This

website would like to remind you: Your browser (Safari 7) is out of date. Update your browser for
more security, comfort and the best experience on this site.

Encyclopedic Entry

bioluminescence
For the complete encyclopedic entry with media resources, visit:
http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/bioluminescence/
Bioluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction within a living organism.
Bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence, which is simply the term for a
chemical reaction where light is produced. (Bioluminescence is chemiluminescence
that takes place inside a living organism.)

Bioluminescence is a "cold light." Cold light means less than 20% of the light
generates thermal radiation, or heat.

Most bioluminescent organisms are found in the ocean. These bioluminescent
marine species include fish, bacteria, and jellies. Some bioluminescent organisms,
including fireflies and fungi, are found on land. There are almost no bioluminescent
organisms native to freshwater habitats.

Chemistry

The chemical reaction that results in bioluminescence requires two unique
chemicals: luciferin and either luciferase or photoprotein. Luciferin is the
compound that actually produces light. In a chemical reaction, luciferin is called the
substrate. The bioluminescent color (yellow in fireflies, greenish in lanternfish) is a
result of the arrangement of luciferin molecules.

Some bioluminescent organisms produce (synthesize) luciferin on their own.
Dinoflagellates, for instance, bioluminesce in a bluish-green color. Bioluminescent
dinoflagellates are a type of planktontiny marine organisms that can sometimes
cause the surface of the ocean to sparkle at night.

Some bioluminescent organisms do not synthesize luciferin. Instead, they absorb
1 of 10

it through other organisms, either as food or in a symbiotic relationship. Some

species of midshipman fish, for instance, obtain luciferin through the "seed
shrimp" they consume. Many marine animals, such as squid, house bioluminescent
bacteria in their light organs. The bacteria and squid have a symbiotic relationship.

Luciferase is an enzyme. An enzyme is a chemical (called a catalyst) that interacts
with a substrate to affect the rate of a chemical reaction. The interaction of the
luciferase with oxidized (oxygen-added) luciferin creates a byproduct, called
oxyluciferin. More importantly, the chemical reaction creates light.

Bioluminescent dinoflagellates produce light using a luciferin-luciferase reaction.
The luciferase found in dinoflagellates is related to the green chemical chlorophyll
found in plants.

Bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystems are rare, mostly forming in warm-water
lagoons with narrow openings to the open sea. Bioluminescent dinoflagellates
gather in these lagoons or bays, and the narrow opening prevents them from
escaping. The whole lagoon can be illuminated at night. Biologists identified a new
bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystem in the Humacao Natural Reserve, Puerto
Rico, in 2010.

Most bioluminescent reactions involve luciferin and luciferase. Some reactions,
however, do not involve an enzyme (luciferase). These reactions involve a chemical
called a photoprotein. Photoproteins combine with luciferins and oxygen, but need
another agent, often an ion of the element calcium, to produce light.

Photoproteins were only recently identified, and biologists and chemists are still
studying their unusual chemical properties. Photoproteins were first studied in
bioluminescent crystal jellies found off the west coast of North America. The
photoprotein in crystal jellies is called "green fluorescent protein" or GFP.

Bioluminescence is not the same thing as fluorescence, however. Florescence
does not involve a chemical reaction. In fluorescence, a stimulating light is
absorbed and re-emitted. The fluorescing light is only visible in the presence of the
stimulating light. The ink used in highlighter pens is fluorescent. Phosphorescence
is similar to florescence, except the phosphorescent light is able to re-emit light for
much longer periods of time. Glow-in-the-dark stickers are phosphorescent.
2 of 10


Bioluminescent Light

The appearance of bioluminescent light varies greatly, depending on the habitat
and organism in which it is found.

Most marine bioluminescence, for instance, is expressed in the blue-green part of
the visible light spectrum. These colors are more easily visible in the deep ocean.
Also, most marine organisms are sensitive only to blue-green colors. They are
physically unable to process yellow, red, or violet colors.

Most land organisms also exhibit blue-green bioluminescence. However, many
glow in the yellow spectrum, including fireflies and the only known land snail to
bioluminesce, Quantula striata, native to the tropics of Southeast Asia.

Few organisms can glow in more than one color. The so-called railroad worm
(actually the larva of a beetle) may be the most familiar. The head of the railroad
worm glows red, while its body glows green. Different luciferases cause the
bioluminescence to be expressed differently.

Some organisms emit light continuously. Some species of fungi present in
decaying wood, for instance, emit a fairly consistent glow, called foxfire.

Most organisms, however, use their light organs to flash for periods of less than a
second to about 10 seconds. These flashes can occur in specific spots, such as
the dots on a squid. Other flashes can illuminate the organism's entire body.

Adaptations

Bioluminescence is used by living things to hunt prey, defend against predators,
find mates, and execute other vital activities.

Defensive Adaptations
Some species luminesce to confuse attackers. Many species of squid, for
instance, flash to startle predators, such as fish. With the startled fish caught off
guard, the squid tries to quickly escape.

