True/False

Statements
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19

The correct answer is False.

The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.

7.20
7.21
7.22
7.23
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
7.31
7.32
7.33
7.34
7.35

The correct answer is True.

The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is False.
The correct answer is True.
The correct answer is False.

Short Essay Questions

7.36 The term training content refers to the detailed specification of what the person is
required to learn on a training programme. This can be specified in different ways,
depending on the objectives of the course. For example, it could be defined in terms
of knowledge or in terms of what delegates need to be able to do at the end of the
programme. Broad definitions of what is required, such as interviewing skills are
usually inadequate since they tell us little about what should actually be included in
the training. It is therefore necessary to break down broad skills or overall tasks into
their specific components.
One method for achieving this is hierarchical task analysis (HTA) devised by
Annette et al. (1971). This technique works best when the tasks to be performed are
clear and unambiguous. It begins by listing the main operations to be performed in
whatever it is that has to be learned. These broad tasks are then broken down into
smaller components which are then sub-divided further. This process of subdivision can be carried out several times, so that the tasks are broken down into very
fine detail. Clearly, it is necessary to have a system for deciding when no further subdivision is necessary. This is based on the joint operation of two factors: the
difficulty of the task; and the cost of making a mistake in carrying out the task. If
the operation is difficult in the sense that an untrained person would be unlikely to
carry it out successfully, then it is broken down further. Likewise, if the cost of
making an error is high, the operation should be further sub-divided.
7.37 There are a number of reasons for suggesting that this is broadly true. In the first
place, the focus of much of HRM strategic thinking is to find ways of maximising
the utilisation of human resources in the organisation. Increasing the individuals
2

capabilities through training and development is clearly one way of enhancing his or
her potential contribution to the organisation. Core employees often have a crucial
role in the organisation and, given this fact and the high demands placed on them,
considerable investment in their training and development is necessary if they are to
carry out their roles to the standard required. New forms of work organisation, such
as self-managed teams, make additional demands on employees. Extensive training
is often needed before they can cope with these successfully. Training is a key
element in ensuring that individuals can adjust successfully to the constant changes
which characterise many modern organisations. Many HRM strategies require
fundamental changes in organisational culture, and training is one of the main
methods used to induce culture change. Training enhances a persons capabilities
and this is likely to have a positive effect on employee motivation and possibly also
the much sought after organisational commitment. Finally, many organisations rely
heavily on performance management systems for the successful implementation of
their strategies, and training and development are key elements in these systems.
7.38 Training needs can be analysed at three levels. At the organisational level, training
needs are mainly determined by the organisations HR strategy. Given the HR
strategy, what do individuals need to be able to do? If an organisational competency
analysis has been carried out, this should highlight the gaps between what currently
exists and what is required in the light of HR strategic objectives. The training effort
can then be directed at areas where the gaps are widest. When training needs are
analysed at this level, the subsequent training would typically be carried out on an
organisation-wide basis.
Training needs can also be analysed at the work role level. A basic tool for analysing
needs at this level would be job analysis. The notion here is that training needs will
be different depending on the work role. Salespersons will have different needs
from production engineers, whose requirements will in turn be different from those
of receptionists. In this case training would be organised around work roles, rather
than across the whole organisation.
Within any given work role, performance will vary from one individual to another.
Consequently, training needs analysis can also be carried out at the individual level.
One important source of information here is performance appraisal reports. In this
case, training would be organised around individual needs, rather than on a work
role or organisation-wide basis.
So far we have suggested that training needs analysis can be carried out by utilising
information already available from organisational competency analysis, job analysis,
or performance appraisal. It is also possible to carry out a dedicated training needs
analysis by systematic collection of information solely for that purpose. This could,
for example, be done by carrying out in-depth interviews with job holders and their
supervisors about training needs. This qualitative data could then be used to
produce a questionnaire on training needs which would then be circulated more
widely to generate information of a quantitative nature. While this approach is
clearly more time-consuming than utilising existing information, it does have the
advantage of being directly focused on the issue of training.

7.39 A considerable body of research exists on how learning occurs and on how best to
facilitate it. Many of these research findings can be applied to training. Research
indicates that learning and performance are enhanced when the learner is rewarded
in some way. Trainers can use a variety of rewards to encourage learning, such as,
for example, praise when tasks are carried out correctly. Feedback is critically
important for learning. This should involve not just indicating to individuals when
they have carried out a task correctly. Feedback should also be provided about how
and why the person has gone wrong when the task is not performed correctly.
Behaviour-modelling training (BMT) is based on Banduras research which showed
that a great deal of learning takes place by observing the behaviour of others.
Research indicates that setting specific goals and objectives can increase learning,
mainly by enhancing motivation. This is yet another learning principle which can
readily be incorporated into the design of training programmes. Although learning
can occur in a passive manner, such as by listening to lectures, many skills are best
learned by actively involving the learner in a process of learning by doing. Many
training courses make use of this principle.

Apply What You Have Learned: HRM in Action

7.40 Several learning principles seem to be operating here. While there is some passive
learning in the form of listening to lectures, the major part of the course involves
active participation by delegates, rather than passive reception of information. The
emphasis on active learning is a sound principle on which to base the course. Each
person receives knowledge of results in the form of feedback on his or her performance from observing the video, from the trainer, and perhaps from other
delegates. Positive and negative rewards operate in terms of praise for examples of
good interviewing technique and constructive criticism when there are instances of
poor interview technique. Once again, these are sound learning principles. Behaviour modelling (another sound learning principle) can clearly occur, since delegates,
by watching the video and listening to the trainers comments, can observe examples
of both good and poor interviewing technique. The knowledge that other delegates
are observing ones performance, and the fact that the whole process is being
recorded on videotape, should provide a motivation to succeed. The existence of a
pass-fail criterion should certainly ensure that the training provides a challenge to
the individuals and could further enhance the motivational properties of the
programme. Overall, the proposed approach seems to be based on sound learning
principles.