Development and Dissemination

of Stress-tolerant
Rice Varieties in Nepal

D. Gauchan, B. Sapkota, S. Gautam,

D.B. Thapa Magar, B. Sharma, S. Amatya,
S. Sapkota, M.B. Nepali, S. Singh and U.S. Singh

Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research Policy Division

Nepal Agricultural Research Council
Khumaltar, Lalitpur
2014

 Socioeconomics & Agricultural Research Policy Division, NARC,

Khumaltar, 2014

Socioeconomics & Agricultural Research Policy Division,

Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)
Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

P.O. Box : 5459, Kathmandu Nepal

Telephone : 00977-1-5540818
Email
: sarpod@narc.gov.np
URL : http:// www.narc.gov.np

Correct Citation
D. Gauchan, B. Sapkota, S. Gautam, D.B. Thapa Magar, B. Sharma,
S. Amatya, S. Sapkota, M.B. Nepali, S. Singh and U.S. Singh, 2014.
Development and Dissemination of Stress-tolerant Rice Varieties in Nepal.
IRRI/NARC STRASA Project. Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research
Policy Division (SARPOD), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Nepal

Acknowledgement
This document is an output of socioeconomic study carried out in Nepal
under NARCIRRI collaborative research project funded by STRASA. We
are grateful to research managers of NARC head office, representatives of
different stakeholders, district officials, national experts and partners of rice
R&D. We express our special thanks to colleagues at the Socioeconomics
& Agricultural Research Policy Division (SARPOD) for their support in
field study and timely accomplishment of the study. Special thanks go to
Biswombar Basnet and Radha Shrestha at SARPOD, Durga Dongol of Food
Research Division, NARC and research interns, Dipti Rai and Shanti Pandey
for their valuable time, hard work and patience in collecting and compiling
information. The authors are thankful to all men and women farmers, CBSP
groups, cooperative members, seed company managers, Agrovets (dealers,
retailers), researchers, extension professionals and other stakeholders of
survey districts, who provided their valuable information, insights and
understanding about the study. The cooperation, logistic support and inputs
of various NARC institutions, researchers and extension officials of DoA in
field survey implementation are very much appreciated. Finally, the authors
are grateful to overall technical and management support and inputs of
Dr. Bhava P. Tripathi, Senior Associate Scientist, IRRI, Nepal, Kathmandu.

Contents
Introduction

Research methods

Characteristics of stress-prone environments

Development and release of Stress-tolerant Rice

Varieties (STRVs)

Proportion of stress (drought prone) area and domains

Varietal testing, seed production and distribution of

STRVs

Demand of stress-tolerant rice varieties

Varietal age of rice varieties marketed by seed dealers

Spatial pattern of sales of rice varieties by seed dealers

in 2013

Farm level performance and preferences of STRVs

11

Design of appropriate size of minikits for rapid

dissemination of STRVs

11

Constraints and issues in uptake of newly released

STRVs

12

Conclusion
Strategies for rapid dissemination of Stress-tolerant
varieties

13
13

References

15

Annex 1: Seed companies involved in STRVs seed production

and marketing

17

Annex 2: Community (CBSP/DISSPRO, Cooperatives)

sectors engaged in STRVs seed production and
marketing

18

Introduction
Rice is the principal crop grown in about 1.5 million hectare of land, which
accounts for half of the net cultivated area in Nepal. It is most important cereal
crop, both in terms of cultivated area, production and supporting livelihoods
of over two-thirds of farm households. It also accounts for about one-fifth of
agricultural GDP and supplies about 40% of the food calorie intake for the
people of Nepal with an average per capita annual consumption of 122 kg
(MoADa, 2013). Hence rice plays significant role in national food security
and livelihood of Nepalese people. Rice is grown extensively under a wide
range of agroecological conditions from lowland in Terai (50 msl) to mid hills
and high mountain valleys (3000 msl) in Jumla- the highest altitude of rice
growing location in the world. The crop is cultivated in diverse production
domains covering mountain slopes, hill terraces, intermountain basins, river
valleys, and flat lowland plains bordering to India (Gauchan et al, 2012).
About two-third of (72%) of paddy is produced in the flat lowland of Terai,
one-fourth (24%) in the hills and 4% in the mountains (MoADa, 2013). Rice
is mainly cultivated during wet monsoon season (June-November) in major
part of the country. However, in some parts of the lowland plains and valley
floors, they are also grown during spring season (Chaite rice) as an irrigated
crop. Transplanting is the major method of rice establishment in both the
irrigated and rainfed lowland conditions. Direct seeding (broadcasting) is
mainly practiced for the upland rice (Ghaiya) in upland fields.
Nepals economy is more affected by climatic stress such as drought flooding
and other natural disasters than any other hazards. Two-third of rice area in
Nepal is rainfed and most of them are stress-prone (drought and flood prone)
where, low production and high variability occur in rice production due to
uncertain weather conditions resulting from drought and/ or flooding during
monsoon season (Gauchan et al, 2012). Drought and flooding are critical
abiotic stresses in rice production since two-third of the rice area in the country
is rainfed and prone to weather related risks. Upadhyay et al, (1996) reported
that drought was the number one constraint in rice crop among the different
type of biotic (weeds, pests, diseases) and abiotic (drought, submergence,
poor soils) stresses studied during early 1990s, which reduces yields as much
as 36% in Nepal. Nepal is experiencing frequent dry spells in various parts
of the country particularly during the years 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006
and 2009, 2012 and flooding in 2008, 2013 and 2014. Field study showed
that prolonged dry spells of 2006 caused substantial reduction in national
rice production, which decreased by 13% at the national level, and in some
districts the reduction was as high as 40%. In eastern Terai districts of Siraha
and Saptari the reduction in rice production in 2006 was 38 and 46 percent
respectively (FAO/WFP, 2007).

