MANUFACTURERS EXPERIENCE WITH NON-LEADED COPPER

ALLOYS AND COMPONENTS

Robert Weed
Copper Development Association Inc.
New York, NY
Background
Sand-cast faucets and other plumbing components have traditionally been made from leaded red,
semi-red and yellow brasses. The most common plumbing brass, C84400 (also known as 81 Metal or 813-7-9) contains nominally7% lead. The most popular red brass, C83600 (85 Metal, 85-5-5-5), contains
nominally 5% lead. Permanent mold and pressure die castings of plumbing components are also
commonly made of the leaded yellow brass alloy C85800, which contains nominally 1.5% lead. In
contrast to the red brasses, which are moderate strength, single-phase alpha alloys, alloy C85800 is
stronger at both room temperature and at elevated temperatures approaching the solidus, because of the
presence of the beta phase in the alpha matrix. These improved mechanical properties are an advantage
not only during casting and machining, but also in service. Alloy C85800 has a pleasant light yellow color
and can be buffed to a high polish.
In an effort to comply with the requirements of NSF Standard 61, sections 8 and 9, manufacturers
investigated a number of new processes and materials. This paper will discuss the opportunities and
challenges presented to manufacturers with the use of non-leaded copper alloys, that is with no intentional
addition of lead. Many copper alloys, with very low lead content, have been known to metallurgists for
decades. However, none of these alloys possessed the properties necessary to effectively fabricate them
into components for valves, meters and faucets.
A number of new cast alloys were developed to help manufacturers meet the NSF requirements.
An industry consortium of the Copper Development Association (CDA), Brass and Bronze Ingot
Manufacturers (BBIM), the American Foundrymens Society (AFS), and the Materials Technology
Laboratory of CANMET in Canada conducted research and developed a series of copper alloys which use
bismuth and selenium as replacements for lead (commercially available as EnviroBrass also known as
SeBiLOY). The Federal Metals Company has concurrently developed a group of alloys containing
bismuth and using proprietary grain refinement techniques (commercially available as FederAlloy).
With increased concern about the price and availability of selenium, alloy C89836 was commercialized,
using bismuth without the selenium addition. Silicon brass alloys have also been developed as
replacements for traditional leaded alloys. No lead is added to these alloys, and the minimal amount of
lead present is due to the lead contained in recycled materials and ore that are used as the source metals.
These alloys are formed by substituting bismuth, selenium or silicon for lead, to enhance the
machinability and self-sealing characteristics that are the desirable consequences of lead addition.
Why Bismuth?
Bismuth acts very much like lead in many respects. It is leads neighbor on the Periodic Table of
the Elements, and its melting point is 56 C (101 F) lower than that of lead, making its behavior during
casting and solidification similar to that of lead. Like lead, bismuth is nearly insoluble in copper and
copper alloys. Furthermore, it causes machining chips to break up into small, easily removed particles,
similar to lead. Unlike lead, bismuth is not known to be toxic to humans, except in cases of consumption
of immense doses. In fact, its most common use for many years has been as the major ingredient in

popular stomach medications. Selenium enhances the effect of bismuth in red brasses; therefore, it
reduces the amount of bismuth needed to achieve the desired improvement in properties. From a health
standpoint, selenium, like copper, is one of the essential nutrient elements. Animals, including humans,
require a minimum intake of selenium (as well as copper).
The mechanical properties of bismuth brass alloys are functionally equivalent to standard
plumbing brasses. Specifically, EnviroBrass I (C89510) and EnviroBrass II (C89520) display
mechanical properties, including hardness, that are similar to the leaded red brasses although with
somewhat lower tensile ductility. In addition, EnviroBrass III (C89550) is similar in mechanical
properties to leaded yellow brass. Ductility of EnviroBrass III is marginally lower than leaded yellow
brass. Its strength increases and ductility decreases with increasing zinc and bismuth contents. That means
plumbing goods currently made in leaded brasses should not have to be radically redesigned when cast in
the EnviroBrass or FederAlloy or C89836 alloys.

