Light Emitting Diode: LED

1907 Curious Phenomenon

On applying a potential to
a crystal of carborundum
(SiC), the material gave
out a yellowish light

H.J. Round, Electrical World, 49, 309, 1907

Semiconductor Optoelectronics
Two energy bands
Conduction band (CB)
Valence band (VB)

Fundamental processes
Absorbed photon creates an electron-hole pair
Recombination of an electron and hole can emit a photon

Types of photon emission

Spontaneous emission
Random recombination of an electron-hole pair
Dominant emission for light emitting diodes (LED)

Stimulated emission
A photon excites another electron and hole to recombine
Emitted photon has similar wavelength, direction, and phase
Dominant emission for laser diodes

Basic Light Emission Processes

Pumping (creating more electron-hole pairs)

Electrically create electron-hole pairs
Optically create electron-hole pairs
Emission (recombination of electron-hole pairs)
Spontaneous emission
Simulated emission

Semiconductor Material
Semiconductor crystal is required
Type IV elements on Periodic Table
Silicon
Germanium

Combination of III-V materials

GaAs
InP
AlAs
GaP
InAs

Direct Band Gap Semiconductors

Direct and Indirect Materials

Relationship between energy and momentum for electrons and holes

Depends on the material
Electrons in the CB combine with holes in the VB
Photons have no momentum
Photon emission requires no momentum change
CB minimum needs to be directly over the VB maximum
Direct bandgap transition required
Only specific materials have a direct bandgap

Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

E

CB
Direct Bandgap

Ec

Eg

Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Photon

CB

Ev

kcb

VB
k k

k
(a) GaAs

VB kvb
(b) Si

Ec

CB
Er

Ev
k

Ec
Phonon
Ev

VB
(c) Si with a recombination center

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Excitation
E
Electron (excited by the biased
forward voltage) is in the conduction
band

Hole is in valance band

Normally the recombination takes place between

transition of electrons between the bottom of the
conduction band and the top of the valance band
(band extrema).
The emission of light is therefore;
hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg(only direct band gap allows
radiative transition)

Light Emission

The emission wavelength depends

on the energy band gap

Semiconductor compounds have

different
Energy band gaps
Atomic spacing (called lattice
constants)
Combine semiconductor
compounds
Adjust the bandgap
Lattice constants (atomic
spacing) must be matched
Compound must be matched
to a substrate
Usually GaAs or InP

Eg E2 E1
hc
1.24
m

Eg Eg eV

Emission wavelength, g
The number of radiative recombination is proportional to the carrier
injection rate

Carrier injection rate is related to the current flowing in the junction

If the transition take place between states (conduction and valance
bands) the emission wavelength, g = hc/(EC-EV)
EC-EV = Eg

g = hc/Eg

Visible LED
Definition:
LED which could emit visible light, the band gap of the materials that we use
must be in the region of visible wavelength = 390- 770nm. This coincides with
the energy value of 3.18eV- 1.61eV which corresponds to colours as stated
below:

Colour of an
LED should
emits

Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red

~ 3.17eV
~ 2.73eV
~ 2.52eV
~ 2.15eV
~ 2.08eV
~ 1.62eV

The band gap, Eg

that the
semiconductor
must posses to
emit each light

Light Spectrum

Red, green and blue LEDs

Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Visible lights

V ~ 3.17eV
B ~ 2.73eV
G ~ 2.52eV
Y ~ 2.15eV
O ~ 2.08eV
R ~ 1.62eV

The appearance of the visible

light will be the results of the
overlap integral between the
eye response curve and the
spectral power of the device
the peak of the luminous curve
will not in general be the same
as the peak of the spectral
power curve

What is an LED?
LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under
forward bias conditions can emit radiation by
electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The qaunta of light energy released is
approximately proportional to the band gap of the
semiconductor.

Semiconductors bring quality to light!

LED
When a light-emitting diode is
forward biased, electrons are able
to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the
form of photons.

This effect is called

electroluminescence and the color
of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor.

How LED work?

P-n junction

Electrical
Contacts

A typical LED needs a p-n junction

There are a lot of electrons and holes at
the junction due to excitations
Electrons from n need to be injected to p
to promote recombination
Junction is biased to produce even more
e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for
recombination to happen

Recombination
produces light!!

LED: How It Works

When sufficient voltage is applied to the
chip across the leads of the LED, electrons
can move easily in only one direction
across the junction between the p and n
regions.
In the p region there are many more
positive than negative charges.
When a voltage is applied and the current
starts to flow, electrons in the n region
have sufficient energy to move across the
junction into the p region.

LED: How It Works

Each time an electron recombines
with a positive charge, electric
potential energy is converted into
electromagnetic energy.
For each recombination of a
negative and a positive charge, a
quantum
of
electromagnetic
energy is emitted in the form of a
photon of light with a frequency
characteristic
of
the
semiconductor material (usually a
combination of the chemical
elements gallium, arsenic and
phosphorus)

LED: How It Works

This energy is emitted
in a form of a photon,
which causes light

The color of the light is determined by

the fall of the electron and hence
energy level of the photon

Luminescence
Luminescence is a term used to describe the emission of
radiation from a solid when the solid is supplied with
some form of energy.
Electroluminescence excitation results from the
application of an electric field
In a p-n junction diode injection electroluminescence
occurs resulting in light emission when the junction is
forward biased

Injection Luminescence
Under forward bias majority carriers from both sides of the
junction can cross the depletion region and entering the
material at the other side.
Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers
For example, electrons in n-type (majority carriers) enter the
p-type to become minority carriers
The minority carriers will be larger minority carrier
injection
Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with the majority
carrier.
For example, the electrons as minority carriers in the pregion will recombine with the holes. Holes are the majority
carrier in the p-region.
The recombination causes light to be emitted
Such process is termed radiative recombination.

Recombination & Efficiency

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
(a)

Ideal LED will have all injection electrons to take part in the
recombination process
In real device not all electron will recombine with holes to radiate light
Sometimes recombination occurs but no light is being emitted (nonradiative)
Efficiency of the device therefore can be described
Efficiency is the rate of photon emission over the rate of supply
electrons
p

n+

Eg

Holes in VB

p
Eg

eVo

Electrons in CB

(b)

n+
h =Eg

Efficient LED

Need a p-n junction (preferably the same semiconductor

material only different dopants)
Recombination must occur Radiative transmission to give out
the right coloured LED
Right coloured LED hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg so choose material
with the right Eg
Direct band gap semiconductors to allow efficient recombination
All photons created must be able to leave the semiconductor
Little or no reabsorption of photons

Spectral width of LED types

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

LED Output Characteristics

Typical Powers
1-10 mW
Typical beam divergence
120 degrees FWHM Surface emitting
LEDs
30 degrees FWHM Edge emitting
LEDs
Typical wavelength spread
50-60 nm