Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
SL Topic
Date
Time
Speakers
Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
15-03-16
8.15 9.45
Dr .U. K.D
16-03-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
28-03-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
29-03-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
30-03-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
Exploratory Research
Evaluating Secondary Data
Qualitative Research
Projective Techniques
Descriptive Research
Survey & Observation Methods
04-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
05-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr .U. K.D
06-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
11-04-16
8.15 -- 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Causal Research
Contd....
Causal Research Design
Experimentation
Validity in Experimentation
Pre-experimental Designs
Questionnaire Definition
Questionnaire Design Process
Attitude Measurement
Methods of Measuring Attitude
Field Work Procedure
Evaluation of Field work
Purpose of Sampling
Methods of Sampling
Advertising Research
Contd
Product Research
Contd
Research Report Presentation
18-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
19- 04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
26-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
27-04-16
8.15 9.45
Dr .U. K.D
04-05-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
10-05-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U.K. D
11-05-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
16-05-16
8.15 9.45
Dr. U. K. D
17-05-16
8.159.45
Dr. U. K. D
25- 05-16
8.15-9.45
Dr. U. K. D
Contd...
First, the suppliers of products and services need to have information about final consumers
in order to market their products and services more effectively.
Second, as a company grows and starts distributing its products in a number of different
markets, the managers of the company find themselves becoming more separated from the
final consumers of their products.
On the other hand, there are two major reasons of marketing Research.
Most of the marketers distribute their products through their own sales personnel to
wholesalers, who in turn sell those products to retailers, who then make the sale to the final
consumers. In their normal course of business many manufacturers have little direct contact
with the retailers of their products and no contact at all with the final consumers of their
products. Thus, the marketing managers in such firms are separated from their final
consumers by geographical distance as well as by a number of layers of people within their
own organizations and within their wholesalers and retailers organizations.
Although retailers and service organizations direct contact with their customers, managers of
retail operations often have little knowledge of their customers attitudes, opinions and
preferences because sales clerks and other store personal dont relay customers comments to
their managers.
Marketers need certain kinds of information in order to be able to satisfy their customers
wants and needs and to design effective marketing programs while still earning a profit. At
least five such information topics are of great interest to marketing managers.
Target market:
What is the best target market for the products or services being offered by the
organization?
What are the attitudes, opinions, preferences, and lifestyles, and so on of its members?
How satisfied or dissatisfied is the target market with what is currently available?
How do they compare the organizations product with those offered by competitors?
Price:
How much value does the target market place on the product in questions?
What products are they willing to substitute for the product in question?
Distribution:
What distribution channel is the target market most likely to use when purchasing the
product in questions?
Is the organizations pricing in line with what the target market expects to pay for the
product when purchased through that channel?
Does the pricing include the size of margin the channel traditionally expects to
receive?
Will the channel be able to provide the service or support needed for the product?
Promotion:
What can the organization say in its communication about its product that will appeal
to the target market and lead them to consider the organizations product more
attractive than those offered by competitors?
What specific vehicles should the organization use to carry the advertisements?
What kinds of promotions would have a favorable effect on the target market?
Kinds of Research
Marketing
Research
Problem Identification
Research
o
o
o
o
Problem-Solving
Research
o
o
o
o
o
Segmentation Research
Product Research
Pricing Research
Promotion Research
Distribution Research
1. Specifying research objectives: In this step of the research process researchers must
first obtain answers to the questions, What is the purpose of this study? If these
questions are not properly answered at the outset, the study is likely to be misdirected
and to pursue vague or obscure goals. The probable result will be that the collected
data will not be as valid and/or reliable as desired.
Minimizing potential sources of error. Perhaps the nest way to identify specific
research objectives is to put them in written form. The manager and the researcher can
then discuss the written form. The manager and the researcher can then discuss the
written statement, modifying it where it can serve as the researchers guide to what the
manager expects from the research.
Minimizing potential sources of error. Managers and researchers should work together
to develop the list of needed information and then attempt to evaluate its usefulness. They
can do so by trying to anticipate the possible findings of the study and then trying to
answer the question. What will we do if these are the findings If it appears that the
manager will select a certain course of action regardless of the findings, there is no
decision to be made-hence, no need for research to be undertaken.
It may also be possible that some finding s may suggest courses of action that cannot be
undertaken- because of limited financial resources, for example. If the firm can take no
action regardless of the findings, there is no reason to undertake a research project.
3. Designing the Data-Collection Project: After the research objectives have been
specified and the list of needed information has been prepared the researcher should
determine whether such information is already available, either in company records or
in outside sources, Certainly, the researcher should not collect data from the field until
the appropriate secondary sources of information have been reviewed. If the needed
information is not available from secondary sources, the researcher will have to
collect data in the field, and so it will be necessary to design a data- collection project
Minimizing potential sources of error. Researchers can do many things to minimize the
possible sources of error associated with designing a data collection project. Much of the
remainder of this book concerns reducing error in marketing research projects. At this
point in the text we introduce the five important issues that must be addressed when
designing a data collection project. Buy giving each of these issues proper attention;
researchers can make good progress toward reducing the possible sources of error in their
research projects. These issues are:
o Should the research be exploratory or conclusive?
o Who should be interviewed and how?
o Should only a few cases be studied, or should a large sample be used?
o How will experiments be incorporated kin the research?
o How should the data-collection form be designed?
