Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Present simple
statement: Uyou/we/they travel...
negative: l/you/we/theydanltrovel.,.
question: Dol/you/we/theytravel...7
...
Example
Current habits
To
Permanent situations
i"ttt'"1
z.
statefiefit:
negative:
question:
...
Example
Mike is driving to work at the moment.
Taxi drivers
Temporary situations
Situations and states that started in the past and are still true
A series of actions continuing up
to now
- all in
I
Phrases such as lt's the first/second/etc time ...are followed by the present perfect simple.
@,
Speakers of American English often use the past simple in situations where speakers of British
English would use the present perfect simple.
US: We olready saw the Sphinx.
l)K: We've already seen the Sphinx.
Speakers of American English use gotten as the past participle of the verb
means'have'or'possess'. Speakers of British English only ever use gof.
US: We've atready gotten Dan a new backpack for his summer vacation.
UK: We've atreody got Dan a new rucksackfor his summer holiday.
Use
-l
We
l'm out of breath because l've been running to get here in time.
The present perfect continuous is often used with words and phrases like all day/week/year/etc,
for, since,just, etc.
/
O
The present perfect continuous is not normally used with the words eyerand never.
/ Have you ever floanilit a helicopter before?
x
O
Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning between the present perfect simple and the
present perfect continuous and sometimes there is a difference in meaning.
/
/
Stative
verbs
hdve worked at the airport for four years. = I hove been working at the airport for four years.
have read that book about cruise ships.(l have finished it.) t hove been reading that book
about cruise ships. (l have not finished it.)
I
I
Stative verbs are not normally used in continuous tenses because they
I seewhstyau meon.
x@
Use
Example
=, Stence
be,exist
=-: otions
:-= human
:: DeafanCe
belong
-*utth
-=-
senses
oS
to , consist
Some verbs (such as be,have,imagine, look,see,smell,taste,think) are stative with one meaning
mm r
Unit 3
O Past time: past simple, past con{rnuous, past pertect
con{rnuous, would, used to
/ be/get used to
Past simple
statement: Uyou/he/shelit/we/they played ...
negative: l/you/he/she/it/weltheydidn'tplay...
question: Did l/you/he/she/it/we/they play...?
Example
Single completed actions
Crosswords
The referee blew the whistle and Simon passed the ballto James,who ran towards
the goal.
1930s.
Past continaous
Form
ploying
...
... ?
Example
Use
Actions happening at a particular moment
in the past
Greg was
Were Ulla and her friends playing Monopoly while we were playing Draughts?
The sun was shining and the birds were singing.Lisa opened the window and
looked out.
#'T
use
the past.
)( '#l1t
See
Unit
1,
page 7.
Example
Use
Situations and states before the past
We'd lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to join.
l'd already bought the computer game when I saw it was cheaper in
another shop.
game of Monopoly.
s#
We
didn't feel like playing Scrabble because we hod just finished a long
---- a
Tnere is often little or no difference in meaning between the past perfect simple and the past
/
/
o
We'd lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to ioin.
We lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to ioin.
After we have used the past perfect simple once, we often then use the past simple instead of
continuing to use the past perfect. I had already had one flying lesson,which was great fun, and I
knew immediately that lwanted to get my pilo* licence.
P h rases such as lt was the first/second/etc time. . . a re followed by the past perfect sim ple.
/ lt was the second time lA been on a plane.
six
miles
- and we
morning.
ffiru[id
would + bare infinitive
Example
'*r!!ii.,
-: : ,*" - -
When I was very young, my grandfather would take me to the park to play.
- --'i" O \,Ve don't often use would in questions or negative statements with this meaning. ln negative
statements,we can use would nEier.
!--fl
/ We would never play games together as a family when I was growing up.
- -
rsd to
-sed ta + bare infinitive
uestiorl:
: s:ares, particularly
a
:-
*gt. -7
To talk about a past state, we can use used to, but not would.