Recently, flooding has also becoming critical stress in rice production with
the changes in climatic pattern in Nepal. Drought and flooding affects nearly
one third and one-tenth of rice area respectively in Nepal. Drought and
flooding caused by low, erratic or untimely and heavy rainfall at a short time
have resulted in low and variable rice production and productivity in Nepal.
Rainfed rice production environments are the hardest hit by these stresses due
to absence and well managed irrigation facilities.
Development and promotion of new stress-tolerant rice varieties is essential
for targeting specific stress-prone rainfed domains and target group of
farmers (resource poor, women) in the rainfed environments. This is central
to enhancing and stabilizing the rice yields through wider dissemination
of these new varieties in stress prone (drought and flood prone) domains.
However, presently, the investment in rice research is very low in Nepal with
less than 0.1% of the value of rice output being invested in rice research
(Gauchan and Pandey, 2011). Limited resources and insufficient technical
capacity have constrained R &D organizations (such as NARC) to conduct
and effectively coordinate research activities and strengthen its ties with
national and international centers. Despite limited investment, NARC in
collaboration with IRRI has recently evaluated and released new rice varieties
for stress-prone environments since 2008 where drought and flooding are
regular phenomenon. Since the implementation of STRASA project in
2008, Nepal is collaborating with IRRI in testing, validating and promoting
submergence and drought tolerant rice varieties through its public and private
sector partners involving DoA, NSC, private seed companies, CBSP groups
and Cooperatives in different locations and domains of the country (Gauchan
et al, 2014).
In this context, Nepal has so far developed and released 11 stress-tolerant
rice varieties (out of 73 total released rice varieties to date since 1960s)
with the technical support of IRRI through STRASA project for addressing
production and food security of small farmers in stress-prone environments.
Out of these two are submergence tolerance and 9 are drought tolerant which
were initially developed in IRRI by Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) by
incorporating stress tolerance gene (e.g. Sub-1A) to existing popular mega
varieties (e.g. Swarna and Shamba Mashuri etc.) for their rapid uptake and
dissemination at the farm level (Mackill, 2011). These varieties have shown
great promise in reducing poverty and vulnerability of the people in drought
and flood prone areas of South and South East Asia (Pandey et al, 2010;
Mackill, 2011). These varieties have also shown great promise in Nepals
rainfed regions and location of Terai, lower hills and river valleys. Despite
the release of about dozens of new stress tolerant varieties (STRVs) in Nepal
in the last five years and potentials shown by these new rice varieties, a
systematic and consolidated effort of assessing and documenting farm level
2

assessment and their seed production and dissemination have not yet been
initiated. Moreover, we have limited information and understanding about
the target stress-prone domains and targeting variety development, seed
multiplication and dissemination strategies of STRVs rapidly at the farm level.
Hence, this study aims to document current status of variety development,
seed production and supply of stress-tolerant rice varieties and their strategies
for rapid dissemination in stress-prone domains of Nepal.

Research methods
This study employed combination of literature reviews, key informant
interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) of stakeholders and nationwide
sample survey of seed producers, traders and farmers in Nepal. Secondary
sources of information, key informant interviews and FGD were employed
to identify specific production and stress-prone domains, constraints and
priorities to generate information. Sample survey of diverse seed actors and
sectors that are active in rice seed production and marketing were carried
out representing different development regions, farming systems and market
centers of Nepal. In addition, the study also carried out institutional survey of
key research institutions involved in variety testing, source seed production
and marketing. These included survey of important private seed companies
(n=15), seed cooperatives (n=10), CBSP groups (n=12), seed dealers/retailers
(n=240) and sample survey of 270 households affiliated to institutional seed
production with these different seed actors. The information collected in the
survey covered features of seed producers and traders, type of rice varieties
and produced, sold and adopted by farmers including specific information
on STRVs, their volume of seed production, multiplication, and marketing.
The collected information was consolidated, interpreted and verified with
stakeholder consultation meeting held in three different development regions
(Tarahara, Chitwan and Nepalganj) in Terai with relevant seed actors, seed
specialists and rice researchers and development professionals from different
organizations.

