UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

FILTRATION
1. Data for the filtration of calcium carbonate slurry from water are
given in the table below. The filtration was at a constant pressure
of 46.2 kPa from the start and the area for filtration was 0.0439
m2. The slurry concentration was 23.5 kg solid per m 3 of slurry
and the density of calcium carbonate is 2700 kg m -3 and the
voidage of the filter cake may be taken as 0.5:
Determine the specific resistance of the cake.
Volume of filtrate (litres) 0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Time (mins)
17.3 41.3 72.0 108.3 152.0 210.7
3
water = 10 Pa.s
[6 1012 m kg-1]
2. Data for the rate of filtration of a slurry through a filter having an
area of 0.093 m2 at a pressure drop of 2.0 bar is given as follows:
Time (s)
26
Weight of filtrate (kg) 2.27

98
4.54

211
6.81

361
9.08

555 788 1083

11.35 13.62 15.89

The mass fraction of solids in the feed was 0.139.

Given that the voidage of wet cake at the end was 0.47,
calculate the cake thickness at the end of the filtration and also
the specific surface of the particles.
Density of solid = 4258 kg m-3
Density of liquid = 1000 kg m-3
Viscosity of liquid = 1.3 10-3 Pa.s
[12 mm cake thickness, Specific surface = 3.33 10 6 m1]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

3. Data for the rate of filtration of a slurry through a filter having an

area of 0.093 m2 at a pressure drop of 2.0 bar is given as follows:
Time (s)
26
Weight of filtrate (kg) 2.27

98
4.54

211
6.81

361
9.08

555 788 1083

11.35 13.62 15.89

The mass fraction of solids in the feed was 0.139.

An industrial application generates 85 litres of this slurry per
hour. If a leaf filter is used to process the slurry at an elevated
temperature, with a running time of 45 minutes and a working
pressure of 1.2 bar, how much area would it need and what
would be the cake thickness on emptying the filter? The voidage
of wet cake at the end is 0.47.
Density of solid = 4258 kg m-3
Density of liquid = 1000 kg m-3
Viscosity of liquid under test conditions = 1.3 10 -3 Pa.s
Viscosity of liquid under industrial conditions = 0.95 10 -3 Pa.s
[0.53 m2, 17 mm]
4.

A batch centrifugal filter with a bowl height of 45.7 cm and a

radius of 38.1 cm operates at 33.33 Hz at 25.0C. The filtrate is
effectively water, and at a given time the contents of the filter
have the properties below. Find the flowrate of the filtrate, the
pressure drop across it, and the amount of time it has taken to fill
the filter with this much solid.
Solids content of feed is 60.0 kg m-3 of filtrate
Cake voidage = 0.82
Solid density = 2002 kg m-3
Cake thickness = 15.2 cm
Cake resistance = 3.55 1011 m kg-1
Cloth resistance = 8.52 1010 m-1
Depth of liquid on top of filter cake = 2.6 cm
[7.7 hours, 246 kPa, 1.21 10-5 m3s-1]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

5.

Data for the filtration of CaCO3 slurry in water at 25C are

reported at a number of operating pressures. The area of the
plate-and-frame filter press used was 0.0439 m 2 and the slurry
concentration was 23.47 kg solid per m 3 filtrate. Calculate and
Rm in all three cases, and model the change of with applied
pressure using a power law correlation.
46.2 kPa
194.4 kPa
338 kPa
3
Volume (m ) Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
0.0005
17.3
6.3
4.4
0.001
41.3
14.0
9.5
0.0015
72.0
24.2
16.3
0.002
108.3
37.0
24.6
0.0025
152.0
51.7
34.7
0.003
201.7
69.0
46.1
0.0035
88.8
59.0
0.004
110.0
73.6
0.0045
134.0
89.4
0.005
160.0
107.3
[ = 4.87109 (P)0.2899]
Worked examples in filtration are at the back of the tutorial
sheet

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

MEMBRANES
1.