We used to have a house that was right next to the park.
ffi
EIet used to
beiget used to + -ing form I noun
Example
I
-.-7o
.tl,\\' 7
didn't like being the goalkeeper at first but now l'm used to it.
When we want to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something, we use get used to.
/ l'm gradually getting used to being in a new team.
{s
Future firme
-:
q{ll:r
4ilr.lt,:
hours!
Example
It'll be wonderful when scientists find / have found a cure for cancer.
Let me
has arrived.
tt'll be several years before we send / we've sent a manned mission to Mars.
Let's
The rocket
turn right ot a place, sit on sth, go in(to) a building,wait in(side) a building, arrive in
London/Greece, arrive at the stodium, in/on/at the corner (of ), come/go/walWetc to a place,
next to/beside/by the building, at/on the front/back of, in front of/behind the station, go
out of a building, go towards the station, between the two buildings, opposite the station
!(s
i.3
Speakers of American English do not always use on before days of the week.
We've got a biology test Mondoy/on Mondalt.
UK: We've got o biology test on MandaY.
llS
ra
Unit',?.'
Articles
quantifiers
There are two indefinite articles in Engtish: 'a'and'ani An'is used before vowel sounds.
There's a
/
lM
/ Being in a film was a unique experience for me.
x
The way we say'the'changes depending on the sound at the start of the next word.
Before a consonant sound (the media,the USA,the programme), we pronounce it /da/.
Before a vowel sound (the announcer,the actor,the editor),we pronounce it /dI/.
We often use'the'when we are talking about something there is only one of.
the sky,the sun,the moon,the Prince of Wales,the North Pole,theWorld Cup
We often don't use an article at all.This is sornetimes called the zero article.
Example
definite article: in the I 990s, in (the) summer, in the morning
zero article:ln 2008, in June,on Friday, at night
indefinite arficle'.have aiob,workas a ...
definite article: the queen,the principal,the president,the French
zero article: become president, go to work, be ot work, have work to do, he's French.
definite article: the Alps,the Atlantic Ocean,the RiverThames,the Earth,the Arctic,the USA,the
UK,
the Cyclades
zero article: M ount Everest, Paris, America, MarsNenus/Jupiter etc, Oxford Street, Lake Superior, Crete
definitearticle:the media,ontheradio,playtheguitar,gotothecinema,watch(the)TV
zero article: /isten to music, on television, play tennis/football etc
42
*,rticles
quan*ifiers Unit 7
Example
Use
-"::nisations
:: ,:atiOn
a,=
::
(as a visitor)
zero article: go to hospital/prison/church (as a patient/prisoner/worshipper)
:ings
-: - rtable nouns
a -te a,the,some,many
! - )e a singular or plural verb
-
-::untable nouns
t -:e the,some,much
r -:: a singular verb
--
::
Most uncountable nouns are singular, but a few are plural. These includ e clothes,scissors, jeans,
spectacles, trousers, groceries,etc. With these words, we use a plural verb.
Oh, no! My new clothes ore dirty!
*$
,/
Some nouns are countable with one meaning and uncountable with another meaning.
Do you think you could bring me a clean gloss? (countable)
We should make computer monitors out of recycled glass. (uncountable)
/
/
Quantifiers
I uantifier
Use
:f /
lots
of
J*uttn
s uncountable
ouo
Example
The police
4.3
Untt
O Conditionals: zero, first, second, third, mixed, inverted /
mm
unless, in case,
Form
Example
lf you
Form
if
lf you have revised properly, you won't hove any problems in the test next week'
instead of wil/,depending on
the meaning.
We ca n a lso use should + ba re infi n itive instead of present sim ple. Th is suggests the situation is
possible, but unlikely to happen.
tf you should bump into Alex at the concert,you'llbe ableto get a lift home.
We can also use a form of the first conditional to give instructions about real or likely situations in
the present or future.This is: lf + a present tense, imperative.
lf you decide to have a birthday party, tell me!