Important issues to be addressed when designing the data-collection form typically include
the following:
o What type of questionnaire (personal interview, telephone interview, or mail survey)
should be used?
o What should be the content- and the wording- of individual questions?
o What types of questions should be used?
o In what sequence should the questions be placed?
4. Selecting a Sample Type: Almost all marketing research projects are interested in
information about a large population such ads all families with children at home or all
retail grocery stores. As it is impractical to collect data from all members of such
large populations, a sample is selected. Various types of samples are possible, but
they can be classified into two general categories- nonprobability and probability.
Minimizing potential sources of error. The first task in sampling is to define carefully
just what groups of people, stores, or other units are to be sampled. For example, if the
study calls for collecting data from appliance dealers, it is necessary to define what is
meant by an appliance dealer (are discount stores selling appliances to be included?). It is
also necessary to define the precise geographical area of interest (e.g. the metropolitan
Chicago area).
5. Determining Sample Size: The researcher must also decide how large a sample to
select. Marketing research samples vary from fewer than 10 to several thousand. The
researcher must consider the problem at hand, the budget, and the accuracy needed in
the data before the question of sample size can be answered
Minimizing potential sources of error. The magnitude of potential error from sample
size can be calculated using the theory of sampling statistics if a probability sample is
used. That theory can help researchers determine what sample size is needed for a given
degree of accuracy. The accuracy needed in the study and the costs of using various size
samples will determine the choice and, therefore, the reliability of the results.
Minimizing potential sources of error. By following what are considered good practices
in the selection, training, controlling, and evaluating if fieldworkers, marketing
researchers can do much to standardize procedures and to minimize errors resulting from
fieldwork.
7. Analyzing the Collected Data and reporting the Findings. After all interviews and
/or observations have been dame, the completed data-collection forms must be
processed in a way that will yield the information the project was designed to obtain.
First, the forms need to be edited to ensure that instructions were followed, that all
questions were asked of observations made, and that the resulting data are consistent
and logical. Nest, the data must be prepared for tabulation. This means the data must
be assigned to categories and then coded so the responses can be put into the
computer. The responses are usually tabulated and analyzed on a computer.
Chapter 2
Defining the Marketing Research Problem and Developing an Approach
Importance of defining the Problem
Although each step in a marketing research project is important, problem definition is the
most important step. Problem definition involves
Stating the general problem and identifying the specific components of the marketing
research problem. Only when the marketing research problem has been clearly
defined can research be designed and conducted properly.
Of all the tasks in a marketing research project, none is more vital to the ultimate
fulfillment of a clients needs than a proper definition of the research problem.
All the effort, time, and money spent from this point on will be wasted if the problem
is misunderstood or ill defined.
Better communication and more involvement in problem definition are the most
frequently mentioned ways of improving the usefulness of research.
These results lead to the conclusion that the importance of clearly identifying and defining
the marketing research problem cannot be overstated.
Tasks Involved
Discussions
with Decision
Makers
Interviews
with Experts
Secondary
Data
Analysis
Qualitative
Research
Objectives/
Theoretical
Foundations
Specification
of
Information
Needed
Theoretical
Foundations
Tasks Involved
Discussions with Decision Makers: Discussions with decision makers (DM) are
extremely important. The problem audit provides a useful framework for interacting
with the DM and identifying the underlying causes of the problem. The problem audit
, like any other type of audit, is a comprehensive examination of a marketing problem
with the purpose of understanding its origin and nature.
Interviews with Industry Experts: These experts may be found both inside and
outside the firm. Typically, expert information is jobtained by unstructured personal
interviews, without administering a formal questionnaire.
Secondary Data Analysis: Secondary data are data collected for some purpose other
than the problem at hand. Analysis of available secondary data is an essential step in
the problem definition process: Primary data should not be collected until the
available secondary darta have been fully analyzed.
Management
Decision
Problem and
Marketing
Research
Problem:The
management decision problem asks what the DM needs to do, whereas the marketing
research problem asks what information is needed and how it can best be obtained.
Exploratory
Research
Conclusive
Research
Descriptive
Research
CrossSectional
Design
Causal
Research
Longitudinal
Design
Exploratory research is used in cases when you must define the problem more
precisely; identify relevant courses of action, or gain additional insights before an
approach can be developed.
The information needed is only loosely defined at the stage, and the research process
that is adopted is flexible and unstructured.