Characteristics of stress-prone environments

Stress-prone rainfed environments are characterized by a great diversity of
rice growing conditions, such as in amount, and duration of rainfall, time,
and intensity of drought, frequency, depth and duration of floods, soil type
and level of topography. The specific features of stress-prone environments
are presented in Table 1. Incidence and severity of abiotic stresses such as
drought and flooding vary in Nepal, where drought occurs once in every 2-3
years whilst flooding once in every 2-5 years. Severity of drought is more
during planting (early season) and crop maturity stage (terminal drought).
There is a high spatial covariance in drought occurrence, while it is medium
3

to low or sporadic in flooding. But physical damage caused by drought is

low as compared to flooding even though economic losses are very high due
to its wide spread effect on production losses. About 20-50% rice area is
affected by these stresses resulting in 30-50% yield loss depending on the
type of stress and sites. Occurrence of early stage drought is most common
in Nepal which causes substantial reduction in area planted to rice. This was
most common during the recent years in 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2014 with
significant reduction in area sown and yield losses. Characterizing both agro
ecological and socioeconomic constraints and understanding their relation
to each other is essential to the development of technologies and policies to
increase rice production and the incomes of rice farmers in these stress-prone
environments.
Table 1: Characteristics features of stress-prone environments in Nepal
Item

Drought

Submergence

Frequency

Once in 2-3 years

Once in 2-5 years

Duration

20-45 days

3-30 days (3-7 days short

flood) & (7-30 days long flood)

Timing

June-July (early),
Sept-Oct (terminal)

July-September

Stage of crop
growth

Planting, tillering,
maturity

Vegetative stage
Early reproductive stage

% Yield loss

20-70

30-80

Spatial covariance

High and wide spread

Medium to low and sporadic

Correlation with in
situ rainfall

High

Medium

Physical damage

Low

High

Economic losses
damage

High

High

Correlation with
Monsoon season

High

High

Sources of stress

Low, erratic
untimely rainfall

Rain water, river floods, storm

surges

Source: Field survey (2012); and Gauchan et al (2012).

Development and release of Stress-tolerant Rice Varieties (STRVs)

Until 2014, the country has released 72 varieties and registered 17 hybrids
and one inbred variety for cultivation in different regions and domains.
Considering the critical importance of drought and flood prone environments,
Government of Nepal has released 11 new stress-tolerant rice varieties
(STRVs) with the support of IRRI to improve and stabilize rice production in
drought prone and flood prone domains (Table 2).
Table 2: N
 ewly released stress-tolerant rice varieties to be promoted in Nepal
SN

Variety

Released Yield potential Maturity Recommendation

year
(MT/ha)
(days) domain

Ghaiya-1
(Radha 32)

2010

3.1-4.2

125

Rainfed upland in
Terai, inner Terai,
lower hills

Hardinath-2

2010

3.1-4.2

125

Terai, Inner Terai under

Aerobic condition

Tarahara-1

2010

3.5-4.2

113-125

Eastern Terai- Aerobic

condition

Swarna Sub-1

2011

4.5-5.0

150

Irrigated Terai/flood
prone area

Sambha
Masuli Sub-1

2011

4.0-4.5

140

Irrigated Terai/flood
prone area

Sukha Dhan-1

2011

3.2-4.2

123-125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

Sukha Dhan-2

2011

3.3-3.5

120-125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

Sukha Dhan-3

2011

3.6-4.5

122-125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

Sukha Dhan-4

2014

2.7-4.0

118-125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

10

Sukha Dhan-5

2014

3.2-4.2

125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

11

Sukha Dhan-6

2014

3.0-4.0

125

Rainfed Terai/foothill

Source: MoADa (2013);Yadav (2014).

Among these, two are submergence tolerant developed for flash flood
conditions (e.g. Swarna Sub-1 and Shamba Mashuli Sub-1), while the
rest six are tolerant to drought conditions (Sukha Dhan-1, Sukha Dhan-2,
Sukha Dhan-3, Sukha Dhan-4, Sukha Dhan-5, Sukha Dhan-6). In addition
there are one upland direct seeded rice tolerant to drought such as Ghaiya-1
and 2 aerobic rice (dry direct seeding) rice varieties namely Tarahara-1 and
Hardinath-2 that are also tolerant to some drought released for cultivation in
different drought prone conditions of Nepal.

Proportion of stress (drought prone) area and domains

Mapping and estimation of stress-prone area is essential for prioritizing and
targeting rice research and development activities and developing strategies
for deploying stress-tolerant rice varieties. Among various abiotic stress,
drought mapping is important as it is the number one constraint in rice. A
recent estimate indicates that about one third (29%) of the rice area (450
thousand ha) suffer from frequent droughts and nearly 8% of the rice area
(120 thousand hectare) suffer from flash flooding or shallow sub emergence
(Gumma et al, 2012; SARPOD, 2012). Survey and mapping of drought prone
rice area using remote sensing technique in IRRI for year 2006 supplemented
by field survey indicated that parts of central and eastern Terai covering
Siraha, Saptari, Dhanusha and Mahottari districts are the most drought prone
areas in Nepal (Figure 1). The figure shows the high resolution red mark area
affected by drought in 10 years period (2000-2009). Parts of Rautahat, Sarlahi,
Kapilbastu and Banke are also moderately drought prone with medium red
resolution. With respect to flooding stress, field visit and scoping study in
the last few years under STARSA project revealed that the incidence of
flooding is more frequent and severe in Saptari, Sunsari, Morang, Mahottari,
Dhanusha, Rautahat, Banke and Bardiya districts.
Figure 1: Mapping of drought prone rice production locations in Nepal

Source: Gumma et al (2011).