/
/
Example
Meaning
unless
in case
Let's
as/so long as
'if'or'only
provided (that)
'if
if
'
if
Provided (thot)
lh
Second conditional
Form
Example
Advice
tf I were you, t would thi n k very ca refu I ly abo ut my futu re. (more forma
lf I was you,l'd have a party at the weekendl (more informal)
--J \-"D',
&*xY
s4
l)
(thatt lJnit
Umit 11
O Comparatives and superlatives
mma
/
rnore/less+adj
most/least+ad)
Comparative
To compare things or people that are different
Superlative
To compare one member of a group of people or
things with the whole group
The crime rate in this orea is higher than in other parts of the
country.
The
Regular adjectives with two syllables can often also form the comparative and superlative like
adjectives with one syllable.
/ clever, cleverer, cleverest
Adjectives with one syllable that end in -e add -r and -sf.
white,whiter,whitest
easily
more
less
worse
eorly
earlier
far
farther I further
fost
faster
horder
late
often
near
more often
soon
500ner
well
better'
Superlative
To compare actions of one member of a group of people
66
hardest
latest
most often
later
nearer
Use
Comparative
To compare actions that are different
superlative
badly
hard
irregular adverbs
comparative
nearest
.foot?Sf
best
'
r:
Example
Lock your door more corefully next time and maybe you
II
rfu
so+adjective+that
so+adverb +that
so + many/much + noun +
thdt
Example
The burglar was so clever that no one could catch him.
Jane took the money so quickly thot no one saw her.
There was so much money that the robber couldn't corry it all.
"*
*'*n
-o
O
The word that is not usually necessary to introduce the second clause.
/ fhe crime rate is so high people are very frightened.
The word so has a number of other uses. Try not to get confused between them.
/ fhe crime rate is so high thot people are very frightened.
/ t saw that burglar leaving the house, so I called the police.
Such
such + a/qn + adjective + singular noun + fhst
such + adjective + plural noun +
such + a lot of +noun + fhdt
fftdf
Example
It was such a terrible crime thot the man was sent to prison for life.
The security guard had such good hearing thot he heard the door
open immediately,
There is such a lot of crime here that the police can't cope.
Errough
enough + noun {+ forand/or + full infinitive)
adjective + enaugh (+ forand/or + full infinitive)
adverb + enough (+ forand/or + full infinitive)
Example
the results of a situation or action where there
right amount/number of something
:he
. :
.
-:
,,;
A common mistake is to put enough before an adjective when the correct word is quite or fairly.
t* quite / fairty dangerous around here so don't go out alone.
*l'j
full infinitive)
Example
-:
flr :-
uatctr
orf
The young
We arilved
We
We do not use too when we want to describe something we consider to be positive. lnstead, we
use very, really or extremely.
You were very / reolly / extremely lucky not to get caught.
x
u,
mm
Unit 13
Modals: ability
Expressing ability now or generally
We
could + perfect
hypothetical situations
infinitive
could have roasted the potatoes, but I decided that boiling ther
was healthier.
,/
,/
/
il*'n"'1
Modals: permission
Asking for and giving permission now
for the future or generally
t'Y
il"ttt'
o
o
Mayis more polite than could, and could ismore polite than can.
We don't usually use a modal to talk about past permission.
/ lwas allowed to wear a knee support during the match.
,/
Modals: advice
Example
Asking for and giving advice
now, for the future or generally
You
should
ought to
(+ perfect infinitive)
ought to / should cut down on the amount of red meat you eat.
He
his diet.
af certainty lJnit
:':fessing lack of
o
o
o
O
o
o
Example
must / have to / need to pick up that prescription from
had to toke the pitts three times a day for two weeks.
I needn't have gone / didn,t hove to go
/ didn,t need to
go to the doctor.
I
"e:'
These
must
can't
couldn't
(+ perfect infinitive)
She
il:.essing probability
You ought to / should feel better in a few days, as
long as you
get lots of rest.