A loosely packed bed of sand 0.9144 metres thick separates an

otherwise open water stream at 25C and the atmosphere at a
total pressure of 1.013 105 Pascals.
Assuming that
atmospheric air is dry and the air at the water's surface is
saturated, what is the steady state rate of diffusion through the
bed if its void fraction is 0.50?
0.2
0.4
0.6
Void fraction
2.0
1.75
1.65
Tortuosity
[1.14 10-8 kmol water m2s1]

2.

A mixture of Helium and Argon is diffusing at 101 325 Pa and

298 K through a capillary with a 100 radius. Calculate the
Knudsen diffusivity of both gases and compare it to the diffusivity
of Helium in Argon.
[He: 8.37 106 m2s1, Ar: 2.65 106 m2s1]

3.

Helium and argon at 298 K are diffusing through an open

capillary 15 mm long with a 1000 radius. The total pressure is
101 325 Pa. Calculate the Knudsen diffusivity of argon and the
steady state flux of argon if its mole fraction at pore entry and
exit is 0.8 and 0.2.
[3.7 105 kmol m2s1]

4.

A non-catalytic pore 1.0 mm long with a 50 radius has pure

hydrogen at one end and pure ethane at the other, both at 1 013
250 Pa and 373 K. Predict the diffusivity of the gas mixture in
the pore, the Knudsen diffusivities of both gases and their open
system fluxes.
[7.88 10-6 and 6.62 106 m2s1; 1.71 106 m2s1; 1.39 103
and -3.506 104 kmol m2s1]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

5.

Hydrogen gas at 1.4 atmospheres absolute pressure and 17C

flows inside a 6 foot long vulcanised neoprene tube with a 0.5
inch outer and 0.25 inch inner diameter. Calculate the diffusion
rate through the tube walls, assuming no resistance to diffusion
outside the slab and zero partial pressure of H 2 on the outside.
(Conversion factors: 1 foot = 0.3048 metres, 12 inches = 1 foot.)
[5.44 10-12 kmol H2 per second]

6.

A flat circular vulcanised rubber plug of equal diameter and

thickness of 25.4 mm seals the top of a container holding carbon
dioxide gas at 1.6 atmospheres and 298 K. Calculate the rate at
which the CO2 leaks through the seal to the atmosphere,
assuming that the air outside has a negligible CO 2 concentration.
[1.41 10-13 kmol CO2 per second]

7.

Oxygen gas at 2.0 atm and 27C is flowing in a vulcanised

rubber tube 4.5 mm inside diameter and 9.5 mm outside
diameter. Calculate the leakage of O 2 to the atmosphere through
the walls of a tube 5.0 metres long.
[5.13 10-11 kmol O2 per second]

8.

Hydrogen gas diffuses through a 2 mm thick polyethylene sheet

at 25C. The partial pressure of H 2 inside is 1.2 atm. and zero
outside. Calculate the steady state flux of H2.
[1.75 10-10 kmol m2s1]

9.

Oxygen gas at 1.75 atm and 30C diffuses through a 1.5 mm

nylon and a 6.5 mm vulcanised rubber membrane in series to the
atmosphere. Assuming that there are no other resistances to
diffusion, calculate the steady state flux of O2.
[7.00 10-14 kmol m2s1]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