Varietal testing, seed production and distribution of STRVs

NARC research programs and stations mainly, NRRP Hardinath and RARSs,
Tarahara and Nepalganj have been involved in variety testing, maintenance
and seed production of source seeds of stress-tolerant rice varieties (SwarnaSub-1, Sambha Sub-1, Sukha Dhan-1, 2, 3 etc). RARS Parwanipur and Doti
were also to some extent involved in seed production of these STRVs in
the command area. These research programs and stations have multiplied
and distributed source seeds of stress tolerant rice varieties through
different actors and channels for their promotion across Nepal. The seeds
are primarily distributed to their existing networks such as DADOs, CBSP
groups, Cooperatives, Seed Companies and Participant and Contract farmers
in seed production and OR sites of Terai districts for testing, feedback and
seed production. Public Seed Company Such as National Seed Company is
also involved in production of foundation and certified seeds. There are some
private seed companies, CBSP groups and cooperatives that were engaged
in seed production and marketing of new STRVs in 2013 (see Annex 1 and
Annex 2). Seed actors that have good linkages and support with public
agencies (NARC, DoA, IAAS) and that have external funding support from
IRRI were mostly engaged in seed production and marketing of STRVs.
Despite a fairly good amount of source seeds of stress-tolerant varieties are
being produced and multiplied in the country, the flow of source seeds to
subsequent seed cycle (certified/improved seeds) and rapid deployment at
the farm level appears to be limited due to poor linkage, coordination and
popularization schemes. A fairly large volume of source seeds of STRVs in
NARC stations and improved seeds in different seed actors (NSC, private
seed companies, Cooperatives, CBSP groups) could not be adequately used
to multiply and market subsequent generation of seeds in the year 2012
and 2013 due to poor Seed-Networks, limited popularization schemes and
investment in seed extension.

Demand of stress-tolerant rice varieties

A recent (2013/14) national Seed Balance Sheet record of NSB indicates that
only half of the total 69 released varieties seeds are in demand for source
seeds in the country (SQCC, 2013). This indicates that, a large number of
varieties are either not popular in farmers fields or locally produced to meet
local needs. This suggests a mismatch between farmers requirements and the
varieties on offer (Joshi et al, 2012). A recent study on seed system carried
out by SARPOD on varieties produced and marketed by different seed
enterprises in different regions also indicated that not more than one dozen of
rice varieties dominate seed industry (Gauchan et al, 2014). About 85% of the
foundation seed demand indicated in national seed balance in 2013 is for 10
7

varieties namely Radha-4, Sabitri, Hardinath-1, Makawanpur-1, Radha-12,

Khumal-4, Ram Dhan, Masuli, Sambha Masuli Sub-1, and Swarna Sub-1.
With strong awareness and popularization programs introduced by Seed-Net
and STRASA projects during the last three years, promising STRVs such as
Sambha Masuli Sub-1, Swarna Sub-1, Sukha Dhan-2 and Sukha Dhan-3 are
becoming increasingly demanded for seed multiplication by seed actors as
indicated in National Seed Balance Sheet of 2013, 2014 and 2015 (SQCC,
2013).
The demand of foundation seed of STRVs in national seed balance sheet in
2013 by development region is presented in Table 3. In 2013, the share of
STRVs in aggregate made about one tenth (9.4%) of total foundation seeds
demand in national Seed Balance Sheet. Among STRVs, the highest quantity
and share of demand was for Sambha Masuli Sub-1 followed by Swarna Sub1 and Sukha Dhan-3. The quantity demanded for STRVs and overall varieties
was highest in central region.
Table 3: D
 emand of foundation seeds (kg) of STRVs in National Seed
Balance Sheet, 2013
SN Varieties

Eastern
Dev
Region

Central
Dev
Region

Western
Mid- Far-West
Dev West Dev
Dev
Region Region
Region

Total

Samba Sub-1

600

4638

5758

900

663

11338

Swarna Sub-1

783

5505

1717

8005

Sukha Dhan-1

50

315

625

330

968

Sukha Dhan-2

240

100

350

427

Sukha Dhan-3

1250

383

1383

850

2750

Hardinath-2

1530

650

300

1437

Taharara-1

410

175

500

693

4623

11,907

9458

2375

1643

25618

Total STRVs

Other All varieties

27,422

128,181

39317

38181

9668 247,155

Total Seed demand

32,045

140,087

48,775

40,556

11,310 272,773

Share of STRVs in
total Seed demand

14.4

8.5

19.4

5.9

Source: SQCC (2014).