;r--erally
:r:'essing probability
The bruise
may
might
about
coitd
(+ perfect infinitive)
Tha,t
79
li
ramm
Unit'15
o rhe passive /
the causative
present simple
present continuous They are redecorating the
present perfect
simple
cafd.
past simple
past continuous
be going to
future
future perfect
simple
September.
September.
of
modal+ perfect
infinitive
- ing (gerund)
A boy was
The
We do not normally use verbs in the passive in the present perfect continuous, past perfect
continuous, future continuous or future perfect continuous tenses. lnstead, we use a'different phr.ase
The restaurant has been under construction for four yours.
x
/
/
,/
)(
o
/
x
The saup
Some verbs are not normally used in the passive.They include intransitive verbs (without objects),
such as appear and die,and some common transitive verbs, such as have,let,lack,etc.
Tfue
pa*sfye
fft* ca*is*ffv*
,,r
Unit 75
To express
He is
claim
he
thought to be a great
chef.
claimed to have hod an influence on many other chefs' tt is cloimed that he hos had an influence on many other chefs.
He is
is said to hove been making the best cheese in the area for over
thirty years.
ft is s;id thot he has been making the best cheese in the area far
He
million.
chef.
L fhe causative
noun + havelgetin the correctform + noun + past participle (+ by/with + noun)
We
company.
l:
;e=" affanged
Using the verb get is usually more informal than using have.
Can you go and get this recipe photocopied for me?
person we
We can also use get somebody to do and have somebody do when we want to refer to the
arrange to do something for us.
Why don't you get the chef to prepare you a vegetarian meal?
'/
Wiy don't you have the chef prepore yau a vegetarian meal?
X"r;;:f;:i}',i!,"iro,
lr:'
ar
trllIla
l,
Unit 17
O -ing form or infinitive /
-----
purpose
admit
delay
deny
',
appreciate
avoid
can't help.
---/\-/L 7
-=
;i*'o"u5
4--lfu
detest
escape
discuss
face'
fancy
dislike
enjoy
involve
'
keep (on)
feellike
finish
give up
mention
mind'
form,
,'
infinitives of
'
*fl
,
resist
postpone risk
practise suggest
putoff . , rrnderstand
rniss
Someof the verbs, nouns and adjectives in the list above can also be followed by an object befo'=
full infinitive
Some verb, noun and adjective phrases are usually followed by the full infinitive.
,y' Your answer appears to be wrong.
able''
arrange
affard
ask
agree
atternpt
appear
--/\4
>i*'n''9
4-t^,,-
choose
decide
encourage
fail
happen
help
manage
offer
plan
'
,prepare
pq!eld
promrse-
r5frl
,
tend,
want
., wish
expect hope
,beg
? a So^"of the verbs, nouns and adjectives in the list above can also be followed by an object befo'
the full infinitive.
-I
/ ldidn'twanttotaketheexam.
,, My mum didn't want me to take the exam.
|
:
pleased
'Ygf1155r :'
"F
f--/ " .ry O The verbs feel, hear, notice, see and watch can also be followed by the -ing form.
outte:- We often use the bare infinitive for a completed action (from start to finish).
we often use the -ingformfor an action in progress at the time.
Z$11*;-fT
- /."\,/
/ theardMissJenkinstellJulienottodothat.(=lheardallofit.)
|
/ t heard Miss Jenkins telling Julie not to do that. ( = I heard part of it.)
|
I O ln the passive, ear, make and see are followed by the full infinitive.
/ Active:Theteacher mode mestand in the corner.
|
/ Passive:lwas madeto stand in the corner.
|
S1_*.h
sffi6
would like
{
-ing
f*r*t er dm&nifiv*
imfinrtfves of purpose
infnitive s of purpose
job!
with a negative purpose we don't normally use the full infinitive on its own.
/ I went to university in order not to get aitjob!
/ I went to university so as not to get a job!
Unit
ll
Unit 19
O Question s /
question tags
indirect guestions
Am/Was I on time?
With be as a main verb
tire d ?
