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1<.

O Present fime: present simple, present confinuous, present pertect simple,


present perted continuous, statiye verbs

Present simple
statement: Uyou/we/they travel...
negative: l/you/we/theydanltrovel.,.
question: Dol/you/we/theytravel...7

He/she/it travels ...


He/she/it doesn't trovel

...

Does he/she/it traYel ... ?

Example
Current habits
To

talk about how often things happen

Angela doesn't visit us very often.

Permanent situations

Carlo works in a travel agent's,


Do you hove an up-to-date passport?

General truths and facts

Poland is in the European Union.

We can also use do/does in present simple statements for emphasis.


'You don't like going by bus, do you?"Actually, t do like going by bus for short distances.'
The bus isn't quicker than the train but it does stop right outside the factory.

i"ttt'"1

z.

statefiefit:
negative:
question:

I am driving ...You/we/they are,driving ...He/she/it is drivintg ...


l'm not driving ... Yau/we/they aren't driving ... or you're/we're/they,re not drlving
Helshq./it isn'yjriving ,.. or He'ilsheklit's not driving ..,
Am ldriiifr-g...? Arayou/we/they driving ...? ts he/she/it driving ...?

...

Example
Mike is driving to work at the moment.

Temporary series of actions

Taxi drivers

Temporary situations

Are they staying in o hotel near the Olympic stadium?

Changing and developing situations

Holidays abroad dre becoming increasingty popular.

Annoying habits (usually with always)

Dad is olways cleoning the car when I want to use it!

oren't stopping at the train station because of the roadworks.

Present pertect simple


hove/has + past participle

statement: Uyou/we/tttey have flown ...


negative: l/you/we/they haven't flown ...
question: Have l/you/we/they flawn ...?

Situations and states that started in the past and are still true
A series of actions continuing up

to now

He/she/it hasflown ,..


He/she/it hasn't flown ...
Has helshe/it flown ... ?

She's had her motorbike for over six years.

We've travelled by taxi, bus, plane and train


the last twenty-four hours!

Completed actions at a time in the past which is not mentioned

Have you ever flown in a helicopter?

Completed actions where the important thing is the present result

l've booked the coach tickets.

- all in
I

,Preser:g tit,'ts; pfls$eflt sim:pfe, Frs$si?f *onfina**els,

prese*f 6rerfe*f *fmrpfc, Srs$#sf psrFecf *o*rfi*ru***, $t*f,ke y*rfu$ Unit 7

Phrases such as lt's the first/second/etc time ...are followed by the present perfect simple.

@,

lt's the second time l've been on a plane.

Speakers of American English often use the past simple in situations where speakers of British
English would use the present perfect simple.
US: We olready saw the Sphinx.
l)K: We've already seen the Sphinx.

Speakers of American English use gotten as the past participle of the verb
means'have'or'possess'. Speakers of British English only ever use gof.
US: We've atready gotten Dan a new backpack for his summer vacation.
UK: We've atreody got Dan a new rucksackfor his summer holiday.

geti except when 'get'

Present perteel continuous


statement: I/you/we/they have been ffovelling ,.,.
negative: Uyoufwe/they haven't been,travelling...
question: Have l/youlwe/they been travetling ...?

He/she/it has been travelling ...


He/shelit hasn't been travelling .,.
Has he/shelit been travelling ...?

Use

-l

rctions continuing up to the present moment

We

.ctions stopping just before the present moment

l'm out of breath because l've been running to get here in time.

have been driving for hours.Can't we have a break soon?

The present perfect continuous is often used with words and phrases like all day/week/year/etc,
for, since,just, etc.

/
O

We've been walking for hours and I need a rest.

The present perfect continuous is not normally used with the words eyerand never.
/ Have you ever floanilit a helicopter before?

x
O

Sometimes there is very little difference in meaning between the present perfect simple and the
present perfect continuous and sometimes there is a difference in meaning.

/
/

Stative

verbs

hdve worked at the airport for four years. = I hove been working at the airport for four years.
have read that book about cruise ships.(l have finished it.) t hove been reading that book
about cruise ships. (l have not finished it.)
I
I

Stative verbs are not normally used in continuous tenses because they
I seewhstyau meon.

dont describe actions.

x@

Use

Example

Stative verbs often refer to:


r king

believe, imagine, know, meon, think, understand

=, Stence

be,exist

=-: otions

hate,like, love, need, prefer, satisfy, want

:-= human

:: DeafanCe

appear, look, resemble, seem

: -ssession and relationships between things

belong

-*utth

-=-

hear, see, smell, sound, taste

senses

oS

to , consist

of , have, include, involve, own

Some verbs (such as be,have,imagine, look,see,smell,taste,think) are stative with one meaning

and non-stative with another meaning.