For example, it may consist of personal interviews with industry experts. The sample,
selected to generate maximum insights, is small and non-representative. The primary data are
qualitative in nature and are analyzed accordingly. These characteristics of the research
process, the findings of exploratory research should be regarded as tentative or as input to
further research.
These and other similar questions should be asked until the information to be obtained has
been clearly defined.
A. In single cross-sectional designs only one sample or respondents is drawn from the
target population, and information is obtained from this sample only once. These
designs are also called sample survey research designs.
3. Casual Research: Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause and-effect (causal)
relationships. Marketing managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal
relationships. These assumptions may not be justifiable, and the validity of the causal
relationships should be examined via formal research.
For example, the common assumption that a decrease in price will lead to increased sales
and market share does not hold in certain competitive environments. Causal research is
appropriate for the following purposes:
A. To understand which variables are the causes (independent variables) and which
variables are the effects (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
B. To determine the nature off the relationship between the causal variables and the
effect to be predicted.
An examination requires a causal design, in which the causal or independent variables are
manipulated in a relatively controlled environment. A relatively controlled environment is
one in which the other variables that may affect the dependent variable are controlled or
checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation on one or more dependent
variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of causal research is
experimentation.
Random
Sampling Error
Non-sampling
Error
Response
Error
Researcher
Errors
Interviewers
Errors
Respondent selection
Error
Questioning Error
Recording Error
Cheating Error
Non-response
Error
Respondent
Errors
Inability Error
Unwillingness
Error
1. Random Sampling Error: Random sampling error occurs because the particular
sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of interest. Random
sampling error is the variation between the true mean value for the population and the
true mean value for the original sample.
2. Non-sampling Error: Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than
sampling, and they may be random or nonrandom. They result from a variety of
reasons, including errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire
design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis.
3. Non-response Error: Non-response error arises when some of the respondents
included in the sample do not respond. The primary causes of non-response are
refusals and not-at-homes.
4. Response Error: Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or
their answers are miss-recorded or misanalyses. Response error is defined as the
variation between the true mean value of the variable in the net sample and the
observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.
Surrogate information error may be defined as the variation between the information
needed for the marketing research problem and the information sought by the
researcher.
Measurement error may be defined as the variation between the information sought
and the information generated by the measurement process employed by the researcher.
Population definition error may be defined as the variation between the actual
population relevant to the problem at hand and the population as defined by the
researcher.
Sampling frame error may be defined as the variation between the population defined
by the researcher and the population as implied by the sampling frame (list) used. For
example, the telephone directory used to generate a list of telephone numbers does not
accurately represent the population of potential consumers because of unlisted,
disconnected, and new numbers in service.
Data analysis error encompasses errors that occur while raw data from questionnaires
are transformed into research findings.
Respondent selection error occurs when interviewers select respondents other than
those specified by the sampling design or in a manner inconsistent with the sampling
design.
Questioning error denotes errors made in asking questions of the respondents or in not
probing when more information is needed.
Recording error arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting, and recording the answers
given by the respondents.
Cheating error arises when the interviewer fabricates answers to a part or all of the
interview.
Inability error results from the respondents inability to provide accurate answers.
Respondents may provide inaccurate answers because of unfamiliarity, fatigue,
boredom, faulty recall, question format, question content, and other factor.
Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem
at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.
The differences between primary and secondary data lead to some distinct advantages and
uses of secondary data.
Given these advantages and uses of secondary data, we state the following general rule:
Proceed to primary data only when the secondary data sources have been
exhausted or yield marginal returns.
Researcher should be cautious in using secondary data, because they have some limitations
and disadvantages.
Procedures used for fieldwork, and data analysis and reporting procedure.
These checks provide information on the reliability and validity of the data and help
determine whether they can be generalized to the problem at hand.
2. Errors: Accuracy of the data: The researcher must determine whether the data are
accurate enough for the purposes of the present study. Secondary can have a number
of sources of error, or inaccuracy, including
research design,
sampling,
data collections,
analysis,
census data periodically and make the current information available on a syndicated
basis.
4. Objective: The Purpose for which the data Were Collected: The objective for
collecting data will ultimately determine the purpose for which that information is
relevant and useful. Data collected with a specific objective in mind may not be
appropriate in another situation.
5. Nature: The Content of the Data: The nature, or content, of the data should be
examined with special attention to the definition of key variables, the units of
measurement, categories used, and the relationships examined. If the key variables
have not been defined or are defined in a manner inconsistent with the researchers
definition, then the usefulness of the data is limited.
6. Dependability: How dependable are the Data? An overall indication of the
dependability of data may be obtained by examining the expertise, credibility,
reputation, and trustworthiness of the source. This information can be obtained by
checking with others who have used the information provided by the source.