With modals
il*..n"'1
O
With the question words who and what,whether we use do or not depends on whether the
question word refers to the subject or object of the verb.
/ Subject: Who sawyouT (= Someone saw you.Who?)
/ Object: Who did you seeT (= You saw someone.Who?)
Remember that after do or does,we use the bare infinitive.
Did you go to the talk on the environment?
/
x
/
x
Remember that the verb meanforms questions just like other main verbs.
/ What does'environmental' mean?
X lUhet meens'envirenmentel'?
Question tags
You
We
oren't you?
hoven't
Example
-:
-:
isn't
You're Spanish,
aF{nk you?
use
am l?
w-ith everyone, no one and someone, we use questions tags with a plural
verb and fhey.
/. Everyone's going to be there, aren,t they?
/ No one wants to come, do they?
/ Someone's been in here, haven,t they?
Usually, when we have a positive verb in a sentence, we use a negative
question tag.when we have
a negative verb in a sentence, we use a positive question tag. ln
slentences with a n6gative word like
no,little,,never, nobody, no one, hardly,etc, we use a positive q-uestion
tag.
/- You have got no manners, have you?
/ We never enjoy our holiday, do we?
ln sentences where the subject is th.ere,we repeat thereinthe question
tag.
/ There's no point callingTim now,is there?'
ln American English, a question tag with do can be used after a
sentence with hove got.This is not
usually done in British English.
U5: They've got a lot of money, don,t they?
UK: They've got a lot of money, haven,t ihey?
lndirect guestions
. :'r,.
Form
'
.i:,
... ?
it
is?
...
=-a-
Y" 9o n9l
is
of the sentence.
{ I would like to know when the next train to London leaves.
X lt "rld lile t, lrrrn nhrn dr"t th" n"*t trat, t, LrnCx 1""r",
O Sg[.
is.
indirect questions, which begin with a question word, need a question mark
at the end.
tibriry
is?
ra m
Unit 21
Reported speech
reported questions
rI
reporting verbs
s
&
We use reported speech when we want to say what someone else said'
.
eg Joson said he was going to buy ct new poir of trainerx
person
(eg
the
what
tense,of
past
have
change
the
we
usually
to
said),
verb
in
is the
lf the reporting
actually said.
' .
present simple
present perfect
simple
past simple
'l
'l've boughtTom
present,'saidTim.
continuous
past simple
'l spent
present perfect
continuous
euros,'saidTim.
past continuous
past perfect
six
a car,'saidTim.
a new top.
'l'd looked everywhere for my credit card before I found it,' said Tim.
heA boked everywhere for his credit card before he found it.
past perfect
continuous (no
tense change)
't'd been
am/is/are going to
Tim saic
Tim saic
Tim said he
We do not need to make any changes to the verb tense or modal when we are reporting a scient;':
this/that + noun
'l love
this/that+verb
these/those + verb
verb + these/those
Tim said
it
/ thot sweater.
/ those sweaters.
With reported speech,we also usually have to change words and phrases connected to time and place,
These changes include:
Example
Reported speech
Direct speech
here,'saidTim.
there
* 2ment
_'norrow
that night
:.9
tight
month/year
.sterdaY
si weeAmonth/
the weeWmonth/year
before / the previous
.-(t weeUmonth/
weel(month/year
before / previously
_/\a.
outt<
ll^tch
(
- rr-
);,.-J
'/ "
|
|
I
at the moment of
speaking/writing.
/'l'mgoinEshoppingtomorrow,'saidTimtoBen.tBenimmediatetycatledLizzieandsaid,
'Tim said he's going shopping
tomorrow.'
.WeusereportedqUestionswhenwewanttosaywhatsomeoneelseasked.
fWeusethesamerulesregardingtense,pron0Unandtimeandplaceword/phrasechangeswith
reported questions as we do with reported speech.