/ Do you have your plane ticket with youT (state: possession)
/ Are you having lunch at the moment? (action: eating)

mm r

Unit 3
O Past time: past simple, past con{rnuous, past pertect
con{rnuous, would, used to

/ be/get used to

simple, past pertect

Past simple
statement: Uyou/he/shelit/we/they played ...
negative: l/you/he/she/it/weltheydidn'tplay...
question: Did l/you/he/she/it/we/they play...?

Note: lrregular verbs do not take'ed'in the


past simple. Learn the past simple form of
irregular verbs. See page 194.

Example
Single completed actions

Tom and I played a game of chess and he won.

Habits in the past

Did you collect stamps when you were younger?

Permanent situations in the past

A famous footballer lived in our house before we bought it.

General truths and facts about the past

Crosswords

The main events in a story

The referee blew the whistle and Simon passed the ballto James,who ran towards
the goal.

didn't become popular until the

1930s.

We can also use did in past simple statements for emphasis.


/ 'Why didn't you win your match yesterday?"l did win.Who told you I didn't?'
/ We lost 5-0 but at least we did get into the final.

Past continaous
Form

statement: Yhe/she/it wss playing ...


negative: l/he/she/it wasn't playing ,..
question: Was l/he/she/it playing ...?

You/we/they were playing ...


You/we/they weren't playing
Were you/we/they

ploying

...

... ?

Example

Use
Actions happening at a particular moment
in the past

At five o'clock, lwos reading my new book.

Temporary situations in the past

Greg was

Annoying past habits (usually with always)

When we were youngt my brother was olwoys borrowing my toys.

Actions in progress over a period of time

Danielwas playing video games all morning yesterday.

Two actions in progress at the same time

Were Ulla and her friends playing Monopoly while we were playing Draughts?

Background information in a story

The sun was shining and the birds were singing.Lisa opened the window and
looked out.

#'T

living in London at the time.

c ne action in the past interrupts another action in progress,we


'O When
continu ous together.
./ lwa s playing on my computer when it suddenly uashed.

lot use the past continuous for regular or repeated actions in


Whr tn we were on holiday,we played volleyball every day.

use

the past simple and the past

the past.

)( '#l1t

Wedo r rot usually use stative verbs in continuous tenses.

See

Unit

1,

page 7.

Past perfect simple


Form

had + past participle

Example

Use
Situations and states before the past

We'd lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to join.

Completed actions before a moment in the


past

l'd already bought the computer game when I saw it was cheaper in
another shop.

Completed actions where the important


thing is the result at a moment in the past

game of Monopoly.

s#

We

didn't feel like playing Scrabble because we hod just finished a long

---- a

Tnere is often little or no difference in meaning between the past perfect simple and the past

/
/
o

We'd lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to ioin.
We lived next to the gym for a couple of months before I decided to ioin.

After we have used the past perfect simple once, we often then use the past simple instead of
continuing to use the past perfect. I had already had one flying lesson,which was great fun, and I
knew immediately that lwanted to get my pilo* licence.
P h rases such as lt was the first/second/etc time. . . a re followed by the past perfect sim ple.
/ lt was the second time lA been on a plane.

Pa# perlect continuous


siotenent: l/you/he/she/it/we/they hod beenplaying...
qegative: t/you/he/she/,it/welthey hodn't been playing...
question: Had l/yaulhe/she/it/welthey been plqying .,.?

When you saw us,we


still had a mile to go!

: just before a moment in the past

had been running for

six

miles

- and we

Sarah looked tired because she hod been exercising all

morning.

ffiru[id
would + bare infinitive

Example
'*r!!ii.,

-: : ,*" - -

arly for the distant past

When I was very young, my grandfather would take me to the park to play.