3 of 10

The vampire squid exhibits a variation of this defensive behavior. Like many deepsea squid, the vampire squid lacks ink sacs. (Squid that live near the ocean surface
eject dark ink to leave their predators in the dark.) Instead, the vampire squid
ejects sticky bioluminescent mucus, which can startle, confuse, and delay
predators, allowing the squid to escape.

Many marine species use a technique called counterillumination to protect
themselves. Many predators, such as sharks, hunt from below. They look above,
where sunlight creates shadows beneath prey. Counterillumination is a type of
camouflage against this predatory behavior.

Hatchetfish use counterillumination. Hatchetfish have light-producing organs that
point downward. They adjust the amount of light coming from their undersides to
match the light coming from above. By adjusting their bioluminescence, they
disguise their shadows and become virtually invisible to predators looking up.

Some bioluminescent animals, such as brittle stars, can detach body parts to
distract predators. The predator follows the glowing arm of the brittle star, while
the rest of the animal crawls away in the dark. (Brittle stars, like all sea stars, can
re-grow their arms.)

When some animals detach body parts, they detach them on other animals. When
threatened, some species of sea cucumber can break off the luminescent parts of
their bodies onto nearby fish. The predator will follow the glow on the fish, while
the sea cucumber crawls away.

Biologists think that some species of sharks and whales may take advantage of
defensive bioluminescence, even though they are not bioluminescent themselves.
A sperm whale, for instance, may seek out a habitat with large communities of
bioluminescent plankton, which are not part of the whale's diet. As the plankton's
predators (fish) approach the plankton, however, their glowing alerts the whale.
The whale eats the fish. The plankton then turn out their lights.

Some insect larvae (nicknamed "glow worms") light up to warn predators that they
are toxic. Toads, birds, and other predators know that consuming these larvae will
result in illness and possible death.

4 of 10

Offensive Adaptations
Bioluminescence may be used to lure prey or search for prey.

The most famous predator to use bioluminescence may be the anglerfish, which
uses bioluminescence to lure prey. The anglerfish has a huge head, sharp teeth,
and a long, thin, fleshy growth (called a filament) on the top of its head. On the
end of the filament is a ball (called the esca) that the anglerfish can light up.
Smaller fish, curious about the spot of light, swim in for a closer look. By the time
the prey sees the enormous, dark jaws of the anglerfish behind the bright esca, it
may be too late.

Other fish, such as a type of dragonfish called loosejaws, use bioluminescence to
search for prey. Loosejaws have adapted to emit red light; most fish can only see
blue light, so loosejaws have an enormous advantage when they light up a
surrounding area. They can see their prey, but their prey can't see them.

Attraction
Adult fireflies, also called lightning bugs, are bioluminescent. They light up to
attract mates. Although both male and female fireflies can luminesce, in North
America most flashing fireflies are male. The pattern of their flashes tells nearby
females what species of firefly they are and that they're interested in mating.

Other Bioluminescence
Organisms can luminesce when they are disturbed. Changes in the environment,
such as a drop in salinity, can force bioluminescent algae to glow, for instance.
These living lanterns can be seen as spots of pink or green in the dark ocean.

"Milky seas" are another example of bioluminescence. Unlike bioluminescent algae,
which flash when their environment is disturbed, milky seas are continuous glows,
sometimes bright and large enough to be visible from satellites in orbit above the
Earth.

Scientists think milky seas are produced by bioluminescent bacteria on the surface
of the ocean. Millions of bacteria must be present for milky seas to form, and
conditions must be right for the bacteria to have enough chemicals to light up.
Satellite imagery of milky seas have been captured in tropical waters such as the
Indian Ocean.
5 of 10


Bioluminescence and People

Biologists and engineers are studying the chemicals and circumstances involved in
bioluminescence to understand how people can use the process to make life
easier and safer.

Green fluorescent protein (GFP), for instance, is a valuable "reporter gene."
Reporter genes are chemicals (genes) that biologists attach to other genes they
are studying. GFP reporter genes are easily identified and measured, usually by
their fluorescence. This allows scientists to trace and monitor the activity of the
studied geneits expression in a cell, or its interaction with other chemicals.

Other uses are more experimental. Bioluminescent trees, for instance, could help
light city streets and highways. This would reduce the need for electricity.
Bioluminescent crops and other plants could luminesce when they needed water
or other nutrients, or when they were ready to be harvested. This would reduce
costs for farmers and agribusiness.