Table 1. Typical and Minimum Mechanical Properties of EnviroBrass Alloy

Alloy

UTS, ksi (MPa)

0.5% YS, ksi (MPa)

% Elongation

Hardness, (500-kg) BHN

C83600 (Typical)*

37 (255)

17 (117)

30

60

C84400 (Typical)*

35 (241)

14 (47)

28

55

30 (209)

20 (136)

12

37

26.8 (185)

17.3 (119)

71

31 (215)

21 (145)

10

39

EnviroBrass II (Minimum)*

21 (176)

18 (121)

73

C85800 (Typical)**

48 (332)

28 (192)

60

EnviroBrass III (Typical)**

48 (332)

29 (200)

63

EnviroBrass III (Minimum)**

35 (240)

21 (140)

--

EnviroBrass I (Typical)*
EnviroBrass I (Minimum)*
EnviroBrass II (Typical)*

* Sand Cast
** Permanent Mold Cast

Castability
Commercial foundries have found bismuth brasses to have casting properties similar to those
associated with leaded red and yellow brasses. These are long-freezing alloys, as are conventional red
brasses C83600 and C84400, although they have slightly wider freezing ranges. The liquidus temperature
for the 2% Bi/1% Se alloy is nearly the same as those of the red brasses. Pouring temperature is,
therefore, similar to those of leaded alloys, although foundry experience indicates that about 150 F (83 C)
of added superheat is often beneficial. The liquidus temperature for 1% Bi/0.5%Se alloy is about 30 F (17
C) higher, and a correspondingly higher pouring temperature is usually observed. Like leaded red brasses,
bismuth-brasses, also develop a pipe between 3.1% and 3.5% of the castings volume.
Contraction ranges from 1.9% to3.7%. Porosity is minimal, about 0.4%. Fluidity is identical to
that of C84400 at a superheat of 135 F (75 C), but it is somewhat lower than that of red brasses at high
superheats. The tendency toward hot tearing at abrupt section changes is dramatically reduced compared
with leaded red brasses. Alloy C89550 (EnviroBrass III) has a short-freezing range of 60 F(33 C),
similar to that in leaded yellow brass. The piping tendency is high. The contraction range should be
similar to that of leaded yellow brass and the tendency for porosity formation is lower than leaded yellow
brass. The drossing tendency increases with bismuth content. The fluidity is slightly lower than leaded

yellow brass in similar casting conditions. Compositions with bismuth lower than 1.2% did not show any
hot tearing tendency in permanent mold casting. This is an advantage relative to conventional leaded
yellow brass (C85800) which is prone to hot tearing within its nominal composition range. However,
EnviroBrass III exhibits severe hot tearing when superheat exceeds 234 F (130 C). Boron is used to
grain refine low-tin alloys and zirconium serves the same function in high-tin alloys. Grain refinement
improves both fluidity and hot tearing resistance.
If an operation produces both leaded and bismuth brass alloys, it is possible to produce both in the
same furnace, however the wash heats necessary to condition the furnace for non-lead can be expensive
and difficult to control. This often leads to dedicating specific melting equipment just for non-leaded
alloys and may even require the purchase of new equipment. Brass scrap that contains bismuth or silicon
must be isolated from other brass scrap. Bismuth makes hot rolling and hot forming nearly impossible in
copper alloys, so bismuth scrap must either be re-used or sent to a foundry casting bismuth alloys. All
brass mills in the U.S. test scrap for bismuth content and will refuse any load that contains bismuth or
silicon. Presently, bismuth containing brass scrap is used as run-around scrap or returned to a foundry.
There may be a concern in the future as more consumer scrap enters the recycling stream and additional
time and expense are required to identify and segregate bismuth alloys from other copper alloys.