- --'i" O \,Ve don't often use would in questions or negative statements with this meaning. ln negative
statements,we can use would nEier.
!--fl
/ We would never play games together as a family when I was growing up.
- -

rsd to
-sed ta + bare infinitive

iotement: t/1tou/he/she/itlwe/they used to train three times a week.


neEctive: l/youlhehhe/it/we/they didn't use ta be gaod at foatball.

uestiorl:

: s:ares, particularly

a
:-

Vyoulhe/shie/it/we/they never used to be sa good at football.


l/yau/he/shdit/welthey used not ta be gaCId ot football.
Dtd l/yau/hehhelit/we/the1r ase to play hockey here?

*gt. -7

for the distant past

My mother used to play a lot of squash before I was born.

To talk about a past state, we can use used to, but not would.
We used to have a house that was right next to the park.

ffi

EIet used to
beiget used to + -ing form I noun

Example
I

-.-7o

.tl,\\' 7

didn't like being the goalkeeper at first but now l'm used to it.

When we want to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something, we use get used to.
/ l'm gradually getting used to being in a new team.

{s

Future firme

/ present fcnse* im tin'le elauses /

prepositi*ns of time snd plaee Unit 5

Expressing the future: future perfect simple


will/wan't + have + past participle
Example

-:

,', nich are completed some time


sgn,r,ri- row and a point in the future

q{ll:r

l'll have finished my chemistry homework

by the time you come home.

Expressing the future: future continuous


will/won't+ be + -ing form
Example

-: - progress at a point in the future


': :' repeated actions at a point in the future

4ilr.lt,:

This time next

week,l'll be taking my biology exam.

ln the future,we'll all be flying around using iet-packs.

Expressing the future: future pertect continuous


will/won't + have + been + -ing form
Example
At seven o'clock, l'll have been doing my chemistry homeworkfor three

^ progress up to a point in the

hours!

oi'Esgxf tenses in fime clauses


clauses,we do not use wil/or be going fo immediately after some time words and phrases.We use a
tense (present simple, present continuous or presqnt perfect) to talk about the future.
T.m,e

Example

words and phrases

It'll be wonderful when scientists find / have found a cure for cancer.
Let me

know as soon as your new computer orrives

has arrived.

tt'll be several years before we send / we've sent a manned mission to Mars.
Let's

go for a pizza ofter we go / have been to the natural history museum.

The rocket

won't be launched until they do / have done a final check.

Think of me while you travel / are travelling to the Moon!


We'll stop for petrol once we poss / we've passed Cambridge.

$,-epositions of time and Place


ffir repositions of time

(from) Monday to Friday, on Monday, on my birthday/Easter Sunday/etc, in July, on


September 20k, in 2008, in (the) summer, at three o'clock, in/for an hour, at the moment, in
the morning/afternoon/evening, ot night,in/on time,iust in time for,in the beginning/end,
at the beginning/end of, ot the age of, at the weekend, next/last week

ffir crepositions of Place

turn right ot a place, sit on sth, go in(to) a building,wait in(side) a building, arrive in
London/Greece, arrive at the stodium, in/on/at the corner (of ), come/go/walWetc to a place,
next to/beside/by the building, at/on the front/back of, in front of/behind the station, go
out of a building, go towards the station, between the two buildings, opposite the station

!(s

i.3

Speakers of American English do not always use on before days of the week.
We've got a biology test Mondoy/on Mondalt.
UK: We've got o biology test on MandaY.

llS

Speakers of American English often say'Mondaythrough Frldayi


US; lm going to be on a field trip Mondoythrough Friday.
UK: i m going ta be on o field uip from Monday ta Friday,
m"u

ra

Unit',?.'

Articles

countable and uncountable nouns

quantifiers

There are two indefinite articles in Engtish: 'a'and'ani An'is used before vowel sounds.

Singular countable nouns (when we are not being specific


or when we mention something for the first time)

There's a

good film onTV tonight.

Whether we use'an'or'a'depends on the sound, not the spelling.


The news is onTV in on hour.

/
lM
/ Being in a film was a unique experience for me.
x

There is one definite article in English: 'thei

Singular countable nouns (when we are being specific)

Where's the DVD you were talking about?

Singular countable nouns (when we are talking generally)

The radio seemed amazing to people at first.

Plural countable nouns (when we are being specific)

Uncountable nouns (when we are being specific)

lfollowed the odvice my lawyer gave me.

didn't believe the rumours about the prime minister.