10. A 0.15 m2 sheet of cellophane wrapping 80 microns thick is used

to keep food moist at 38C. Calculate the maximum daily steady
state loss of water vapour from the food if the outside
atmosphere is dry and the air trapped by the cellophane is
saturated.
[1.55 10-3 kg]
11. A Pyrex glass window 4.0 mm thick, 20 cm tall and 1 mm wide is
used to view the contents in a metal vessel at 100C, including
helium gas at 178.2 kPa. Calculate the steady state rate of loss
of helium through this sight glass.
[7.89 10-17 kmol He per second]
12. A heart-lung machine uses a 0.172mm silicone rubber
membrane with a permeability of 6.38 10-7 cm3 O2 (STP)mm s
1
cm2cmHg1. The machine is to supply 352 cm3min1 of oxygen
to a patient, where the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is
the equivalent of 30 mmHg. The machine is supplied with pure
oxygen at 700 mmHg, so gas film resistance can be neglected.
If the resistance on the blood side were neglected also, how
large would the membrane need to be?
[2.20 m2]
13. Reverse osmosis of salt solution at 25oC is tested with a 5.2
10-3 m2 cellulose acetate membrane. On one side of the
membrane is 1 mol NaCl per kg H2O solution at 60 atmospheres
(abs.) pressure, on the other is 0.01 mol NaCl per kg H 2O at
atmospheric pressure. The permeation rate is 96.12 ml hour1.
Find the solvent permeability and the rejection rate.
[AW = 3.75 x 10-4 kg m2s1atm1, R = 0.99]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

14. Predict the osmotic pressure of the following solutions at 25C by

both the Van't Hoff and Gibbs formulae and compare with the
literature values given in the course handbook.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
sucrose at 0.01770 mole fraction in water
yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
sodium chloride at 1.0 mol per kg water
additional information:
RMM H2O =18 kg kmol1, specific volume of water at 25C is
0.001003 m3 kg1
[24.41, 24.19 atm; 48.76, 47.90 atm]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

CYCLONES
1.

The collection efficiency of a cyclone is 45% over the size range

0 to 5 m, 80% for 5 to 10 m and 96% for 10 m and larger.
Calculate the efficiency of collection for the following dust:
Size range
0 to 5 m
5 to 10 m
10 m +
Weight fraction 0.5
0.3
0.2
[65.7%]

2.

The following sample of solid particles of density 2500 kg m 3 is

to be separated from 4000 m3 hr1 of nitrogen gas at 1 atm. and
150C in a high gas flow cyclone:
Particle Size (m)
2
5
10
20
30
40
50
Cumulative weight % 10
25
45
70
80
86
90
What is the efficiency of collection if 4 cyclones were used in
parallel, each working at a velocity of 15 m s1?
[cyclone diameter = 0.2566m, efficiency = 72.9%]

3.

What is the pressure drop in each of the above cyclones?

[3.07 mbar]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

PACKING
1.

An organic liquid mixture (average molecular weight = 155 kg

kmol1) is separated by vacuum distillation in a 12.74 metre
diameter tower packed with 9.65 mm ceramic Intalox saddles.
The HETP (Height Equivalent of a Theoretical Plate) is 150 mm
and the number of theoretical plates required is 16. If the product
rate is 4.16 kg s1 at a reflux ratio of 11.6, calculate the pressure in
the condenser so that the pressure in the still does not exceed 8
kPa. Neglect temperature changes. Remember to use water
physical properties at 293 K.
L = 800 kg/m3, L = 100 mNs/m2
[6.05 kPa]

2.

A column, packed with 25.4 mm Raschig rings to a bed height of 4

m, is used in a gas absorption process carried out at 293 K and
atmospheric pressure. If the liquid and gas are assumed to have
the same properties as water and air, and their flowrates are 2.5
and 0.6 kg m2s1 respectively, what will be the pressure drop
across the column? What is the maximum liquid rate before
flooding occurs?
[550 Pa, 19 kg m2s1]

3.

A column packed with a bed of 25 mm Raschig rings 9 m high is

used in the vacuum distillation of an isomer mixture of molecular
weight 155 kg kmol1. The mean temperature is 373 K, the
pressure at the top of the column is maintained at 0.13 kPa and
the still pressure must lie between 1.3 and 3.3 kPa. Obtain an
expression for the pressure drop from the Carman-Kozeny
equation and gas flowrate, assuming that liquid flow does not
significantly affect results. Calculate pressure drop when this
flowrate is 0.125 kg m2s1.
= 0.018 mPa.s
[2.41 kPa]