14.5

9.4

Varietal age of rice varieties marketed by seed dealers

Seeds of dominant old varieties that have high demand, high profit margin
and low risk of marketing are popular in farmers fields. Seed companies,
Cooperatives and CBSP groups are producing and multiplying seeds of
dominant old varieties that have high demand, high profit margin and low
risk of marketing. The varietal age of most of these commercially produced,
marketed and distributed varieties are above 15 years, as they were released
before 1990s. A recent household survey findings under STRASA and
TRIVSA socioeconomic survey in Nepal including other South Asian
countries revealed a prevalence of older varieties with high adoption lags
(12 years) and high varietal age (18-20 years) in Nepal (Gauchan et al, 2012,
Gautam et al, 2013, Velasco et al, 2013). This finding implies that it takes
about 12 years for a variety to reach in full adoption at the farm level after
its release from breeding program and older varieties of 18-20 years age
are predominant in farmers fields. Except Ramdhan, Hardinath-1, Sambha
Masuli Sub-1 and Sworna Sub-1 marketed by seed dealers, all other varieties
are of older generation released before 1990. The share of seed sale for newly
released varieties in 2013 was about only 10% indicating over 90% of the
seed sold are of older generation released more than two decades ago before
1990. Slow replacement of older varieties in farmers' fields delays the transfer
of benefits of breeding research to farmers and heightens the risk of disease
epidemics, especially with limited diversification of varieties.

Spatial pattern of sales of rice varieties by seed dealers in 2013

Different rice varieties are adopted and marketed with their adaptation and
popularity in different regions and agro ecological zones. There were about
100 varieties marketed (including hybrids), out of which about dozen varieties
are popular and dominant in specific regions (Table 4). The most popular rice
varieties identified from both seed actors and specific seed dealers survey
across the country indicated the region specific dominance of rice varieties
as given below. The dominant Nepalese varieties are Radha-4 in western and
mid/far western Terai, Sabitri, and Hardinath-1 in western to central Terai
and Radha-12 in eastern Terai and Khumal-4 in mid-hills, Ramdhan and
Makawanpur-1 are also being popular and grown in almost all the regions.
Some of the new STRVs that are becoming popular in specific regions are
Swarna Sub-1 in central and eastern regions, Shambha Masuli Sub-1 in
western region, Sukha Dhan-3 and 1 in mid-western Terai, Tarahara-1 in
eastern region. Sukha Dhan-2 and Hardinath-2 in lower hills and river basins.

Table 4: M
 ost popular dominant varieties including STRVs in specific regions
Ecological region

Dominant varieties

Stress-tolerant varieties

Eastern Terai

Radha-12, Kancchi Masuli and

Ranjeet

Tarahara-1

Central Terai

Sona Masuli, Sabitri and

Hardinath-1

Swarna Masuli Sub-1

Western Terai

Radha-4 and Sambha Masuli

Shamba Masuli Sub-1

Mid-western Terai

Radha-4, Bindeswori

Sukha Dhan-3, Sukha

Dhan-1

Far western Terai

Sarju-52, Radha-4

High Hills

Chandannath-1, 3, Chhomrong

Mid hills

Khumal-4, Pokhreli,
Jethobudho

Lower hills & river

basins

Ramdhan, Sabitri,
Makawanpur-1

Hardinath-2, Sukha Dhan-2

Source: Field survey of seed dealers (2013).

Dealers cum retailers (Agrovets) sell above 100 different rice varieties and
hybrids out of which Shamba Masuli Sub-1 is one of the popularly marketed
varieties by seed dealers. Based on quantity of seed sales, Sambha Masuli
Sub-1 ranked eighth of the the most popular varieties marketed in 2013 due
to its good grain quality and higher market demand and price it fetches in the
market. Radha-4 was the number one variety with largest seed sales followed
by Sabitri and then US 312. Ramdhan and Hardinath-1 ranked fourth and
fifth, Gorakhanath hybrid 6th and Makawanpur-1 in 7th postion. Table 5
presents sell quantity, market price and market margins of STRASA varieties
marketed by seed dealers in 2013 in Nepal. Altogether STRASA varieties
constituted about 100 MT (3%) of the total (3,000 MT) marketed seeds by
seed dealers and retailers (Agrovets) in 2013.
Table 5: S
 ell quantity, market price and market margin received by
seed dealers for STRVs
SN

Varieties

Selling Qty
(kg)

Buying
price/kg (Rs)

Sambha Sub-1

Tarhara-1

Selling price/
kg (Rs)

90,350

38

41.63

3.63

3975

38

40.00

2.16

Sukha Dhan-2

2000

40

55.00

15.00

Sworna Sub-1

1200

39

40.25

1.75

Sukha Dhan-3

1000

35

36.00

1.00

Sukha Dhan-1

940

30

35.00

5.00

Hardinath-2

500

32

35.00

3.00

Source: Survey of Seed dealers and retailers (2013).