Internal
Ready to use
Requires
Further
Processing
External
Published
Materials
Computerized
Database
Syndicated
Services
1. Internal Secondary Data: Internal data are those generated within the organization
for which the research is being conducted. Internal data have two significant
advantages. They are easily available and inexpensive. In fact, internal secondary
sources are generally the least costly of any source of marketing research information;
yet these data often are not fully exploited. However, this trend is changing with the
increased popularity of database marketing. Database marketing involves the use of
computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase detail. This secondary
Published Secondary
Data
General Business
Sources
Guides
Directories
Government Sources
Statistical
Data
Indexes
Other Government
Publications
Census Data
Computerized Databases
Computerized
Databases
Online
Bibliographic
Databases
Internet
Numeric
Databases
Full-Text
Databases
Offline
Directory
Databases
Special
Purpose
Databases
Syndicated Sources of Secondary Data: Syndicated sources constitute the other major
source of external secondary data. Syndicated services, also referred to as syndicated sources,
are companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value,
designed to serve information needs shared by a number of clients.
Secondary Data
Primary Data
Qualitative Data
Quantitative Data
Descriptive Data
Survey Data
Causal Data
Observational and
Other Data
Experimental Data
their ego or status. Examples of such sensitive questions include: Have you recently
purchased sanitary napkins?
Direct
(Non-disguised)
Focus Groups
Association
Techniques
Indirect
(Disguised)
Depth Interviews
Completion
Techniques
Projective
Techniques
Construction
Techniques
Expressive
Techniques
A direct approach is not disguised. The purpose of the project is disclosed to the
respondents or is otherwise obvious to them from the questions asked. Focus groups and
depth interviews are the major direct techniques.
An indirect approach disguises the true purpose of the project. Projective techniques, the
commonly used indirect techniques, consist of association, completion, construction, and
expressive techniques.
8-12
Group composition
Physical setting
Time duration
1 to 3 hours
Recording
Moderator
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with
understanding empathy in order to generate the necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the groups
cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal
involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more
specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to
participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline
amid the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at
an intellectual as well as emotional level.
Depth Interviews
An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly
skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a
topic.
Characteristics
1. Depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining information
2. Depth interviews are conducted on a one-to-one basis.
3. A depth interview may take from 30 minutes to more than one hour.
4. The interviewer begins by asking a general question such as, How do you feel about
shopping at department stores?
5. The subsequent direction of the interview is determined by the respondents initial
reply, the interviewers probes for elaboration, and the respondents answers.
Techniques
Hidden issue questioning: In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially
shared values but rather on personal sore spots not on general lifestyles but on
deeply felt personal concerns.
And symbolic analysis: Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning
of objects by comparing them with their opposites.
1. Depth interviews can uncover greater depth of insights than focus groups.
Projective Techniques
A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages
respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding
the issues of concern. In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the
behavior of others rather than describe their won behavior. In interpreting the behavior of
others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into
Sentence Completion.
Picture Response. The roots of picture response techniques can be traced to the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which consists of a series of pictures of
ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent is asked to tell stories about
these pictures. The respondents interpretation of the pictures gives indications of
that individuals personality.
The responses indicate the respondents feelings, beliefs, and attitudes toward the
situation.
Chapter-6,
Descriptive Research Design: Survey and Observation
Survey Methods:
The survey method of obtaining information is based on the questioning of respondents. They
are asked a variety of questions regarding their behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness,
motivations and demographic and lifestyle characteristics. These questions may be asked
verbally, in writing, or via computer, and the responses may be obtained in any of these
forms. Typically, the questioning is structured.
In a typical questionnaire, most questions are fixed-alternative questions that require the
respondent to select from a predetermined set of responses.
The data obtained are reliable because the responses are limited to the alternatives
stated.
The use of fixed-response questions reduces the variability in the results that may be
caused by differences in interviewers.
Structured questions and fixed-response alternatives may result in loss of validity for
certain types of data such as beliefs and feelings.
Telephone
Interviewing
Traditional
In
home
Personal
Interviewing
Mail
Interviewing
ComputerAssisted
Mall
Intercept
Electronic
Interviewing
ComputerAssisted
Mail
Panel
Internet
Telephone
Moderate to
high
low
Low
Quantity of data
Response rate
Perceived anonymity
of the respondent
Social desirability
Obtaining sensitive
information
Potential for
interviewer bias
Speed
Cost
Interviews
Intercept
High
High
High
High
Moderate to
high
Potentially
high
high
Moderate
environment
Control of field force
Mall
Moderate to
Control of datacollection
In-home
Moderate to
high
Mall
Mall
Surveys
Panels
Low
Low
Low
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
High
High
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
CAPI
Moderate to
high
Moderate
to high
Low
Internet
Moderate
to high
Moderate
to high
Moderate
Low to
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
High
Low
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
High
High
Low
Moderate
Low
Very low
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
High
High
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
High
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
High
Low
Low
Moderate
High
Moderate
High
High
Low
None
None
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate to
to high
high
High
Very high
Moderate
High
Moderate
Moderate to
to high
high
Low
Low
Moderate to
high
Low to
moderate
High
None
Low
Low
Moderate
to high
None
Low to
Moderate
Low to
Moderate
Moderate Moderate
Observation Methods
In observation methods, the observer does not question or communicate with the people
being observed. Information may be recorded as the events occur or from records of past
events. Observational methods may be structured or unstructured, direct or indirect.
