Chapter 1

Introduction to Sun tracking

1.1 Introduction
Worlds population is increasing day by day and the basic demand of electricity is
increasing. Today most of the electricity we get from coal and oil based power plant. But they
will be finish in few years. So that people are turning to use of alternative fuel sources. Ex.
Solar energy, Wind energy, Geo-thermal energy, tidal energy, hydropower energy, biogas etc.
Solar energy is considered as one of the major energy resources in warm countries.
Sun throws hundreds time more energy than we actual required it on the earth. So it is useful
for us to get maximum energy from solar. We are getting solar energy by solar heater, solar
cooker, by photo voltaic cell, solar thermal energy, solar architecture.

1.2 Why solar tracking used?

We are getting electricity by solar panels. That energy is depend upon the incident
angle of solar rays and solar plates. But throughout day angle does not remain constant in
fixed solar panel. So we cannot get optimum energy throughout the day. For getting constant
solar energy, which is absorbed by solar plate, we have to make such a mechanism that solar
plate moves such a way that we can get maximum energy throughout the day.
(Fig.
1.1

radiation absorb v/s incidence angle graph)

In solar plate absorption of energy depend upon the angle between normal of plate and
ray beam. So throughout day variation in it describe in above graph.
In every season geometry of sun changes so rays are not perfectly coincide the solar
plate so minimize the effect of seasonal changes solar trackers are used.

1.3 What is solar tracker?

By use of Solar Tracker we can track sun. Means that by using solar tracking
mechanism in the setup of solar panel, solar panel rotates such that way so it can be locate the
position of sun. So that angle between sun rays and solar plate remains constant and at that
angle we can get maximum energy so we can maximize the energy production by using of
solar trackers.
(Fig. 2.2 basic figure of sun
tracking)
There are two
1) single axis
double axis
single

configuration of trackers,
trackers and 2)
tracker.
By
axis tracker
we

can

maximize energy
upto 30% of fix
plate collector and by double axis tracker we can produce more energy upto 40%.
We can track sun by mechanically as well as electrical methods. We will see here
some method of tracking sun by mechanically.

Chapter 2
Solar Radiation Geometry
2.1 Introduction
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Before talking about the solar tracking systems, we will discuss some basic concepts
of solar radiation to better understand the results of this work.
Mainly solar radiation reach to the earth by two medium, direct rays and diffused rays.
Direct rays contain more intensity while diffused rays contain less intensity, in sunny days
solar radiation is most of direct rays and in cloudy days solar radiation is due to diffused rays.

2.2 Terminology
To find beam energy falling on a surface having any orientation, it is necessary to
convert the value of the beam flux coming from the direction of the sun to an equivalent value
corresponding to the normal direction to the surface.

Fig 2.1 different terminology of angles related to sun and plate and horizontal plane of
earth
As shown is figure here is incident angle between beam if flux and normal to plane
surface. Useful beam flux can be given by Icos. That angle is related with many parameter
such as the latitude angle, slope angle, surface azimuth angle, the declination angle
and hour angle.

Latitude angle() - It is angle made by the radial line joining the location to the
centre of earth with projection of the line on the equatorial plane. The latitude is
measured as positive for northern hemisphere and it is vary from +90 to -90 degree.

Slope() It is the angle between the plate and horizontal plane. It can be vary from 0
to 180 degree.

Surface azimuth angle () It is defined as angle in horizontal plane, between

projection of normal to solar plate on horizontal plane and horizontal line due to
south(S). Generally azimuth angle can vary from -180 to +180 degree. Normally
normal is east of south we take angle positive and if angle is west of south we take
angle as negative.

Declination angle () - It is defined as angle made by line joining the centers of the
sun and the earth with the projection of this line on the equatorial plane. It arises by
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virtue of the fact that the earth rotates about an axis which makes an angle of
approximately 66.5 degree with the plane of its rotation about sun. The declination
angle varies from a maximum value of +23.45 degree on June on 21 to minimum
value September 22. Angle of declination can calculated by following relation,
= 23.45 sin

360 (284+n)
365

where, n= days of year and is in degree

.

Fig 2.2 solar declination angle

Hour angle () It is angular measurement of time. It is defined as at which speed sun
rotates in day in one hour. Normally it is taken as 15 degree per hour. Because sun
rotates 180 degree throughout day and 12 hours.

Zenith angle (z) It is defined as angle between normal to horizontal plane and sun
beam on that point. The compliment of the zenith angle is also used quite often in
calculation. It is called the solar altitude angle.

Solar azimuth angle (s) It is defined as angle made in horizontal plane between the
horizontal line due to south and the projection of line sight of the sun on the horizontal
plane. Thus it gives the direction of the shadow cast in the horizontal plane by a
vertical rod. By convention, the solar azimuth angle is taken to be positive if the
projection of the line of sight is east of south and negative if line is in west of south.