The way we say'the'changes depending on the sound at the start of the next word.
Before a consonant sound (the media,the USA,the programme), we pronounce it /da/.
Before a vowel sound (the announcer,the actor,the editor),we pronounce it /dI/.
We often use'the'when we are talking about something there is only one of.
the sky,the sun,the moon,the Prince of Wales,the North Pole,theWorld Cup

We often don't use an article at all.This is sornetimes called the zero article.

Plural countable nouns (when we are talking generally)

Journalists often face dangerous situations.

Uncountable nouns (when we are talking generally)

News travels fast these days,

Articles in phrases and expressions


Notice how we use articles inthe follbwing phrases and expressions, Many of these are examples of general
categories. For examplq,'the RiuerThatnedmeans that we use'the'for all rivers,
,

Example
definite article: in the I 990s, in (the) summer, in the morning
zero article:ln 2008, in June,on Friday, at night
indefinite arficle'.have aiob,workas a ...
definite article: the queen,the principal,the president,the French
zero article: become president, go to work, be ot work, have work to do, he's French.

definite article: the Alps,the Atlantic Ocean,the RiverThames,the Earth,the Arctic,the USA,the

UK,

the Cyclades
zero article: M ount Everest, Paris, America, MarsNenus/Jupiter etc, Oxford Street, Lake Superior, Crete

definitearticle:the media,ontheradio,playtheguitar,gotothecinema,watch(the)TV
zero article: /isten to music, on television, play tennis/football etc

42

*,rticles

cauntable and uncountable nauns

quan*ifiers Unit 7

Example

Use

-"::nisations

definite article: the army,the police,the fire brigade

:: ,:atiOn

definite article: go to the school (as a visito), be in the first year


zero article: g o to school (as a student), be in Class 38, maths
indefinite article: take a taxi, catch a/the bus
definite article: on the bus

a,=

zero article: on foot, go home, go by bus

::

i nd efi n ite articlei h ave a co I d /h e a d a c h e/co


definite article: have (the) flu/measles

zero article: have toothache

definite article: fhe bank,the tax office, go to the hospitol/prison

(as a visitor)
zero article: go to hospital/prison/church (as a patient/prisoner/worshipper)

:ings

Speakers of American English do not usually use hospitalwithout an article.


US: Ihe ambulance took Simon to the hospital.
tJK: The ambulance took Simon to hospitail.

Countable and uncountable nouns


Type
want to be a journolist.
Where is the newspaper?
There are some good articles in the paper.
How mony chonnels do you get?
I

-: - rtable nouns

a -te a,the,some,many
! - )e a singular or plural verb
-

Did you hear the news?

-::untable nouns

Some important news has just come in.


How much information do we have about it?
Your advice was very useful.

t -:e the,some,much
r -:: a singular verb
--

::

- non uncountable nouns:


:e, coffee, furniture, glass, hair, homework,

information, knowledge, luggage, money, news, paper, work

Most uncountable nouns are singular, but a few are plural. These includ e clothes,scissors, jeans,
spectacles, trousers, groceries,etc. With these words, we use a plural verb.
Oh, no! My new clothes ore dirty!

*$

,/

Some nouns are countable with one meaning and uncountable with another meaning.
Do you think you could bring me a clean gloss? (countable)
We should make computer monitors out of recycled glass. (uncountable)

/
/

Quantifiers
I uantifier

Use

countable nouns, usually in negative


statements and questions

& uncountable nouns, usually in negative


statements and questions
:

:f /

lots

of

countable and uncountable nouns in


positive statements

J*uttn

There aren't many programmes on TV that I find interesting.

My dad never shows much interest in the news.


That film has won a lot of / lots of awards.
What a lot of luggage you've got!

& countable nouns, means'some'

There have been o

& uncountable nouns, means'some'

They say that a

Richard has few interests outside work.

countable nouns, means'not many'

s uncountable
ouo

Example

nouns, means'not much'

The police

few scandals in the papers recently.

little knowledge is a dongerous thing.

have little information about the robbery.

The phrase'only a few'means'not manyi The phrase'only a little'means'not muchl


/ There are only o few programmes on TV that t tike watching.
/ There's only a little sugar left, so get some when you go out.

4.3

Untt
O Conditionals: zero, first, second, third, mixed, inverted /

mm
unless, in case,

as/so long as, provided (that)

Form

if + present simple, present simple

Example
lf you

General or scientific facts and definitions

Form

if

havefaith in something,you believe in

you cannot prove.

