only appear toward the end of Shang rule.
4. The Chinese writing system (Chinese characters) developed during the Shang period. The
Chinese writing system of today is directly related to the writing of the Shang dynasty. The chief
written remains are oracle bones used in divination to obtain information from ancestral spirits
and gods.

5. Shang religion centered on a supreme god, Di, who could not be approached directly but could
be reached indirectly through the rulers ancestors. This made the ruler a link between heaven
and earth, and provided a rationale for authoritarian rule.
6. The Shang elite was a warrior aristocracy who enjoyed hunting and warfare. They fought with
bronze weapons and rode on horse-drawn chariots. Kings ruled directly over the core area of
their kingdom and exercised indirect rule over peripheral areas.
7. Tombs of Shang royal and elite families contain large quantities of valuable objects made of
metal, jade, bone, ivory, shell, and stone, including musical instruments, jewelry, mirrors,
weapons, and bronze vessels they were intricately decorated with stylized depictions of animals
and used for offerings to ancestral spirits. Possession of bronze objects was a sign of status and
authority. The objects and other people were to serve the main occupant in the afterlife.
8. The common people lived in agricultural villages outside centers of political control and religion,
with palaces, administrative buildings, and store houses, royal tombs, shrines, and houses.

C. The Zhou Period, 1045221 B.C.E.

1. The Zhou territory was a dependent state of the Shang. They defeated the Shang in the eleventh
century B.C.E. and adopted many elements of Shang culture. The two founders of the Zhou were
Wen, who led the resistance movement against the Shang, and his son, Wu, who attacked the
Shang capital and assumed the throne as first ruler of the dynasty. The Zhou invoked their own
deity, Tian (Heaven) and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven in order to justify
their rule Heaven granted authority and legitimacy to a ruler as long as he looked out ofr the
welfare of his subjects. Proof was the prosperity and stability of the kingdom.
2. The Zhou dynasty is subdivided into two periods: the Western Zhou (1045-771 B.C.E.) and the
Eastern Zhou. In the early years of the new dynasty, King Wu created a land distribution system
similar to the feudal system of Europes Middle Ages King gave territories to his relatives and
allies who then gave pieces of their holdings to their supporters.
3. Early Zhou rulers constructed a new capital city, and other urban centers followed. Built in a grid
pattern aligned with the north polar star, the design followed their ancient belief in feng shui to
maintain harmony. Religion played a large role in both public and private life. Women were
expected to live a life of subservience.
4. The Eastern Zhou period was characterized by a decline in the strength of the central
government as regional elites began to rule their territories as independent states, often fighting
with each other until there was a gradual consolidation into a smaller number of larger, more
powerful kingdoms. Warfare during this period contrasted with the earlier noble endeavors led by
the elite. The later Zhou saw the development of larger armies made up of conscripted farmers,
as well as larger numbers of causalities.

5. Technological advances in warfare were adopted by the Zhou from people of the northern
steppes. They learned how to fight on horseback and to replace bronze with iron and steel.
Advances in government came from a new class of educated men who became bureaucrats and
who recorded data for the rulers, administered the governments business, and offered advice to
rulers.

D. Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Society

1. Confucianism and Daoism had their roots in the chaos of the late Zhou period. Confucianism was
founded by Confucius and assumes that human nature is essentially good; has a hierarchical
view of the universe, society, and the family; and is concerned with establishing the moral
foundations of government. Confucius was not influential in his own time, but Confucianism later
became the dominant political philosophy of imperial China.
2. Daoism is said to have been founded by Laozi. Daoism assumes that the universe is in constant
flux, that there are no absolute moral standards, and that people should take the world as they
find it. Daoism developed into a complex system of popular beliefs and magic, and many Chinese
have drawn on both traditions, though Daoism might appear at odds with Confucianism.
3. In society, the Eastern Zhou period saw the development of the three-generation family and the
development of the concept of private property, including privately owned land. Women were
more firmly subordinated to the patriarchal hierarchy; their subordinate position was justified by
the concepts of yin and yang.

E. The Warring States Period

1. The late Zhou era is called the Warring States Period (480221 B.C.E.) because of the scale and
intensity of warfare between the states. By the beginning of the third century B.C.E., only seven
major states remained, each seeking security by building walls and large armies and
experimenting with military organization, tactics, and technology. Some of the wars were against
non-Chinese people living on the margins of state territory; some were fought to increase territory.
2. The most innovative of the major states was the kingdom of Qin on the western edge of the
Central States, its location making it vulnerable to barbarian attacks. In the middle of the fourth
century B.C.E., Lord Shang, leader of the Qin government, helped develop the Legalist school of
political theory. Shang believed that Confucian beliefs that solutions could be found in the past
and concern for subjects opinions were mistaken. He maintained that a strong ruler should trust
his own judgment and use any means necessary to compel obedience. Legalists were willing to
sacrifice personal freedom for the state.
3. To strengthen the ruler, Lord Shang weakened the nobility by abolishing many of their privileges
and breaking up large estates.