Here some relation between these angle as given below,

cos = sin (sin cos + cos cos cos sin )
+ cos (cos cos cos sin cos sin )
+ cos sin sin sin
Case-1
If there is vertical surface so = 90
So,
4

..(1)

cos = sin cos cos cos + cos sin cos + cos sin sin ..(2)
Case-2
If there is horizontal plane so = 0
So,
cos = sin sin + cos cos cos

..(3)

Here if = 0 and by that way obtain by that equation is known as zenith angle z.
Case -3
If inclined surface facing due south = 0
So,
cos = sin (sin cos + cos cos sin )
+ cos (cos cos cos sin sin )
= sin sin(-) + cos cos cos (-)

..(4)

If vertical surface facing due south = 0 , = 90,

So,
cos = sin cos cos - cos sin

..(5)

Case -4

2.3 Apparent Motion of the Sun

It is useful to describe the apparent motion of the sun as seen from the earth. To an
observer on the earth, on any given day, the sun rises in the east, moves in a plane tilted at an
angle of (90 ) with the horizontal. Thus the sun path is intersect the line containing east
and west. Because of the declination angle this E-W line of intersection does not coincide
with the E-W passing through the observer O. In northern hemisphere, this line is to the south
in winter, to the north in summer and coincides with the E-W line passing through the
observer on the two equinox days of March 21 and September 22.
In fig 2.3 shows that in summer days sun takes more time through day more than 12
hours than winter and so that gives more radiation per day.

Fig 2.3 Apparent motion of sun

2.4 Sun Radiation Distribution in India

In India sun radiation is as below figure,

Fig 2.4 Solar radiation geometry in India

As shown in above figure solar radiation is higher in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Chapter 3
Solar Trackers
3.1 Types Solar Tracker
Solar tracker types as below
(1) Based on axis
(2) Based on driving mechanism
Based on axis solar trackers have two types
(a) Single axis tracker
(b) Double axis tracker
Based upon driving mechanism
(a) Active trackers
(b) Passive trackers
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3.2 Single axis trackers

Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The
axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian.
Types of single axis trackers
i.
Horizontal single axis tracker
Axis of rotation for this type is horizontal with ground. Field layouts with horizontal
single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping all of the axes
of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the
trackers with respect to one another. Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module
oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is
rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
ii.

Horizontal single axis tracker with tilted module

This type is similar to horizontal single axis, only difference is the face of plate is tilted
at some angle with its axis.
iii.

Vertical single axis tracker

The axis of rotation for vertical single axis trackers is vertical with respect to the
ground. These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Such trackers are
more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers. Field layouts must consider
shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize land utilization.
iv.

Tilted single axis tracker

All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted

single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease
the elevated end height.

3.3 Dual Axis Tracker

Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes
are normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered
a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary
axis.
i.

Tip tilt dual axis tracker

This panel is mounted on top of the pole. It has a horizontal primary axis and a
dependent orthogonal axis. Rotation the array around the top of the pole.
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ii.

Azimuth altitude dual axis tracker

Its primary axis vertical to the ground and secondary axis is normal to primary. They
are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for
daily tracking. It can use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a
series of rollers.

Fig 3.1 configuration of dual axis tracker

3.4 Passive Tracker

The passive tracking system realizes the movement of the system by utilizing a low
boiling point liquid. This liquid is vaporized by the added heat of the sun and the center of
mass is shifted leading to that the system finds the new equilibrium position.
A newly emerging type of passive tracker for photovoltaic solar panels uses a
hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells so that sunlight passes through the transparent
part of the module and reflects on the hologram. This allows sunlight to hit the cell from
behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the panel does not have to move
since the hologram always reflects sunlight from the correct angle towards the cells.

3.5 Active tracker

Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a
controller responding to the solar direction. Active tracker should be electrical type or can be
mechanical type. Nowadays electrical type is very widely used because of to avoid such a
massive and rubbish stricter of mechanical drive and overcome the disadvantage of
mechanical drive.

Chapter 4
Design of Single axis tracker
4.1 Introduction
Fig 4.1 shows the conceptual diagram of a typical existing sun
tracking mechanism. In the closed-loop system the sensor senses the
position of the sun and sends a signal to the controlling unit, whereas in an
open-loop system control algorithms are preloaded in the controlling unit,
which determines the amount of actuation required and sends an
appropriate signal to the motor which tilts the solar device towards the
sun.

Fig 4.1Working elements of a typical currently

Existing sun tracking mechanism

Fig 4.2 Working elements of the

proposed smart sun tracking mechanism

Basically in that system we required electric energy for rotation of system. But if we
put some heat responsive element over there we can locate the sun by working as sensor that
heat responsive element. In fig 4.2 SMA (shape memory alloy) is put as heat sensor element.
In that case we dont require any motor for rotation of the whole arrangement.
The objective was to fabricate a mechanism in which the SMA
element performed the dual functions of sensing and actuating in such a
way as to position the solar receptor tilted appropriately to face the sun
directly at all times during the day. Here lenses are used for concentrating
of solar beam and it is very essential element of this system.