+a present tense,will + bare infinitive


Example

Real or likely conditions in the present

or future and their results in the present


and future

lf you have a birthday party, you'll get loads of cool presents!


lf you're

working till half past six,we'll hove dinner at about eight.

lf you have revised properly, you won't hove any problems in the test next week'

We can also use may,might,can,could,shall,should,oughtto,haveto

instead of wil/,depending on

the meaning.

lf you hove a birthday party,you

might get loads of cool presents!

We ca n a lso use should + ba re infi n itive instead of present sim ple. Th is suggests the situation is
possible, but unlikely to happen.
tf you should bump into Alex at the concert,you'llbe ableto get a lift home.

We can also use a form of the first conditional to give instructions about real or likely situations in
the present or future.This is: lf + a present tense, imperative.
lf you decide to have a birthday party, tell me!

/
/

unless, in case, as/so long as, provided (that)


Word or
Phrase

Example

Meaning

l'tl bethere at six unless I get delayed.( = except if I get delayed

unless

except if' or'if...not'

in case

'because he/she/itletc mig ht'

Let's

as/so long as

'if'or'only

As long os l'm happy, my parents don't care what iob I do.


So long as lh happy, my parents don't care what iob I do.

provided (that)

'if

if

'

' or'only if '

if

don't get delayed)


take our wellies in cose it's muddy. ( = because it might be muddy)

Provided (thot)

lh

happy, my parents don't care what iob I do.

Second conditional

Form

if + past simple or pastcontinuous,urould+ bare infinitive


Use

Example

lmpossible, unlikely or hypothetical


conditions in the present or future and their
results in the present or future

lf you had a beard,you would lookiust like Charles Dickens!


lf you were flying to Rio, would you get there much quicker?

Advice

tf I were you, t would thi n k very ca refu I ly abo ut my futu re. (more forma
lf I was you,l'd have a party at the weekendl (more informal)

--J \-"D',

&*xY
s4

We can also use might or could instead of would,depending on the meaning,


(Note: could here often means would be able to.)
lf wewere older,we could go on holiday on our own.
We can also use could in the lf clause. Here, it means was/were able to.
lf I could drive,l'd buy a car.

l)

Conditionals: zero, first, second, third, mixed, inverted

unless, in case, as/so long as, provided

(thatt lJnit

Umit 11
O Comparatives and superlatives

mma
/

so, such, enough, too


Comparative and superlative adjectives

regular adjectives with one syllable


regular adjectives with one syllable

(endinq in vowel + consonant)


regular adjectives with two syllables
ar adjectives with two or more

rnore/less+adj

most/least+ad)

irregular adjectives / quantifiers

Comparative
To compare things or people that are different

Superlative
To compare one member of a group of people or
things with the whole group

The crime rate in this orea is higher than in other parts of the
country.

The

robbery was the biggest in the bank's history.

Regular adjectives with two syllables can often also form the comparative and superlative like
adjectives with one syllable.
/ clever, cleverer, cleverest
Adjectives with one syllable that end in -e add -r and -sf.

white,whiter,whitest

Remember that comparative forms are often followed by than.


/ Crime is a much bigger probtem in this country than ii many other countries.
Remember that superlative forms are often preceded by the.
/ Our local police force is the best in the country.

Comparative and superlative adverbs


adverh
regular adverbs

easily

more

less

worse

eorly

earlier

far

farther I further

fost

faster
horder

late
often
near

more often

soon

500ner

well

better'

Superlative
To compare actions of one member of a group of people

or things with the whole group

66

mast/ least + adv mosteasily


worst
earliest
farthest / furthest
fastest

hardest
latest
most often

later
nearer

Use
Comparative
To compare actions that are different

superlative

+ adv mare easily

badly

hard

irregular adverbs

comparative

nearest
.foot?Sf

best

'

r:

Example
Lock your door more corefully next time and maybe you

won't get burgled!


Only the criminal who ran fostest managed to escape from
the police.

ffamparafives and supedatfves/so, srch, enough, too Unit

II

rfu
so+adjective+that
so+adverb +that
so + many/much + noun +

thdt
Example
The burglar was so clever that no one could catch him.
Jane took the money so quickly thot no one saw her.
There was so much money that the robber couldn't corry it all.