10

Marketing
margins (Rs/kg)

Among different STRVs marketed by seed dealers, Sambha Masuli Sub-1

was sold in highest price followed by Swarna Sub-1. Sukha and other drought
tolerant varieties were sold in relatively lower prices as they are considered
coarse grain types. The market margin for these STRVs were very low ranging
from NRs 1-5. Hence, seed dealers selling these varieties receive very less
market margin. This is due to poor awareness among seed users (farmers) about
the unqiue stress-tolerant traits and their relatively better consumption quality.

Farm level performance and preferences of STRVs

Field level scoping survey and observation visits indicated that STRVs
such Swarna Sub-1, Sambha Masuli Sub-1, Sukha Dhan-1, Sukha Dhan2, Sukha Dhan-3 are performing well in stress-prone environments and
gaining popularity. Farmers growing and participating in on-farm testing and
seed production indicated that Swarna Sub-1 is relatively disease free, high
yielding with good grain quality as compared to Shamba Masuli Sub-1 which
often infested by smut disease. However, there is a high market preference for
Sambha Masuli Sub-1 due to its good grain quality, higher market prices and
good appealing grain color similar to original Sambha Masuli Sub-1. Since the
grain color of Swarna Sub-1 is brownish and not similar to appealing golden
color of Sona Mashuli, grain traders are not much attracted to market Swarna
Sub-1 in comparison to Sona Mashuli. Moreover, many farmers, traders,
consumers and R& D stakeholders are not aware of good attributes of Swarna
Sub-1. As a result, there are some problems in its marketing by grain traders.
Among drought varieties, Sukha Dhan-3 is becoming popular in some parts
of Terai region due to its good yield, drought tolerance and cooking quality.
Sukha Dhan-2 is performing well in some river basin areas /lower hills in
Lamjung, Tanahun, while Sukha Dhan-1 is showing its good promise in some
of the mid and far-western regions.

Design of appropriate size of minikits for rapid dissemination of STRVs

Dissemination of minikits packaged with seed and associated farming
technologies of varieties remained very fruitful in the past in popularizing
new varieties and creating demand. In order to develop rapid dissemination
strategies of new varieties through minikits, a two years downstream seed
dissemination research project was conducted in RARS, Tarahara during
2011 2013 in selected rainfed lowland rice areas of Jhapa, Sunsari, Saptari
and Siraha districts aiming specifically at answering appropriate size of
minikits through modeling of area specific farmer-centered strategies for
disseminating STRVs and technologies to reach maximum number of farmers
rapidly within shorter period at the cost of minimum possible resources. The
study comprised of four experiments aiming at determining appropriate size
of rice minikits, appropriate number of minikits for a village, appropriate
11

mode of embedding associated technologies with minikits and designing

efficient contractual system for reaching more number of farmers at a faster
rate. Minikits of a newly released flood tolerant rice variety, Swarna Sub-1,
categorized into two sizes, two numbers per village, four modes of conveying
management practice information and input support and two prior contractual
systems for further dissemination were distributed to see their effects on
productivity and subsequent seed dissemination in next season. The study
revealed that smaller size (2 kg) minikits in more number (more than 5)
for a village is effective in reaching more number of farmers within a short
period of time. The supplementation of minikits with fertilizer subsidy for
nursery management and technological package through written brochures
and on-farm action trainings has a significant positive contribution in crop
productivity and subsequent seed dissemination (Sapkota et al, 2014).
The study also found that the incidences of stress conditions like flooding
significantly influence the dissemination of such stress tolerant rice variety.

Constraints and issues in uptake of newly released STRVs

The major gaps and issues in rapid flow, dissemination and farm level
deployment of STRVs in Nepal are presented in Box 1:
Box 1: Constraints and issues in uptake of newly released STRVs in Nepal
Inadequate information and awareness about availability, characteristics
and performance of new stress-tolerant varieties among extension
networks, farmers and agro-dealers;
Low and unpredictable seed demand, particularly among the
poor smallholder in rainfed areas due to untimely rainfall, lack of
complementary inputs such as fertilizers, leading to low availability of
improved seeds in such areas;
Distant and unreliable seed sources from production domains as result
of absence of adequate seed network, which increase seed costs for
farmers;
High retail prices of seeds as compared to informal farmers saved
own seed, making new seed varieties unaffordable to most small scale
resource poor farmers.
Poor incentives for private seed dealers and seed companies to
participate and engage in seed business in rainfed domains due to their
small, uncertain and scattered seed demand
Poor popularization of newly released STRVs in extension networks and
farmers seed system
Limited capacity and poor networks of seed actors in timely multiplication
and marketing through diverse channels and sources