Direct
r
speech ;
Reported
eye's/noquestions)
.\1ere,why and
how
f-JV^(Zlo
fi"a6.f5'-/'-|. -
^tL^luse'ro'*netne'
Example
speech
'tve,do,beormodal I .. ^,,^...-.t
where,why and
how
: TimaskedTom
/*hetierhecouldgethimanicecream. ___]
|'Canyougetmeanicecream,Tom?'askedTim.
I
if
I hod boughtthose
shoes
...?).
ndirect questions we
*--l
...).
I
@
a
Different reporting verbs take different grammatical patterns. Some verbs can take more than one
pattern.
{ {eny (verb + noun) Katie denied the accusotian.
/ ileny (verb + rhat clause) Katie denied (thdt) she was a shoplifter.
/ deny (verb + -ingJ Katie denied stealing thE chocalate biscuits,
See page 197 for a full list of verbs and patterns.
t&"$
Relative crauses
PartrciPles
Relative clauses
Relative clauses give us extra information about something/someone or identify which particular"..
thing/person we are talking about.They are often introduced by the following words.
Example
Use
which (for things and animals)
Did you see the film which was onTV last night?
razhen
(for times)
ts
When the relative pronoun (who,which,etc) is the subject of the relative clause,you do not need
another subject.
/ t admire Jude Law,who always warks hard on his films.
I I admirc Jude Lawwho he always wsrks hard on his frhs-Whom is quite formal.lt is natural in informal English to use uzho instead of whom, even when it is
the object of the relative clause. After a preposition, however, we always use whom.lnformally, we
usually put the preposition at the end of the clause and use r'vho.
/ ls that the man who we saw at the cinema yesterday?
/ Charlie Chaptin was a comic genius to whom all comedians awe a great deal.
/ Chsrlie Chaiplin was a comic genius who all comedians owe a great deal to.
Where can be replaced by a preposition + which. Less formally, we can put the preposition at the
end ofthe clause.
/ The theatre where / in which tfirst acted
t--
rI
is
!
r
Example
Use
To give extra information about something/someone
filr
I x@
lx@
I O
in1
'ffi.
|
I
fr4tr
,t
We finatly
got
(lt doesn't mean the conce rtv ras lucky. lt means getting tickets for the concert was lucky.)
rI
23
Defining relative clauses tell us which one of a roup of things/people we are talking about.The sentence
doesn't usually make complete sense without re relative clause.
Example
Use
-o tell us which one of a group of things/people we
The one
O
O
O
is
Defining relative clauses are not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
,/
fhis is the DVD which I told you about the other day'
We can also use fhdf to introduce the relative clause.
/ fhis is the DVD that I told you about the other day.
We can often leave out the word which introduces the relative clause when it is the object of
the clause.
Particioles
.,,
Example
Use
follow prepositions and conjunctions
present and perfect ParticiPles)
To
To
tired.
Having
To
To
As an
L,past
participles)
\Natcho,$!
You have to be careful that the participle and the rest of the sentence both refer to the same subject
WatchingTV,lsaw a news report about Hollywood.
Watching TV, a news report came on about Hollywood.
/
X
Unit 25
+,rrF-i+Nli*ltfu
[**,1
contrast
Unreal past
p*
use a
some sentences.and with some ve.rbs or phrases w.e
.
contain'r
or to a general situation.These include sentences that
Example
Structure
a second conditional
lknowit,sprobablynotgoingtohappenbutsuppose/imaginelbecameafamous
suppose I what
super model!
if I imagine
but
l'd rather you didn't come with me to the fashion show tomorrow'
tt's
it's (high/about)time
polite questions
lf only / lwish t hod something to wear tonight'
wish / if only
present tense'
Suppotr,what if and imagine can also be followed by a
/
/
[uii t"nr"
indicates
happen)
What if you ore accepted into art college? (more likely to
(less
happen)
to
likely
What if'you were accepted into art collegei
Mshes
We use different structures with
rarish
Structure
Use
Expressing wishes about the present, future
or generally
Expressing wishes about the Past
continuous
wish
biologY!