Personal
Observation
Mechanical
Observation
Audit
Content
Analysis
Trace
Analysis
Scientific Meaning
causes of Y.
X must always lead to Y.
(X is a deterministic cause of Y)
2. Test Units. Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response
to the independent variables or treatments is being examined. Test units may include
consumers, stores, or geographic areas.
3. Dependent Variables. Dependent variables are the variables that measure the effect
of the independent variables on the test units. These variables may include sales,
profits and market shares.
4. Extraneous Variables. Extraneous variables are all variables other than the
independent variables that affect the response of the test units. Extraneous variables
include store size, store location, and competitive effort.
The test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous sub
samples
Definition of Symbol:
To facilitate our discussion of extraneous variables and specific experimental designs, we
define a set of symbols that are now commonly used in marketing research.
O = the process of observation or measurement of the dependent variable on the test units or
group of units
Horizontal alignment of symbols implies that all those symbols refer to a specific
treatment group.
Vertical alignment of symbols implies that those symbols refer to activities or events
that occur simultaneously. For example, the symbolic arrangement
O1
O2
Means that a given group of test units was exposed to the treatment variable (X) and the
response was measured at two different points in time, O1 and O2.
X1
O1
X2
O2
Means that two groups of test units were randomly assigned to two different treatment groups
at the same time, and the dependent variable was measured in the two groups simultaneously.
Validity in Experimentation
When conducting an experiment, a researcher has two goals:
1. Draw valid conclusions about the effects of independent variables on the study group.
2. Make valid generalizations to a larger population of interest. The first goal concern
internal validity, the second, external validity.
Extraneous Variables
1. History (H). Specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same
time as the experiment. Example, general economic conditions declined during the
experiment, and the local area was particularly hard hit by layoffs and plant closings
(history).
3. Main Testing Effects (MT). An effect of testing occurring when a prior observation
affects a latter observation. Consider an experiment to measure the effect of
advertising on attitudes toward a certain brand. The respondents are given a
4. Interactive testing effect (IT). An effect in which a prior measurement affects the
test units response to the independent variable. Continuing with our advertising
experiment, when people are asked to indicate their attitudes toward a brand, they
become aware of that brand: they are sensitized to that brand and become more likely
to pay attention to the test commercial than people who were not included in the
experiment.
6. Statistical Regression (SR). Statistical regression effects occur when test units with
extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment.
In the advertising experiment, suppose that some respondents had either very
favorable or very unfavorable attitudes. On post-treatment measurement, their
attitudes might have moved toward the average.
7. Selection bias (SB). Selection bias refers to the improper assignment of test units to
treatment conditions. This bias occurs when selection or assignment of test units
results in treatment groups that differ on the dependent variable before the exposure to
the treatment condition.
8. Mortality (MO). Mortality refers to the loss of test units while the experiment is in
progress. This happens for many reasons, such as test units refusing to continue in the
experiment.
The various categories of extraneous variables are not mutually exclusive. They can occur
jointly and also interact with each other.
Pre-experimental Designs
These designs are characterized by an absence of randomization. Three specific designs are
described:
O1
A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X, and then a single measurement on the
dependent variable is taken (01). There is no random assignment of test units. The symbol R
is not used here, because the test units are self-selected or selected arbitrarily by the
researcher.
One Group Pretest- Posttest Design
The one- group pretest-posttest design may be symbolized as
O1
O2
In this design, a group of test units is measured twice. There is no control group. First, a pretreatment measure is taken (O1), and then the group is exposed to the treatment (X). Finally, a
post-treatment measure is taken (O2 ).The treatment effect is computed as O2 O1, but the
validity of this conclusion is questionable because extraneous variables are largely
uncontrolled. History, maturation, testing (both main and interactive testing effects),
instrumentation, selection, mortality, and regression could possibly be resent.
Static Group design:
The static group is a two-group experimental design. One group, called the experimental
group (EG), is exposed to the treatment, and the other, called the control group (CG), is not.
Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment, and test units are not
assigned at random. This design may be symbolically described as
EG:
O1
CG:
O2
EG:
O1
CG:
O3
O2
O4
Interactive testing effect is not controlled, because of the effect of the pretest measurement on
the reaction of units in the experimental group to the treatment.
CG:
O1
O2
This design is fairly simple to implement. Because there is no pre-measurement, the testing
effects are eliminated, but this design is sensitive to selection bias and mortality.
Chapter 8
Measurement and Scaling: Fundamentals and Comparative Scaling
Measurement: Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of
objects according to certain prespecified rules.
Scaling: Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. It
is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward
an object. To illustrate, consider a scale from 1 to 100 for locating consumers according to
the characteristic attitude toward department stores.