12

Conclusion
Abiotic stresses such as drought and flooding in Nepal are important constraints
to rice production and improving livelihood of resource poor farmers in rainfed
environments. At present there is a dominance of seeds of dominant old varieties
(non-STRVs) that were released before 1990s as they have high demand, high
profit margin and low risk of marketing. However, seed production, demand
and supply of STRVs are growing as they are performing well in different
parts of Nepal. The demand for STRVs currently makes about 10% of the total
foundation seeds demand in national Seed Balance Sheet. Among STRVs, the
highest quantity and share of demand was for Sambha Masuli Sub-1 followed
by Swarna Sub-1 and Sukha-3. The demand of specific STRVs vary by regions
where Sambha Masuli Sub-1 has higher demand in western region, Swarna Sub1 in central and eastern region. Sukha varieties have also differential demand
in different regions of rainfed drought prone areas of Nepal. For targeting
appropriate size of minikits is important. The findings revealed that smaller size
(2 kg) minikits in more number (more than 5) for a village is effective in reaching
more number of farmers within a short period of time. The supplementation
of minikits with fertilizer subsidy for nursery management and technological
package through written brochures and on-farm action trainings has a significant
positive contribution in crop productivity and subsequent seed dissemination
(Sapkota et al, 2014).
Despite their increasing demand, the dissemination of STRVs are very slow due
to poor awareness, lack of targeting of seed multiplication and dissemination
in their preferred stress-prone domains, slow rate of seed multiplication and
supply as well as poor linkages and popularization in extension networks, Slow
replacement of older varieties with newer ones in farmers' fields delays the
transfer of benefits of breeding research to farmers and heightens the risk of
climatic stress and disease epidemics, especially with limited targeted of new
STRVs in stress-prone domains.
Strategies for rapid dissemination of stress-tolerant varieties
The country needs to develop strategies for rapid dissemination of STRVS to
quickly reach to small farmers in stress-prone environments to increase and
stabilize rice productivity in Nepal. The will require identification and mapping
of stress-prone domains and target socioeconomic groups, reforms in variety
development, release and seed regulations to facilitate faster development and
release of competitive farmers preferred varieties, their seeds multiplication and
rapid deployment in farmers fields. Special emphasis is needed in shortening
breeding and seed cycle through decentralized source seed production, pre-release
seed multiplication, and popularization through on-farm demonstration, training,
minikits and rapid seed delivery through multiple channels to reduce adoption
lag of improved new stress-tolerant varieties. Strengthening seed networks and
enhancing capacity of all seed actors from public, private and community sectors
13

and linking public sector breeding, community sector multiplication and private
marketing is essential.
Considering the current context of seed system in Nepal, where the role of
private and community sectors in seed business is evolving and public sectors
role is critical in supplying source seeds, a public-private-community sectors
partnership model in rice seed business is effective and sustainable. Subsidies
on newly developed and officially released stress-tolerant varieties targeted
for remote and resource poor farmers in stress-prone rainfed regions is must
for few years to promote and deploy them rapidly at the farm level in order to
ensure food security and enhance income of small and poor farmers. Targeting
of STRVs with appropriate size of minikits (2 kg/ farmer) in appropriate stressprone domains /ecology is then pivotal for a rapid and wider outreach of such
stress resilient varieties and technologies. Additionally, the study suggested that
increased participation of women in such outreach research programs significantly
increases the dissemination of a crop variety and associated technologies. Policy
makers and planners are therefore, advised to make appropriate size of minikits
and their promotion for better adoption and dissemination. There is also a need to
effectively implement existing seed policies and legislation to effectively promote
officially released and registered varieties. By improving market networks and
marketing systems of seed actors and focusing on production and marketing
through multiple channels and sources in partnership with diverse actors, the
new variety seeds can reach quickly to farmers fields. In such context emphasis
should be given for development of market linkages, strategic marketing (market
intelligence), and branding, packaging support and other market price information
and credit access along with storage support in marketing of quality seeds. The
study makes following strategic recommendations for rapid dissemination of
stress-tolerant rice varieties in Nepal
1. Identification and mapping of target stress-prone domains and target groups
for dissemination
2. Targeting fast track variety development and release for specific stress-prone
domains
3. Popularization of STRVs through extension demonstration and awareness
creation employing participatory research and extension
4. Promotion of appropriate size of minikits to small farmers in stress-prone
domains with input support and subsidies
5. Development of effective seed-networks of relevant actors for STRVs
6. Training and capacity building of seed actors in seed production and
marketing
7. Seed production and marketing of STRVs by multiple channels and sources
8. Targeting of seed and input subsidies with new STRVs and effective
implementation of existing seed policy and regulation
14

References
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farmer-centered strategies for rapid multiplication and Dissemination of flood
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16

17

Seed companies

Lumbini Seed
Company,
Bhairahawa,
Rupandehi

Universal Seed
Company,
Bhairahawa,
Rupandehi

Unnat Seed
Producer
Company,
Patihani, Chitwan

Malla Seed
Producer
Company, Tandi,
Chitwan

Anamol Seed
Company,
Bharatpur,
Chitwan

Bij Bridhi
Company,
Pithuwa, Chitwan

National Seed
Company,
Nepalganj, Banke

SN

318

2007

1973

2005

2010

153

180

32

208

157.5

2005

2000

953

Prod /
Sale
(MT)

2002

Year of
Est.