Table 2. Casting Characteristics of EnviroBrass Alloys (Part 1)

Alloy

Liquidus, F
(C)

Freezing Range, F
(C)

Fluidity,cm at 56 C (100 F)
superheat*

Relative Hot Tearing Resistance (lower is

better)**

C83600

1850 (1010)

280 (156)

24

15-21

C84400

1840 (1004)

291 (161)

30

23-24

EnviroBrass I
C89510

1871 (1021)

371 (206)

24

14

EnviroBrass II
C89520

1842 (1005)

353 (196)

25

C85800

1650 (899)

EnviroBrass III

50 (28)

1638 (892)

Medium

50 (32)

Medium
Medium

Good

Table 2. Casting Characteristics of EnviroBrass Alloys (Part 2)

Alloy

Drossing

Soldering

Brazing

Effect of Section Size on Mechanical Properties

C83600

Low

Excellent

Good

Large

C84400

Medium

Excellent

Good

Large

EnviroBrass I C89510

Low

Excellent

Good

Small

EnviroBrass II C89520

Low

Excellent

Good

Small

C85800
EnviroBrass III

Medium
Medium

Good
Good

Good
Good

Medium
Medium

* Ragone Test, see S. Floreen & D.V. Ragone, The Fluidity of Some Aluminum Alloys, AFS Trans. 65, 1957, 391-393.
** Couture & Edwards Test, see A. Couture and J.O. Edwards, The Hot Tearing of Copper Alloys, AFS Trans., 74, 1966, 709-721. The
two values given represent pouring temperatures of approximately 1170 C (2140 F) and 1225 C (2240 F), respectively.

Machining and Finishing

All plumbing castings are machined, and machining operations increase manufacturing cost.
Traditional leaded plumbing alloys are so highly machinable that cutting fluids are not always needed and
can be used in very low amounts. Using Alloy C36000, which as a standard has a machinability rating of
100 based on spindle load requirements for several machining operations. EnviroBrass II has been
assigned a machinability rating of 85. For simple drilling operations, the nominally 2% Bi/1% Se
EnviroBrass II alloy actually machines just as fast as free-cutting red brass. EnviroBrass I is marginally
more difficult to machine with a machinability rating of 75. EnviroBrass III, with 1.1% Bi, achieves a
maximum machinability rating (in drilling) of 97, but the rating decreases as bismuth content decreases.
At 0.7% Bi, the machinability rating of EnviroBrass III falls to 75. Plumbing products cast in
EnviroBrass II, can be machined at speeds and feeds very much like those used for leaded red or semired brasses. Some adjustment of practice may be required depending on part design and experience. In
addition, permanent mold plumbing products in EnviroBrass III can be machined with essentially the
same practice as leaded yellow brass but with improved health benefits. The EnviroBrass alloys do not
produce any significant lead-bearing airborne particulates when machined dry. Some machine shops have
experienced slightly higher tool wear with bismuth brass alloys (EnviroBrass, FederAlloy and C89836)
when compared with either C83600 or C84400. Similarly, slightly higher tool wear results may be
observed when comparing the machinability of EnviroBrass III with C85800.The reasons are not yet
fully understood. It seems to vary with the type of tooling and machining operation. Measurements show
that machined surface quality and finish of EnviroBrass alloys are equal to or better than those produced
in traditional leaded brasses. The EnviroBrass alloys readily accept a high-luster finish by polishing and
buffing. The color of EnviroBrass I and EnviroBrass II is nearly identical to that of standard red brass
casting alloys. The color of EnviroBrass III is also nearly identical to cast yellow brass, which is a
pleasant light yellow. Platability is fully equivalent to C83600, C84400 or C85800 and the substitution of
bismuth and selenium for lead does not alter the corrosion resistance of brass.
A number of manufacturers are also evaluating silicon brasses as replacements for the traditional
leaded alloys. These include alloy C87500, and alloys C87851 and C87852 (commercially available as
EcoBrass). These alloys have cast well and have excellent strength properties. They range in
machinability from 50 to 70 and the EcoBrass alloys exhibit excellent plating characteristics, unlike some
of the other silicon brasses.
For now, despite some concerns about the cost and availability, bismuth containing brasses
appear be the material of choice for replacing traditional leaded alloys such as C83600 and C84400. A
number of manufacturers have successfully added components made from bismuth brasses to their
product lines and some manufacturers have even converted their entire product lines to bismuth brasses.
Other Issues
Ford Meter Box (2005a) offers the perspective that the mechanical properties and
manufacturability of the new alloys are somewhat inferior to the copper-lead alloys. Ford Meter Box is
concerned about applications where the product is buried underground and failure would be difficult to
detect.
In yellow brass, used for faucets and other fittings, the addition of bismuth can cause cracking
issues. Like water, bismuth migrates into cracks and expands by 3 percent as it solidifies. There is
concern about the impact in field use or machining.
Ford Meter Box (2005a) raises a concern with the generally lower ductility of the no-lead alloys
and their demonstrated propensity to crack. The low ductility gives rise to concerns of failure,
especially in thin sections of products that may be stressed in installation or usage. Indeed, manufacturers
have had to redesign products to remove thin sections in order to reduce concerns with the low ductility.
The propensity to crack has been found in the copper-bismuth-selenium alloys. The cracking has