Nominal Scale: A nominal scale is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve
only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. For example, the numbers
assigned to the respondents in a study constitute a nominal scale.
Ordinal Scale: An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects
to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. For example,
quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament.
Interval Scale: In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal
values in the characteristic being measured. There is a constant or equal interval between
scale values. The difference between 1 and 2 is the same as the difference between 2 and 3,
which is the same as the difference between 5 and 6.
Ratio Scale: In ratio scales we can identify or classify objects, rank the objects, and compare
intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
No.
Preference
Preference
$ spent last 3
Ranking
Rating
Months
Store
1----7
1
Parisian
79
Macys
25
200
Kmart
82
Kohls
30
100
JC Penney
10
250
Neiman-Marcus
53
35
Marshalls
95
61
100
Sears
45
10
Wal-Mart
10
115
10
Scaling Techniques
Comparative
Scales
Paired
comparison
Rank Order
No comparative
Scales
Constant Sum
Q-short and
other Procedures
Continuous Rating
Scales
Likert Scales
Semantic
Differential
Itemized Rating
Scales
Stapel
Paired comparison Scaling: As its name implies, in paired comparison scaling, a respondent
is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data
obtained are ordinal in nature.
Rank Order Scaling: In rank order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. For example,
respondents may be asked to rank brands of toothpaste according to overall preference.
Constant Sum Scaling: In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a constant sum of
units, such as points, dollars among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion.
Q- Sort Scaling: Q sort scaling was developed to discriminate quickly among a relatively
large number of objects. This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are
sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some crite
Chapter-9
Non-comparative Scaling Techniques
1.
For each of the following brands, check the degree it is acceptable to you.
Extremely acceptable
Quite acceptable
Slightly acceptable
Slightly unacceptable
Extremely unacceptable
1. 11- point numbered and verbal scale.
What is the chance of your buying (-------------) the next time you purchase this product?
100 absolutely
90
80 strong possibility
70
60
50
40
30
20 slight possibility
10
0 absolutely no chance.
2. 7 point verbal unbalanced Scale
Excellent
Very good
Good
Fair
Not so good
Poor
Dont know
Poor 1
10 Exct.
7. 5 point verbal.
What is the chance of your buying (brand) the nest time you purchase this product?
Definitely
Very likely
Will buy
will buy
probably will
buy
Might or
definitely will
might not
not buy
Not buy
8. 5- point verbal
Check your agreement with the following statement: (brand) is considered one of the best.
Agree
Agree
Completely somewhat
Dont
Disagree
Disagree
know
somewhat
completely
Respondent is given 10 pennies and a num be of brands and asked to allocate the pennies
over the brands on the basis of how she likes them.
Poor
Excellent
-5
-4
-3 -2
-1
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
Objectives of a Questionnaire
Any questionnaire has three specific objectives.
First, it must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the
respondents can and will answer.
face to face with the interviewer. Thus, lengthy, complex, and varied questions can be
asked. In telephone interviews, the respondents interact with the interviewer, but
they do not see the questionnaire. This limits the type of questions that can be asked
to short and simple ones. Mail questionnaires are self administered, so the questions
must be simple and detailed instructions must be provided.
own words. Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. A structured question may be multiple choices, dichotomous, or a
scale.
Example, Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate? (Incorrect), Do you think
soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them? (Correct)
3. Avoid ambiguous words: The words used in a questionnaire should have a
single meaning that is known to the respondents. Example, In a typical month,
how often do you shop in department stores? ( Incorrect)
Never
Occasionally
Sometimes
Often
Regularly
1or 2 times
3 or 4 times
4. Avoid leading questions: A leading question is one that clues the respondent to
what answer is desired or leads the respondent to answer in a certain way, as
in the following:
Do you think that patriotic Americans should buy imported automobiles when that would put
American labor out of work? (Incorrect)
Yes
No
Dont Know
Yes
No
Dont Know
Chapter-13
Field Work Procedure
Research directors have two major alternatives for getting their fieldwork done-
Telephone Surveys
Door-to-Door Surveys.
Not at homes
Refusals
Clerical errors.
Dont know
5.Interviewer cheating.
Influenced respondents.
Minimizing Fieldwork Errors
There are general administrative and control procedures, also, which can improve the overall
quality of fieldwork while holding costs at acceptable levels. Most research organizations pay
particular attention to five factors;
1. Selection and training of field-workers- interviewers or observers.
2. Administrative procedures for handling projects in the field.
3. Supervision of field-workers and the data collection process.
4. Quality and cost control procedures
Control
Detection of cheating
5. Validation of fieldwork,
Cost
Quality of data.
Questionnaire Checking
Editing
Coding
Transcribing
Data Cleaning
Questionnaire Checking
Questionnaire checking involves a check of all questionnaires for completeness and
interviewing quality. Often these checks are made while fieldwork is still underway. If the
fieldwork was contracted to a data-collection agency, the researcher should make an
independent check after it is over. A questionnaire returned from the field may be
unacceptable for several reasons.