120

110

120

130

300

75

293

No of
farmers
in seed
prod
32

FS prod
(mt)

NARC (NRRP,
RARS)

NARC (NRRP)

LIBIRD and
NARC

NARC (NRRP)

NARC and
LIBIRD/
FORWARD

NARC (NRRP)
and India
(Faizabad Agri
Univ)

NARC (NRRP)
and India
(Faizabad Agri
Univ)

Source of BS/FS

Banke, Bardiay, Dang,

Surkhet, Dailekh,
Salyan, Pyuthan

Chitwan, Dhading,
Tanahun, Dhading,
Gorkha, Parsa, Dang,
Banke, Makawanpur

Chitwan, Jhapa, Palpa,

Tanahu, Nawalparasi

Chitwan, Banke,
Bardiya, Tanahun,
Dang, Okhaldhunga
Rautahat, Lamjung
Makawanpur, Jhapa

From east Jhapa to

Banke, Bardiya

Western Terai

Western Terai and

Hills to mid/Far
western Terai

Marketing outlets

Radha-4, Sabitri, Ramdhan,

Khumal-4, Makawanpur-1,
Janaki, Hardinath-1, Loktantra

Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath, Ram Dhan
Makawanpur-Hardinath-1

Swarna Sub-1,
Sambha Masuli Sub-1

Sambha Masuli Sub-1

Sambha Masuli Sub-1

(In 2012/13, Sukha
Dhan-1, 2 and Ranjit)

Sambha Masuli Sub-1,

Sukha Dhan-3

Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1,
Makawanpur-1

Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1, Barkhe Samba
Mahsuri , Radha-12,
Sunaulo Sugandh

FS of Sambha Masuli
Sub-1 and Swarna
Sub-1 from BS of
NRRP, in 2011 and
2012

Sukha Dhan-3, Swarna

Sub-1, Sambha Masuli
Sub-1

Sambha Masuli Sub-1,

Swarna Sub-1

Stress-tolerant
varieties

Sabitri, Hardinath-1,
Radha-4, Ram Dhan,
Makawanpur-1, Sona
Mahsuri, Mansuli

Radha-4, Sabitri, Ram

Dhan

Radha-4, Ram Dhan Samba

Mahsuri, Sarju-52, Sabitri,
Makawanpur-1,

Varieties

Annex 1: Seed companies involved in STRVs seed production and marketing, 2012-2013

18

Sri Ram Seed

Producer,
Parbatipur, Chitwan

Budhan
Multipurpose
Agri- Cooperative,
Padnaha, Bardiya
Shree Krishna
Pranami Women
Agriculture
Cooperative,
Dumuria-2,
Rautahat
Sahalesh Fulbari
Seed Production
Group, Padariya-3,
Siraha
Sunder Seed
Cooperative,
Sunderbazar,
Lamjung

Name of
community sector

SN

2009

2008

2006

2000

Start
year
for seed
prod
2003

14.9

20

150

87

42

25

70

50

IAAS, Lamjung
and NARC
(NRRP)

4 NARC
(RARS,Tarahara)

NARC (NRRP,
Hardinath)

6 NARC (RARS,
Nepalganj)

Prod
No of
FS
Source of BS/FS
and sale farmers production
(MT)
in seed
(mt)
prod
395
400
NARC(NRRP,
Hardinath)

Lamjung, Gorkha,
Tanahun

Siraha, Saptari,
Dhanusha

Rautahat, Bara, Parsa,

Sarlahi

Bardiya, Banke

Banke, Bardiya, Dang,

Gorkha, Dhading,
Chitwan

Market outlet

Rahda-4, Ram Dhan,

Sabitiri, Hardinath-1,
Sunaulo Sugandha,
Loktantra, Radha-32,
Makwanpur-1, Barkhe
3004

Sona mahsurii, Kanchhi

Masuli, Hardinath-1

Sabitri, Radha-4,
Hardinath-1
Makwanpur-1, Sona
Masuli, Samba Mahsuri,
Chaite-2, Ram Dhan

Sabitri, Radha-4, Ram

Dhan, Hardinath-1,
Samba Mahsuri,
Makawanpur-1, Sunaulo
Sugandh
Sabitri, Radha-4,
Makawanpur-1

Major rice varieties

sold/grown

Sukha Dhan-2

Sukha Dhan-2 and 3,

Swarna Sub-1

Swarna Sub-1

Sukha Dhan-1 tested but

lodged in irrigated fields

Sambha Masuli Sub-1

Stress-tolerant
varieties

Annex 2: Community (CBSP/DISSPRO, Cooperatives) sectors engaged in STRVs seed production and marketing

Nepal Agricultural Research Council

Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research Policy Division

Khumaltar, Lalitpur
P.O. Box: 5459, Kathmandu Nepal
Telephone: 00977-1-5540818
Email : sarpod@narc.gov.np
URL: http:// www.narc.gov.np