normally been found to occur on dry machined surfaces of thin sections that were heated up due to any of
several reasons including excessive feeds and speeds or dull or incorrect tooling. The cracking, in some
instances, is easily seen and discernible. (Ford Meter Box 2005b). Ford Meter Box has decided to not
use these alloys as a solution to meet lower lead levels and instead is utilizing a lead-removing wash
system known as the Kunkel Process to meet the NSF/ANSI 61 standard (Ford Meter Box 2005c). The
Kunkel Process is a patented process that exposes parts to a series of acid/caustic solutions in order to
dissolve lead contained on the surface of the part.
The high temperature properties of bismuth brasses were compared to traditional leaded brasses
recently by CANMET Materials Technology Laboratories, in Ontario, Canada. The results are
summarized below:
The values for the alloy C89836 are compared with two other red brasses, C83600 and C89520
(EnviroBrass II) at selected temperatures. The values were obtained from a previous investigation
conducted at CANMET and are presented Figure 1. The findings show that alloy C89836 possess higher
strength and ductility compared to EnviroBrass II at room temperature. The strength of C89836 at room
temperature is comparable to C83600 but the ductility is low. At 93C, both low-lead alloys, C89520 and
C89836, exhibit a significant drop in strength. The drop in the strength of leaded alloy C83600 is only
marginal. At this test temperature, C89836 has marginally higher strength than C89520. All three alloys
experience a significant drop in ductility at 93C. However, the low-lead alloys possess very low ductility
compared to the leaded alloy. The drop in strength and ductility for the low-lead alloys continues as the
test temperature was increased to 149C, whereas the leaded alloy exhibits a marginal decrease in values.

Low lead alloys with bismuth have adequate strength and ductility at room temperature which
are comparable to leaded alloys. Their high temperature properties are much lower compared to leaded
alloys. The reduction in properties occurs between 121C and 177C. This temperature is much lower than
the melting temperature of bismuth (266C). The reason for this reduction in strength has yet to be
determined. (M. Sadayappan, J.P. Thomson, M. Sahoo and H.T. Michels, 2006)
The decision to utilize non-leaded brass alloys to manufacture drinking water components
involves a variety of criteria, not just the ability to meet lower lead levels. Ford Meter Box (2005b)
provides perspective on the issues related to the manufacture of drinking water components, and the use
of non-leaded alloys: The selection of alloys must be based on product line configuration, manufacturing
capabilities, resources and customer needs as well as safety. Product performance characteristics such as
durability, machinability, resistance to corrosion, functionality, and strength are just a few items that must
be considered when selecting a material for use in a product. Craig Selover, of Masco Corporation,
states that companies that manufacture components use several product performance criteria when
selecting materials and developing their product design, including:

Burst Strength/Water Hammer Resistance

Bending/Torque Strength (mounting issues)