"*

*'*n

-o
O

The word that is not usually necessary to introduce the second clause.
/ fhe crime rate is so high people are very frightened.
The word so has a number of other uses. Try not to get confused between them.
/ fhe crime rate is so high thot people are very frightened.
/ t saw that burglar leaving the house, so I called the police.

Such
such + a/qn + adjective + singular noun + fhst
such + adjective + plural noun +
such + a lot of +noun + fhdt

fftdf
Example

*-r : ,,r the results of a situation or action


,

It was such a terrible crime thot the man was sent to prison for life.
The security guard had such good hearing thot he heard the door
open immediately,
There is such a lot of crime here that the police can't cope.

Errough
enough + noun {+ forand/or + full infinitive)
adjective + enaugh (+ forand/or + full infinitive)
adverb + enough (+ forand/or + full infinitive)

Example
the results of a situation or action where there
right amount/number of something
:he
. :
.

-:

,,;

There aren't enough police officers on the streets to keep us safe.


It wasn't dark enough for the burglar to start working.
Did the police respond quickly enough to help?

A common mistake is to put enough before an adjective when the correct word is quite or fairly.
t* quite / fairty dangerous around here so don't go out alone.

*l'j

roo + adjective (+ for and/or +

full infinitive)

foo + adverb (+ for and/or + full infinitive)


too + many/mucfl + noun (+ forand/or + full infinitive)

Example

-:

:=.:ribe something that

flr :-

^as a negative effect

uatctr

orf

is more than necessary and

man was too young to go to prison.


too late for the start of the trial.
send too many innocent people to prison.

The young
We arilved
We

We do not use too when we want to describe something we consider to be positive. lnstead, we
use very, really or extremely.
You were very / reolly / extremely lucky not to get caught.

x
u,

mm

Unit 13

Modals: ability, permission, advice, criticism, obligation and necessity,


degrees of certainty
All modals (will,wauld,shall,should,can,could, may,might,musf).an-d the semi-modal
ought to have only one form.
Modals are followed by the bare infinitive (simple or continuous) or the bare perfect infinitive
eg Toby should be very fit by now.
Taby should have recovered by now.
The semi-modals have to and need to c:hange their form depending on person and tense
eg The doctor ssid lhad/needed ta give up red meat.

Modals: ability
Expressing ability now or generally

Expressing decisions made now


about future ability

We

Expressing ability in the past

Expressing ability in present,future


or general hypothetical situations

lf only lcould quit smoking!

Expressing ability in past

could + perfect

hypothetical situations

infinitive

can run a kilometre in four minutes.


can meet atthe gym tomorrow,if you like.

could do fifty press-ups with one hand when I was younger.

could have roasted the potatoes, but I decided that boiling ther

was healthier.

We use be able to for the infinitive and other tenses.


l'd love to be oble to fit into these jeans again!(infinitive)
l'll be able to leave hospital in a few weeks, apparently. (future)
l've been able to swim since lwas rfve. (present perfect)

,/
,/
/

il*'n"'1

Modals: permission
Asking for and giving permission now
for the future or generally

t'Y
il"ttt'

o
o

May / Could / Can I see the doctor, please?

Mayis more polite than could, and could ismore polite than can.
We don't usually use a modal to talk about past permission.
/ lwas allowed to wear a knee support during the match.

However, we do use could lo talk about past permission in reported speech,


fhe coach said lcould wear a knee support during the match.

,/

Modals: advice
Example
Asking for and giving advice
now, for the future or generally

Criticising past behaviour

You

should
ought to

(+ perfect infinitive)

ought to / should cut down on the amount of red meat you eat.

He

ought to / should hove made more of an effort with

his diet.

Modals; abitity, peffnissisn, advice, critieisrn, obllgation and


necessify, degrees

af certainty lJnit

Modals: obligation and necessity


:!:ressing obligation or
"e:sssity

:':fessing lack of

:r: gation or necessity


:{: lessing past obligation
:':fessing lack of past
:c, gation

o
o
o
O

o
o

Example
must / have to / need to pick up that prescription from

must / have to / need to

needn't / don't hove to


don't need to

You needn't / don,t have to / don,t need to pick


up that
prescription from the chemist as l,ll get it whiie fm in
town.

the chemist on the way home.

had to toke the pitts three times a day for two weeks.
I needn't have gone / didn,t hove to go
/ didn,t need to
go to the doctor.
I

needn't ( + perfect infinitive) /


didn't have to / didn't need to

There.is usually no difference in meaning between must


and hoveto. However,we are sometimes

o;io;; decision about what we must do)


lT?j5:,1::y::ff,f:1,?lll9_nul"orisation,(makins
and have to for external obligation (som6one else making
, J".ition about what we must do).

we can also use wiil.have/need to ro express future obrigation.