',
simple/continuous
lost week.
wish
/ if onlY + could
/
/ lf oniy / I wish I could afford these shoes' to buy these shoes'
X lf oniy / I wish I woald have enough money
qffi4
hope'
To express desires about the future,we often use
next week'
shoes
these
to
buy
money
enough
have
will
t
iope
t
week'
next
shoes
t nipeto hove rnougi ron"y to buy the.se
week;
next
shoes
these
buy
to
will have eniugh money
i
/
I
wish I
ieans.
these
though
*o*tr
a* Unit 25
even though
.l
Ey en
contrast.
contrast'
r.,
,)"i,t',i,iini.iiougni',*'einrJ,*atthanalthoughandeventhou
Although,thoughand even though are used to express
"*or"r,
-atnoush
Example
Structure
:lthough /Though / Even though + subject + verb'
,ubject + verb
got sunburn'
Atthough / Though / Even though I wore a hat' I
in spite of
desPite
xpre55contrast.Theymeanexact1ythesamethin9andtakethesame
Structure
ln
ln
spite of
spite of
W"
.u,
J-
With in spite of
the -inElverb.
however
/ despite
nevertheless
Thefashionshowwasexpensivetoputon'ltdidmakeop'ofit'hoyeu"'!n-"':'h"l"s:
/
The fashion show was expensive to put an' tt did' howeve'
while
'"n"'th"l"tt'
*o
whereas
or ideas.
white andwhereasare used to contrast two different facts
Structure
,uhile / whereos + subject + verb, subject + verb
White
/ Whereas
are worn
ieans are
onlY bY women.
/ whereos ieans
are worn by
l1
lnversions
possessiyes
Form
Negative adverbial
Example
Never
Rarely
Seldom
No sooner (...than1
Hardly (...when)
Not only were you late for work, but you had also forgotten the report.
Under no circumstances
Under no circumstonces are employees allowed to leave the building without permission.
At no time/point
Little
Little did I realise that I would become managing director just two years later.
Not until
Not until the next day did I heor that I had got the job.
Only
Only at the end of the interview did I think I had a chance of getting the job.
O Little
,/
is used with verbs of thought (realise, know,suspecl; etc) and means'l did not realise/etc at all
Little did I know how things were going to turn out.
(= I did not know at all how things were going to turn out.)
With not until and only,you have to be careful about which verb to invert.
Not until I had finished my homeworkwas I allowed to go out.
Net antil had I finished my hemewerk I was allewed te ge eat.
Only when I hod finished my homeworkwas t allowed to go out.
Only when hed I finished my hemewerk I wes ellewed te ge eat,
/
I
/
I
Other inversions
Example
Use
ln short answers and other similar
structures using so,neither and nor
'l'm a plumber.'
'ReallyT So am l!'
My sister doesn't like getting ready for work, and neither do I / nor do l.
The manager was nervous about the director's visit, as were the rest of the staff.
So late was it that there was no one in the office.
Such a hot day was it that no one wanted to work.
ln conditional sentences
Were our staff better trained,we might make a larger profit.1= lf our staff were
better trained ...)
Hod I known about the vacancy,l would have applied. (= lf I had known ...)
Remember that 'So am/do/have /' is used to agree with a positive statement and'Neither/Nor
am/do/have /' is used to agree with a negative statement.
'l really like my job.' '5o do l.'
'l really don't like my job,' 'Neither do I / Nor do l.'
/
/
"866
,..
s'
27
Example
Use
We use 3 with singular nouns, including names, and with
-s.
in -s.
The workers'
We usually use's or
the/my/etc.
i*'n''9
With singular names ending in -s, some people use 3 and some people just add an apostrophe.
They are both correct, although using 3 is more common.
The report is on Charles's computer in the office.
The report is on Charles'computer in the office.
/
/
O
O
,/
x
,/
I
Example
its,
our,their) come
ofto show
possession
i"ttt' "'9
A common mistake
to be avoided
/
x
/
)(
O
Are
'$6?