Durability 500,000 on-off cycles for faucets; 10 25 year life for meters

Machinability tolerances necessary to provide smooth, durable function

Functionality in High Mineral Content Water

Ability to Apply Decorative Finishes

Abuse/Vandalism Excessive Force

Hot/Cold Water Temperatures

Non-leaded alloys used for manufacturing components are subjected to these criteria as well.
Supply and Demand for Selenium and Bismuth
Metals are subject to global economic forces, including mine reserves, mining production,
smelting and refining capacity and, of course, global demand. Some studies are showing that selenium
and bismuth could be in short supply with competing European and Japanese demands (USGS 2005).
World production and consumption data for selenium is limited. Selenium is a rare element,
widely distributed within the Earths crust, but not in concentrations high enough to justify mining solely
for its content. It is recovered as byproducts, mostly from the anode slimes associated with electrolytic
refining of copper. World refinery production of selenium is estimated to have remained stable. The
average global consumption of selenium during the past 4 years is estimated to have been about 2 million
kilograms per year, 4 5 times the amount consumed in the U.S. More than one-half of the metallurgical
selenium is used as an additive to cast iron, copper, lead, and steel alloys. The driving force behind the
worldwide demand increases for selenium is the growing economy of China. In mid-2003, China started
importing large quantities of selenium, which caused the price to soar (see Table 1).
According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS 2006), the estimated consumption of selenium
by end use is: glass manufacturing, 40%; chemicals and pigments, 20%; electronics, 10%; and other uses,
including agriculture and metallurgy, 30%.
The dramatic price increases and very limited supply of selenium resulted in a number of
manufacturers switching to bismuth brasses that did not contain selenium.
Table 3. United States Selenium Supply and Demand Statistics
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Imports for Consumption, metal

and dioxide (metric tons)

483

422

367

412

440

Exports, metal, waste, scrap

(metric tons)

41

87

249

160

315

Price ($/lb)

$3.80

$4.27

$5.68

$24.86

$52.00

Source:USGS 2006; Micheal W. George

Bismuth consumption in the United States has ranged between 2,120 to 2,530 metric tons (4.6 to
5.6 million pounds) for the last five years and historically, prices have been relatively stable (United
States Geological Survey (USGS) 2006). USGS believes that world demand for bismuth is increasing
approximately 5 percent per year. International agreements to eliminate lead from solder in
manufacturing processes by 2005 in Europe, Japan, and North America will tend to increase the demand
for bismuth over the next several years. Estimates of the use of bismuth in solder for electronics range
from 600 to 1,000 metric tons per year on a global basis.
Bismuth is not produced domestically, so the U.S. relies on imported material to satisfy demand.
Only a small amount of bismuth is obtained by recycling old scrap. Over the past 5 years, the U.S. has
imported 40 percent - 50 percent of the worlds refining capacity for bismuth. The USGS estimates that
global production in 2005 was 5,200 metric tons (USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January, 2006).
Throughout most of the world, bismuth is a byproduct of processing lead ores; in China, it is a byproduct

of tungsten ore processing. The Tasna Mine in Bolivia, the only mine that produced bismuth from a
bismuth ore, has been on standby since the mid-1990s awaiting a significant rise in the metal price.
(USGS 2005)
China is the leading global producer of bismuth and its output is nearly 50% of total world mine
production. Apparently China experienced problems in 2005 as reports indicated that raw material
shortages and power interruptions continued to hamper bismuth smelters. According to the Metal
Bulletin, the supply of bismuth ore has become increasingly tight as existing mines are exhausted and
new discoveries have not been made. Two companies, Tiberon Minerals Ltd. and Fortune Minerals Ltd.
have announced plans to develop mineral deposits containing bismuth. The Tiburon properties are in Viet
Nam and Fortune Minerals property is in the Northwest Territories, Canada.
Additional statistics for bismuth are presented in Tables 2 - 4.