You'll have/need to be more carefur'about what you
iat in future.
lt is unusualto use musf for questions.we usuaily use have/need
/ Do I have/need to take this medicine before eiery mr;;ii --" 'to.

Must cannot be used as an infinitive. Use fo have to.


ld hate to have to have injections every day.

Mustn't and don't/doesn't have/need to have different meanings.


/ You mustn,t do that! (Don,t do thatl)
/ You don't have/need to do that.(You can do that if you want to but it,s not necessary.)
r!11an'y ( + perfect infinitive) arways refers to an action
that happened.
Didn't have to and didn't need to cin refer to actions that
did ol iian t happen.
(t/ ,1?:!:':have gone to the doctor.(t went but it wasn,r n"."rr.ry.l
t cttcln't have/need to go to the doctor
becouse
fett betier. (l didn,t go.)
/ I didn't have/need to go to the doctor but I wentI suddenty
jurt to 6, on the safe side. (l did go.)
Be careful with the verb need.lt can also take
the _ing form.
/ I need to sterilise this syringe.
/ This syringe needs steiitisiig.

lllodals: degrees of certainty


Example

}: -essing certainty (or


rlE:' certainty) about now
r :enerally
;! :.essing certainty (or

"e:'

certainty) about the

That must be the district nurse ot the door.


can't / couldn,t be the pills; they,re the wrong colour.

These

must
can't
couldn't
(+ perfect infinitive)

She

must have been in a lot of pain.

His leg can't / couldn,t

have been in plaster for two years!

il:.essing probability
You ought to / should feel better in a few days, as
long as you
get lots of rest.

a:,!..:t now the future or

;r--erally

:r:'essing probability

The bruise

ie-',rt the paia


:r -'essing possibility about
-u:,,,, the future or generally

r,:'essing possibility about


:-= real past

You should talkto your doctor first because


that diet coutd
may / might be dangerous.

may

might
about

coitd
(+ perfect infinitive)

:;: iessing possibility


i -..'pothetical past

ought to / should have disappeared days ago. t

wonder why it didnt.

Tha,t

could./ may / might have been the doctor who rang

earlier while we were out.

l.t s a good thing you went to the doctor


or you could / might
have become quite iil.

79

li

ramm

Unit'15

o rhe passive /

the causative

direct and indirect objects

noun + be in the correct form + past participle (+ by/with + noun)


am/is/are + past participle
Bananas ore grown in tropical areas.

present simple
present continuous They are redecorating the

am/is/are + -ing + past participle


The cafd is being redecorated.

present perfect
simple

has/have + been + past participle


Hdve the corrots been peeled?

cafd.

past simple

They served the meal in an


elegont dining raom.

was/were + past participle


The mealwas served in an elegant dining room.

past continuous

We asked for coffee while


they were preparing the bill.

was/were + -ing + past participle


We asked for coffee while the billwos being prepared.

past perfect simple

Someone had eaten allthe


food by the time I got there.

has + been + past participle


All the food had been eaten by the time I got there.
will + be + past participle
Your pizza will be delivered in forty minutes.

be going to

Ove rwei g ht cu stomers a re


going to sue Burgerland.

is/are going to + be + past participle


Burgerland is going to be sued by overweight customers.

They will have harvested


all the grapes by the end of

will+ have + been + past participle


All the glapes will hove been harvested by the end

future

future perfect
simple

September.

September.

of

You should brush the chicken modal + be + past participle


breast with oil and then fry it. The chicken breast should be brushed with oil and then fried.
They should have delivered
modal + have + been + past participle
the groceries by now.
The groceries should have been delivered by now.

modal+ perfect
infinitive

don'r like people telling me


what ta do in the kitchen.
I

- ing (gerund)

being + past participle


don't like being told what to do in the kitchen.

When we don't know who does/did somethinq

My groceries have been stolen!