1. Parts of the questionnaire may be incomplete.
2. The pattern of responses may indicate that the respondent did not understand or
follow the instructions.
3. The responses show little variance. For example, a respondent has checked only 4s on
a series of 7-point rating scales.
4. The returned questionnaire is physically incomplete: one or more pages are missing.
5. The questionnaire is received after the pre-established cutoff date.
6. The questionnaire is answered by someone who does not qualify for participation.
Editing
Editing is the review of the questionnaires with the objective of increasing accuracy and
precision. It consists of screening questionnaires to identify illegible, incomplete,
inconsistent, or ambiguous responses.
Assigning Missing Values: If returning the questionnaires to the field is not feasible,
the editor may assign missing values to unsatisfactory responses. This approach may
be desirable if the number of respondents with unsatisfactory responses is small.
Coding
Coding means assigning a code, usually a number, to each possible response to each
question. The code includes an indication of the column position (field) and data record it
will occupy. For example, sex of respondents may be coded as 1 for females and 2 for males.
A field represents a single item of data, such as sex of the respondent. A record consists of
related fields, such as sex, marital status, age, household size, occupation and so forth.
Codebook:
A codebook contains coding instructions and the necessary information about variables in the
data set. A codebook guides the coders in their work and helps the researcher to properly
identify and locate the variables. Even if the questionnaire has been pre coded, it is helpful to
prepare a formal codebook. a codebook generally contains the following information: (1)
column number, (2) record number, (3) variable number, (4) variable name, (5) Question
number and instructions for coding.
Transcribing
Transcribing data involves transferring the coded data from the questionnaires or coding
sheets onto disks or magnetic tapes or directly into computers by keypunching. If the data
have been collected via CATI or CAPI, this step is unnecessary because the data are entered
directly into the computer as they are collected. If keypunching is used, errors can occur, and
it is necessary to verify the data set, or at least a portion of it, for key punching errors.
Verification of the entire data set will double the time and cost of data transcription. Given
the time and cost constraints, as well as the fact that experienced keypunch operators are
quite accurate, it is sufficient to verify only 25 to 50 percent of the data.
Data Cleaning
Data cleaning includes consistency checks and treatment of missing responses. Although
preliminary consistency checks have been made during editing, the checks at this stage are
more thorough and extensive, because they are made by computer.
Advertising Research
objective must somehow relate to consumers; behavior since this is what must be influenced
to obtain a sale.
Advertising objectives can also be classified as per their objective in terms of informing,
persuading, or reminding. Examples of information type objectives include making
prospective consumers aware of a new product, announcing a new piece, and explaining how
a product words. Persuading objectives include attempting to build brand preference and
loyalty and changing a consumers attitudes about a particular brands characteristics.
Objectives having to do with reminding include communications telling consumers where
and when to buy the products.
Copy testing research seeds to evaluate alternative ways for advertisers to present their
messages. The use of the word copy is perhaps unfortunate, since it seems only to refer to
print media and, more specifically, to the headline and text of the advertising message. For
our discussion, copy will refer to an entire advertisement, including the verbal message,
pictures, colors, and dramatizations, whether the advertisement appears in print, on radio or
television, or via some other medium.
There are many different copy-testing methods. Which one to use depends upon what
assumptions are made about how advertising words and its objectives?
If attitude shift is what is wanted, then scales will be used to measure change.
Copy testing is divided into two major parts, those tests made before the copy is released on a
full-run basis (before or pretests) and those tests done after the copy is run (after or posttests).
Pretests are designed to determine what weaknesses exist in the copy before too much money
has been spent on the advertising.
After or post testing attempts to measure the combined effect of the advertising, the media
used, the scheduling, the products distribution, and competitive advertising.
Before Tests
Consumer Jury: This testing method is one of the oldest and simplest before tests. It
provides a rating given an advertisement by a group of consumers who represent
potential buyers of the product. Personal interviews may be used, or a group may be
assembled and the members asked to vote on the alternatives. The copy may be
dummy form or the major theme placed on cards. Respondents are then asked to rank
the alternatives according to their preferences or interest in buying the product. It is
assumed that respondents will always like at least one advertisement; in reality, the
rating may be on the basis of which advertisement is disliked the least.
Portfolio Tests. These tests are named after the manner n which the advertisements to
be tested are packaged. A group of ads, usually a mixture of test ads and control
ads, is placed in a portfolio. Sometimes the ads are actually placed in dummy copies o
newspapers or magazines, Respondents who are thought to be representative of the
target audience are given the folio and asked to go through it, reading whatever
interests them and taking as much ti8me as they want. After completing this task, the
respondents are asked to recall (with the folio closed) the ads that they can remember.