Vocabulary
Term

Part of

adapt

Definition
Speech
verb
to adjust to new surroundings or a new situation.

agribusiness

noun

the strategy of applying profit-making practices to

the operation of farms and ranches.

algae

plural
noun

(singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms,

the largest of which are seaweeds.

bacteria

plural
noun

(singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found

in every ecosystem on Earth.

biologist

noun

bioluminescence

noun

scientist who studies living organisms.

light emitted by living things through chemical
reactions in their bodies.
tactic that organisms use to disguise their

camouflage

noun

appearance, usually to blend in with their

surroundings.
6 of 10

Term

Part of
Speech

catalyst

noun

cell

noun

chemical reaction noun

chemiluminescencenoun
chlorophyll

noun

circumstance

noun

cold light

noun

compound

noun

consume

verb

counterilluminationnoun
decay
decoy

verb
noun

delay
detach

verb
verb

dinoflagellate

noun

ecosystem

noun

electricity

noun

emit

verb

engineer

noun

enzyme

noun

Definition
substance that causes or quickens a chemical
reaction, without being affected by it.
smallest working part of a living organism.
process that involves a change in atoms, ions, or
molecules of the substances (reagents) involved.
emission of light as a result of a chemical reaction.
plants' green pigment that is essential to
photosynthesis.
condition or situation.
light emitted by a source that produces very little
thermal radiation.
substance having at least two chemical elements
held together with chemical bonds.
to use up.
type of bioluminescence used by organisms to hide
from predators below by blending in with the light
patterns above.
to rot or decompose.
object used to attract an animal or other organism.
to put off until a later time.
to break apart from something else.
one-celled marine organism that is a major
component of plankton.
community and interactions of living and nonliving
things in an area.
set of physical phenomena associated with the
presence and flow of electric charge.
to give off or send out.
person who plans the building of things, such as
structures (construction engineer) or substances
(chemical engineer).
proteins produced in living cells that act as catalysts
to accelerate the vital processes of an organism.

7 of 10

Term

Part of
Speech

esca

noun

filament
flash

noun
verb

fluorescence

noun

foxfire
freshwater
freshwater

noun
noun
noun

fungus

noun

GFP

noun

glow

verb

habitat

noun

habitat

noun

harvest

noun

ion

noun

lagoon

noun

larva

noun

luciferase

noun

Definition
long, thin, fleshy growth from the head of an
anglerfish.
very thin fiber or thread-like structure.
to emit a short burst of light.
emission of light by a substance during exposure to
another source of light.
light emitted by some fungi as they decay wood.
water that is not salty.
water that is not salty.
(plural: fungi) type of organism that survives by
decomposing and absorbing the material in which it
grows.
(green fluorescent protein) chemical (protein) that
exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to
light in the blue to ultraviolet range.
to emit a continuous stream of light over a long
period of time.
environment where an organism lives throughout
the year or for shorter periods of time.
environment where an organism lives throughout
the year or for shorter periods of time.
the gathering and collection of crops, including both
plants and animals.
electrically charged atom or group of atoms, formed
by the atom having gained or lost an electron.
shallow body of water that may have an opening to
a larger body of water, but is also protected from it
by a sandbar or coral reef.
a new or immature insect or other type of
invertebrate.
enzyme (catalyst) that reacts with a substrate
(luciferin) in a chemical reaction that results in
bioluminescence.

8 of 10

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition
organic substances that upon oxidation produce a
virtually heatless light (bioluminescence).
to emit light.

luciferin

noun

luminesce

verb

lure
marine

noun
object used to attract an animal or other organism.
adjective having to do with the ocean.
phenomenon of bioluminescent bacteria on the
noun
surface of the ocean.

milky sea
mucus
nutrient

adjective,
slimy, fluid secretion of some animals.
noun
substance an organism needs for energy, growth,
noun
and life.

orbit
organism

noun
noun

phosphorescence

noun

photoprotein

noun

plankton

plural

predator

noun
noun

prey

noun

radiation

noun

reporter gene

noun

salinity

noun

satellite

noun

satellite imagery

noun

sea star

noun

startle

verb

path of one object around a more massive object.

living or once-living thing.
long-lasting emission of light following exposure to
and removal of stimulating light (incident radiation).
chemical (protein) that interacts with luciferin and
other chemicals to create bioluminescence.
(singular: plankton) microscopic aquatic organisms.
animal that hunts other animals for food.
animal that is hunted and eaten by other animals.
energy, emitted as waves or particles, radiating
outward from a source.
gene with an easily disginguishable presence, used
to track the expression and behavior of other
genes.
saltiness.
object that orbits around something else. Satellites
can be natural, like moons, or made by people.
photographs of a planet taken by or from a satellite.
marine animal (echinoderm) with many arms
radiating from its body. Also called a starfish.
to suddenly surprise.

9 of 10

Term
substrate
symbiotic
synthesize
technique
toxic

tropics

Part of
Speech
noun

Definition
substance acted upon by an enzyme in a chemical

reaction.
associating with another organism, not always to the
adjective
mutual benefit of either species.
verb
to create or manufacture.
noun
method of doing something.
adjective poisonous.
region generally located between the Tropic of
plural
noun

Cancer (23 1/2 degrees north of the Equator) and

the Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2 degrees south of the
Equator).

visible light

noun
light and colors that can be seen by human beings.
spectrum
vital
adjective necessary or very important.
Articles & Profiles
National Geographic News: New Glowing Fungi Species Found in Brazil
National Geographic News: Glowing Coral Proteins Aid Medical Research
Instructional Content
National Geographic Education: BioluminescenceLiving Light
Video
TED: Edith WidderThe weird, wonderful world of bioluminescence
Websites
The Bioluminescence Web Page

19962016 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.

10 of 10