Table 4. United States Bismuth Supply and Demand Statistics

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

1st Qtr
2006

Consumption (metric tons)

2,200

2,320

2,120

2,420

2,280

515

Imports (metric tons)

2,220

1,930

2,320

1,980

2,150

297

Price ($/lb)

$3.74

$3.14

$2.87

$3.22

$3.91

$4.70

Source: USGS 2005 and 2006, J. Carlin, R. Kaiser

Table 5. Estimated Bismuth Metal Consumed in the U.S, by Use (Metric tons)
2003

2004

2005

1st Qtr
2006

Chemicals

616

584

500

84

Bismuth alloys

646

703

670

157

Metallurgical additives

833

1,110

1,090

270

Other

25

22

15

2,120

2,420

2,280

515

Use

Total

Source: USGS 2005 and 2006, J. Carlin, R. Kaiser

The main concern of manufacturers is the continued availability of bismuth at an

affordable price. Because CDA was instrumental in the development of the EnviroBrass
bismuth alloys, they strongly advocate the use all bismuth brass alloys when it is technically and
economically feasible. However, the concept of converting all brass alloys used in components
that convey water may be problematic. Ford Meter Box has estimated that allowing only bismuth
brasses for waterworks components (large valves, corporation stops, meter boxes, water meters,
etc.) could increase the demand for bismuth by 1,600 metric tons per year. This could be a very
conservative estimate. If plumbers brass goods (stop valves, faucets, shower heads, etc.) are

included the numbers increase dramatically. From 1999 to 2003, manufacturers consumed an
average of 136,000 metric tons of leaded copper alloys, per year, just for U.S. production. If all
these alloys contained 2% bismuth, the average for bismuth brasses, an additional 2,700 metric
tons of bismuth would be required every year just for U.S. production. And approximately 30%
of all plumbers brass goods are imported, or use imported components, so the global impact
would be even more significant.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the American Water Works Association Research Foundation for
providing funding for project 3112 which has made this paper and other valuable information available to
the manufacturers and consumers of components used to convey drinking water.
References
Copper Development Association (CDA). 1996. Lead-free Cast Red Brasses for Plumbing. Copper
Topics, Spring 1996. www.copper.org/resouces/cutopics/Ct81/castred.html .
Copper Development Association (CDA). 2005. Mechanical Properties of Wrought and Cast Copper
Alloys, Copper Development Association, 2005. Accessed from the Properties of Wrought and
Cast Copper Alloys Search at
http://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basic
on 10/28/2005.
Davis, J.R., 2001. ASM Specialty Handbook, Copper and Copper Alloys. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International, 2001
Ford Meter Box. 2005a. A Manufacturers Perspective on a Reduction In the SDWA Definition of Leadfree to 0.2 Percent. Wabash, IN: Ford Meter Box, Inc.
Ford Meter Box. 2005b. Position on Proposed Rulemaking Re: Lead in Brass Waterworks Fittings.
Wabash, IN: Ford Meter Box Inc.
Ford Meter Box Company, Inc. 2005c. The Kunkel Process Validation.
Wabash, IN: Ford Meter Box Inc.

George, M.W. 2006. Selenium and Tellurium. U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, VA.
George, M.W. 2005. Bismuth. U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. U.S. Geological Survey,
Reston, VA.

M. Sadayappan, J.P. Thomson, M. Sahoo and H.T. Michels, 2006. High Temperature Properties of BiContaining Copper Alloys for Plumbing Applications
Sadayappan K. 2005. Mitigating Lead in Copper Alloys for Drinking Water Applications. Foundry
Management and Technology, pp. 59-62, March 2005.

Selover, C. 2005. Manufacturers Concerns Historical and Future Perspective. Presented at the U.S.
EPA Lead and Copper Rule Workshop: Lead Content in Plumbing Fittings and Fixtures. July
26-27, 2005. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. USEPA Lead and Copper Rule Workshop: Lead in
Plumbing, Fittings, and Fixtures. July 26-27, 2005. Accessed 9/19/2005
www.epa.gov/OGWDW/lcrmr/pdfs/summary_lcmr_review_school_plumbing.pdf
U.S. Geological Survey. 2005, 2006. Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S.
Department of Interior.
U.S. Geological Survey. 2005, 2006. Mineral Industry Surveys. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S.
Department of Interior.