4.2 Conceptualization of a Functional model

For single axis tracking mechanism is shown in below figure,
As in figure various component used in that mechanism is listed below,
1. SMA spring, 2. Fixed frame, 3. Pulley A&B, 4. Wheel C, D&E, 5. Pawl and ratchet,
6. Main shaft, 7. Stopper arrangement, 8 and 9. Bevel gears, 10. The mechanism dead weight,
11. Solar reflector shaft, 12. Lens, 13. Actuator dead weight, 14. Solar plate.
Fig 4.3 functional model of single axis tracker

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4.3 Working principle of model

The solar receptor and the focusing lens arrangement are mounted
on the same shaft such that a constant angular difference exists between
the normal of the solar receptor and the lens arrangement. This angular
difference is to provide enough time for SMA actuator to get actuated by
the sun and for it to cool in still air.
At the start of the day, the solar receptor is in a position such that
the solar receptor normal is approximately normal to the sun at 8am.
When the sun moves away from the solar receptor and approaches the
maximum value of the angular deviation, the rays begin to get focused
toward the SMA spring by the lenses. The focused rays start heating the
SMA spring causing it to contract. This action pulls the cable connected to
the SMA spring, causing the cable to rotate the pulley A. This rotation sets
in motion a series of rotational movements by
[
+
pulleys, B, C and D and the bevelled gears, culminating in the movement
of the solar receptor, which gets tilted forward such that it faces the sun.
Stroke of the movement can be restricted by the lock given as in fig
4.3. By rotation of solar plate rotation of lens is must necessary so contact
between direct beams is lost so spring get is position back. To do that that
lens and solar plate must be on same shaft.
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At the end of the day, after 120 rotation of the sun, the lever clutch
arrangement restores the solar receptor back to the initial position i.e. to
the position of the solar receptor at the time of the first actuation of the
day.
0

4.4 Design of elements

Most important element in that mechanism is SMA spring. This
actuator is made up of a Ni-Ti alloy that exhibits the phenomenon called
shape memory effect. That spring is either tension spring or compression
in spring.
For Ni-Ti spring if temperature increase high to low contraction take
place in it that aspect we are using here for stroke of the mechanism.
Other parameters affect to that is diameter of spring, spring turns etc.

Fig 4.4 (A) idealized SMA spring force vs. deflection behaviour for standard
SMA spring
design (B) configuration of the SMA spring under hot, hot
with load and cold with condition shape
Shear stress induced in spring is
Tc =

8WCP
dd

..

(1)

Number of coils can be calculated by,

12

n=

Sd
( t h ) DD

..

(2)
Where, t is shear strain at max temp and h is shear strain at hot
condition
Maximum stroke can be expressed by Smax,
1
Smax = P [ Kl

1
Kh ]

(3)

Where, Kl is low temperature stiffness and K h is high temperature

stiffness.

4.5 Application of the standard design to the SSTM SMA Spring actuator
Total force to be generated by the spring actuation is made up of force required to
drive solar plate (Fsm) and to restore the spring in hot to low temperature.
Fh = restoring force + SSTM driving force (Fsm)
Fl = restoring force
So,
Fsm = Fl - Fh

..(4)

For different loading conditions in the hot and cold states the maximum possible
stroke
(Smax) of the spring is equal to difference between deflection of spring in cold state (l) by the
restoring force(Fl) and the deflection of the spring in the hot state (h) by the sum of the
SSTM driving force and the restoring force(Fh).
Smax = l - h

..(5)
..(6)

..(7)

As in equation we can find max force required to lift the plate and by that way we can
find total restoring force by using design method for spring.

13

Dead weight is attached to the spring that affects deflection of spring as shown below
graph,

Fig 4.5 (a) Load vs. deflection chart of SMA spring obtained from experiments and theoretical
design calculation, (b) Load vs. stroke chart of SMA Spring experiments and theoretical
design calculation.

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Conclusion
From study of above report the conclusions are as,
Use of solar tracker is beneficial to maximize the energy. And it is possible to design
and develop a sun tracking mechanism using SMA that directly uses sunlight
without the need for any additional external power source. It is shown that
that method is used when direct sun light is available but in cloudy days in
diffused beam it is not work properly.

References
1. Solar energy by S P Sukhatme and J K Nayak
2. Paper on Design and Development of a Sun Tracking mechanism using the Direct
SMA actuation by Jeya Ganesh N, Maniprakash.S, Chandrasekaran L.,
Srinivasan, S.M.
3. Paper on solar tracker by Swetansh Mani Shrivastava
4. Wikipedia.org
5. renewable watch - journal
6. slideshare.com

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