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

FILTRATION WORKED EXAMPLE

A plate and frame filter press is required to process 545 kg hr 1 of an
aqueous slurry containing 20% w/w solids. The following results were
obtained during laboratory trials with samples of the above feedstock
in a press with an effective filtering area of 0.05 m 2:
Filtration time (minutes)

10

15

Filtrate production (kg)

0.5

1.36

2.18

2.72

The time required to open, clean, and close the press at the end of
each cycle is 45 minutes. The filter cake has a bulk density of 1522
kg m3 and it contains 30% by weight of water. Filtration will be
carried out at the same pressure on the full scale as in the test.
Specify the number of 0.7m 0.7m square plates and the separating
distance between filters for the above duty.

SOLUTION pilot scale

Problem talks about same pressure being used in both cases so
this needs the constant P formula:
t t1
c s
Rm
s
V V1 c

V1
2
2
V V1 2A P
A P
P.A

Plotting (t t1)/(V V1) against (V V1) should reveal a straight line

plus intercept. As V1 and t1 are both zero, plot becomes (t/V) against
V. Taking density of water as 1000 kg/m3:
t (seconds)

60

300

600

900

V (m3)

0.0005

0.00136

0.00218

0.00272

t/V (s m3)

120 000

220 588

275 229

330 882

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

So slope

c s
= 90 000 000 s m3
2
2A P

Area will be different on industrial scale but other variables remain the
same.
So

1 c s
= 90 000 000 (0.05)2 = 225 000 s m2
2 P

Intercept

c s
Rm
V1
= 81 144 s m6
2
A P
P.A

Now V1 = 0 and, again, other variables assumed to be the same on

industrial scale
So

Rm
= 81 144 (0.05) = 4057.2 s m4
P

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

SOLUTION industrial scale

As downtime is 45 minutes, optimum filtration time is 45 minutes also,
if cloth resistance is considered small. So t = 45 60 = 2700 s. Of
course, this means that slurry has to accumulate as 90 minute
batches before each is handled.
Batch handled by each cycle = 1.5 hr 545 kg hr 1 = 817.5 kg slurry
Slurry is 20% solids (163.5 kg) and 80% water (654 kg)
Filter cake is 70% solid its total mass = 163.5 0.7 = 233.57 kg
Remaining 30% of cake is water: 0.3 233.57 = 70.07 kg
Filtrate mass is water that cake did not trap: 654 70.07 = 583.93 kg
V1 and t1 are both zero and water density is 1000 kg/m 3, as before.
t t1
c s
Rm
s
V V1 c

V1
2
2
V V1 2A P
A P
P.A

2700 0
1
c
1
2 225000 0.58393 0 2 s 0 4057.2
0.58393 0 A
A P
A

Multiplying both sides by A2 and dividing by 4057.2:

1.1397 A2 = 32.383 + A
1.1397 A2 A 32.383 = 0
1 12 41.1397 32.383
21.1397

So

1 12.191
1 1 147.63

2.2794
2.2794

Answer cant be negative so A = 5.7872 m2.

This wont be the exact area because the industrial filter has an
unknown number of frames: N.
Each frame has two faces; each face has 0.7 0.7 = 0.49 m 2 filter
cloth.

UNIT OPERATIONS 2 tutorial

So 2 0.49 N = 5.7872
N = 5.905
As this has to be an integer, we have SIX frames.

Now examine cake thickness at end of cycle:

cake mass = 163.5 kg solid + 70.07 kg water = 233.57 kg overall
cake volume = 233.57 kg 1522 kg m3 = 0.1535 m3
Cake is spread out over 6 frames, each with 0.98 m 2 area
Total true are of filter = 6 0.98 = 5.88 m2
Cake thickness = 0.1535 m3 5.88 m2 = 0.0261 m
ie. 2.6 cm builds up on each filter cloth.
Filter cloths face each other, so filter cakes on opposite cloths will
touch if they become too thick. So filters need to be more than 5.2
cm apart.