II. Nubia, 3100 B.C.E.350 C.E.

A. Early Cultures and Egyptian Domination, ca. 2300ca. 1100 B.C.E.

1. Nubia is located in the Nile Valley from Aswan south to Khartoum and forms a link between
tropical Africa and the Mediterranean world. Nubias natural resources included gold,
semiprecious stones, and copper.
2. The development of civilization in Nubia was spurred by the need for irrigated agriculture and by
its trading relationship with Egypt. Nubian culture and Egyptian culture developed through a
process of mutual influence and borrowing.
3. Early Nubia carried out trade with Old Kingdom Egypt, and the northern part of Nubia was
occupied by Egypt during the Middle Kingdom period.
4. In the southern part of Nubia, the Kingdom of Kush developed by 1750 B.C.E. Kush was noted
for its metalworking and construction.
5. Egypt invaded Kush during the New Kingdom period. The results of Egyptian occupation included
the brutal exploitation of Nubian laborers and the imposition of Egyptian culture on the Nubian
people.

B. The Kingdom of Mero, 800 B.C.E350 C.E.

1. A Nubian kingdom arose in the eighth century B.C.E., and for a time the Nubians ruled Egypt as
the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (712660 B.C.E.)
2. The Nubian kingdom had its capital at Napata from 660 B.C.E. to the fourth century. The Napata
period is characterized by continued Egyptian cultural influence, including the use of Egyptian
hieroglyphs and pyramids.
3. In the fourth century B.C.E., the kingdom moved its capital to Mero, which was better located for
both agriculture and trade. Egyptian cultural influence waned during the Meroitic era.
4. The ruling dynasty of Mero practiced a matrilineal family system, and queens often were
influential.
5. The city of Mero dominated trade routes, used reservoirs to catch rainfall, and became an
important center of iron smelting.
6. Mero declined due to a combination of factors: a shift in trade routes, the rise of the kingdom of
Aksum, and the depredations of camel-riding nomads.

III. Celtic Europe, 100050 B.C.E.

A. The Spread of the Celts

1. Celtic civilization originated in Central Europe in the first millennium B.C.E.

2. BY 300 B.C.E., Celtic groups had expanded across Europe from present-day Hungary to Spain
and Ireland.
3. The Celts shared cultural traits, but there was no Celtic state.

B. Celtic Society
1. Celtic society was divided into an elite class of warriors, professional groups of priests and bards,
and the common people.
2. The warriors owned land and livestock and monopolized wealth and power.
3. The priests, called Druids, were teachers and judges as well as religious leaders.
4. Celts were successful farmers and engaged in trade, shipbuilding, and metallurgy.
5. Celtic women were involved primarily in child rearing, food production, and some crafts.
6. Celtic women, particularly elite women, enjoyed more freedom than their southern counterparts.

C. Belief and Knowledge

1. The Celts worshiped a large number of gods and goddesses.
2. In Celtic mythology, the barrier between the natural and the supernatural world was quite
permeable.
3. In the first three centuries C.E., Roman conquest and Germanic invasion halted the development
of Celtic society.

IV. First Civilizations of the Americas: The Olmec and Chavin, 1200250 B.C.E.
A. The Mesoamerican Olmec, 1200-400 B.C.E.
1. The Olmec, the most important Mesoamerican preclassic civilization, were at their strongest
between about 1200 and 400 B.C.E.
2. Major centers of Olmec civilization were located along the coast of Mexico.
3. The use of raised fields provided the agricultural surpluses the Olmec needed to sustain urban
centers.

4. The center of early Olmec civilization was located at San Lorenzo. San Lorenzo was surpassed
by La Venta around 900 B.C.E., which, in turn, gave way to Tres Zapotes around 600 B.C.E.
5. Large earthen mounds dominated Olmec urban centers.
6. It is likely that Olmec political structures were built around some form of kingship.
7. Olmec power rested on the control of certain commodities and the popularity of their religious
practices.
8. Given their limited technology, Olmec architecture was very impressive.
9. The Olmec played a role in the early development of writing and astronomy.

B. Early South American Civilization: Chavn, 900250 B.C.E.

1. Chavn was the first major urban civilization in South America.
2. Chavn was politically and economically dominant between 900 and 250 B.C.E.
3. A combination of military strength and the appeal of its religious system explains Chavns
influence and control over its territory.
4. Chavn possessed all the essential characteristics of later Andean civilizations, including a clanbased system of labor.
5. The evidence suggests that increased warfare led to the fall of Chavn around 200 B.C.E.

V. Conclusion
A. Comparing Civilizations
1. The flood-prone rivers and lack of dependable rainfall in the north China plain led to authoritarian
central governments to organize large labor forces needed to dig and maintain irrigation channels
and build dikes.
2. A strong state was needed in Nubia for protection from desert nomads and from Egyptian rulers
who coveted Nubian resources.
3. The fertile lands and adequate rainfall of continental Europe led to a more fragmented
organization for the Celtic peoples than for peoples in other regions.
4. The Olmec of Mesoamerica and the Chavn of South America lived in ecological zones that
required them to share their resources and products through trade networks. Both cultures were
led by ruling elites who gathered wealth and organized labor for building projects.

5. In all of these civilizations, the ruling elite used religion to bolster their power.

B. Comparing Hemispheres
1. The Eastern Hemisphere contained a larger number of plant and animal species that could be
domesticated than did the Western Hemisphere.

2. The north-south axis of the Eastern Hemisphere contained similar climatic zones, making it easier
for the spread of domesticated plants and animals. The Western Hemispheres north-south axis
contained more variations in climate, making it difficult for species to spread.