Such recall may be on a completely unaided basis, or the interviewer may aid recalled
ad, the respondent is asked to play back as much of the ad as possible. This
information is recorded verbatim. Additional questions may be asked about such
things as the believability of the claims in the ad, the general reaction the ad, and
whether the respondent uses the product.
Psychological Tests. These tests are somewhat related to the tests already discussed,
but they differ in the methods used. Advertisement effectiveness depends on the
results achieved in the mind of the individual reached by the advertisement. Ideally,
one could set up a list of the reactions that might result from a given advertisement,
such as self-pity security, fear, or nostalgia. Alternative advertisements could then be
rated on how readers responded with respect to those reactions. Psychological tests
employ variety of research techniques, including word association, sentence
completion, depth interviewing, and story telling.
Physiological Tests. Measures derived from physiological tests are obtained using
special laboratory equipment which records and individuals physiological responses
to advertisements. Such tests have prevailed over the years because of their potential
for providing objective responses to identifiable stimuli. Two of the older ones are the
galvanic skin response and the eye movement test. Respondents are linked by
electrodes to a monitor and are exposed to a number of stimuli in the form of test and
control ads. The eye camera is a device that records continuously the activity of the
eye-both horizontal and vertical as it reads printed material. By analyzing the route
taken researchers can determine what part of the advertisement attracted the initial
attention, what was interesting in it, and whether there was part, which appeared
confusing.
Inquiries. Some advertisements are designed to produce direct results, such as sales
or inquiries. In such cases, a basis exists for measuring accurately the advertisements
worth.
Inquiry tests may be handled in several ways.
1. The same offer may be placed in different pieces of copy placed in different
issues of the same medium.
2. The same offer is placed in different advertising copy that appears in different
magazines or newspapers. The assumption is that differences between media
are either negligible or can be corrected for (say, on the basis of circulation),
and that the adjusted returns will indicate the best copy.
3. The same offer placed a medium that provides a split-run service. This is a
procedure whereby half the copies of the magazine or newspaper contain one
piece of copy and half contain another piece of copy. This is accomplished in
a systematic way so that the two pieces of copy reach similar audiences.
Sales Tests. Such tests can be conducted using a variety of experimental designs.
They are sometimes done as part of a variety of experimental designs. They are
sometimes done as part of a test-marketing program, in which case the number of
cities is typically small. Despite their appeal, such tests have important limitations:
they measure only short-term effects the measuring instruments may not be
sufficiently sensitive to detect relatively small differences in sales; they are timeconsuming; it is hard to hold all other factors constant; and they are quite
expensive.
Day-After Recall Tests. Such tests are typically applied to television commercials.
They consist of an on air exposure of a finished commercial in one or more cities,
following which several hundred viewers are interviewed by phone to determine if
they can recall the message.
After Tests
Once an advertisement or campaign has run, it is impossible to measure the effects of the
message separately, since the results are confounded by the frequency of the media schedule,
the impact of the medium used, and other market factors. To a considerable extent, an after
test is one concerned with total advertising effectiveness.
After tests may be designed in a number of ways.
Recall versus Recognition Tests: Recognition tests are used primarily with print ads. The
critical thing that defines a recognition test is that the person is given a copy of the
information he or she needs to find in memory. In the typical advertising publication issue to
which the respondent has been exposed. The subject is then queried as to whether or not she
or he has even seen the particular ad in that issue.
1. Title Page, The title page should indicate the subject, the date the report is prepared,
for whom prepared, and by whom prepared, sometimes it is not necessary to specify
for whom the report is prepared, while at other times it is wise to indicate this
precisely and to show who actually receives copies. Some research reports are
confidential and for limited distribution; in such cases, it is particularly desirable to
indicate on the title page who will receive a copy.
2. Table of Contents, If the report is lengthy, or if it is divided into numerous parts, it is
usually desirable to have a table of contents, If the report includes numerous charts,
graphs, and tables, it is desirable to include a list of them immediately following the
table of contents.
4. Statement of Objectives, The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth
clearly. The reader must know exactly what the report covers. If the particular project
is part of a large problem, it is desirable to state the overall problem and the problem
solution process.
to write because it is hard to discuss methodology without using technical terms, yet
much of the audience for the report will not understand technical language.
Research design
Data-Collection Methods
Sampling
Fieldwork
Analysis.
6. Limitations. In describing the limitations of the study, researchers should point out
the degree to which they could affect the results. If limitations are overemphasized
and not put in their proper perspective, they may tend to destroy confidence in the
valuable parts of the study instead of increasing confidence.
7. Findings, Findings are the results of the study. This section makes up the bulk of the
report. It is not just an assortment of statistical tables and charts but an organized
narrative of the results. Summary tables and graphic methods of presentation should
be used liberally. Highly detailed tables should be relegated to the appendix. The
specific objectives of the study should be kept in mind and findings presented with
them in view. Too often, writers feel they must present all findings regardless of their
bearing on the objectives of the study. The list of information needed to achieve the
objectives, which was prepared in the problem formulation step should limit the scope
of the findings presented.