When it's obvious who does/did something

A boy was

When it's not important who does/did something

The French bistro is

When we want to emphasise new information or use


formal style

The

arrested in town yesterday for stealing an apple.


being knocked down.

potato wos brought to Europe by Sir Watter Raleigh.

We do not normally use verbs in the passive in the present perfect continuous, past perfect
continuous, future continuous or future perfect continuous tenses. lnstead, we use a'different phr.ase
The restaurant has been under construction for four yours.

x
/

Dave has been in training as a chef for three years.


Eevehas been beirg tratned as a ehef fer three years,
W.e only normally use'by' to say who did something when it is important information.

/
,/
)(
o

Margarine was invented by a French chef.


fhe best pizzas are made by the ltalians.

WaitertThis steak has been evereeeked by semeene,

we usually use'urifh'when we talk about the thing used to do something.

/
x

The saup

should then be stirred with a spoan.

Some verbs are not normally used in the passive.They include intransitive verbs (without objects),
such as appear and die,and some common transitive verbs, such as have,let,lack,etc.

Tfue

pa*sfye

fft* ca*is*ffv*

,,r

dfree* amd fc?dfreaf *:&.iecfs

Unit 75

The impersonal Passive


other people's opinions in a formal style, we can.use two special forms of the passive.
Tlrey can be used' with a number of verbs, including: say, believe,.think claim, estirnate, .etc.
second structure.
Sorne other verbs (argue,suggest,calculate, etc) are usuatly used with only the
noun + is/are said fo + bare infinitive/perfect infinitive
It is said thot + clause

To express

He is

\: : e think he is a great chef.


ay-:

believe he wos a great chef.

claim

he

thought to be a great

chef.

It is thought thot he is a great chef.


believed to have been a greot chef.
It is believed that he was o great chef.
He is

claimed to have hod an influence on many other chefs' tt is cloimed that he hos had an influence on many other chefs.
He is

has had an influence on many other

is said to hove been making the best cheese in the area for over
thirty years.
ft is s;id thot he has been making the best cheese in the area far

He

4:: e say he has been moking the best cheese in


x*;- :,ea for over thirty years.

His restaurant was estimoted to be / to have been worth aver 510

e estimated that his restaurant was worth over


*::
' '-illion.

million.

It was estimated that his restaurant was worth over $t 0 million'

It has been suggested that he is a great

Lz:: e have suggested that he is a great chef.

chef.

L fhe causative
noun + havelgetin the correctform + noun + past participle (+ by/with + noun)

hove my groceries delivered by the supermarket once a week.


are having a new cooker put in tomorrow.
We hod a large wedding cake made.
Have you had your kitchen decorated?
We are going to hove the food for the party made by a catering

We

-. :-ow that someone

arranges for someone

1..::o do something for them

company.

l:

'=fer to an unpleasant situation which hasn't

;e=" affanged

We had our herb garden vandalised while we were away.


The Smiths have had their new microwave stolen.

Using the verb get is usually more informal than using have.
Can you go and get this recipe photocopied for me?

person we
We can also use get somebody to do and have somebody do when we want to refer to the
arrange to do something for us.
Why don't you get the chef to prepare you a vegetarian meal?

'/

Wiy don't you have the chef prepore yau a vegetarian meal?

Direct and indirect objects


(usually a person)'
some vefbs can be followed by both a direct and an indirect object

X"r;;:f;:i}',i!,"iro,

make,orfer,owe, pass,promise,send, show,take,teach,tet,write,etc.

:an put the indirect object either immediately


the verb, or at the end of the sentence with a
-=rosition (for/to, etc).
- '' end gave my sister this cookery book.
: - end gave this cookery book to my sister,

lr:'

The subject of the sentence can be either the indirect obiect


or the direct object of the active sentence,
My sister was given this cookery book by a friend.
This cookery bookwas given to my sister by a friend.
Bffi

ar

trllIla

l,

Unit 17
O -ing form or infinitive /

-----

prefer, would rather, had better

purpose

Some'verb, noun and adjective phrases are,usually followed by the 'inE


These include:

admit

delay
deny

',

appreciate
avoid
can't help.

---/\-/L 7

-=
;i*'o"u5
4--lfu

detest

escape

discuss

face'

fancy

dislike
enjoy

involve

'

keep (on)

feellike
finish
give up

mention

mind'

form,

,'

infinitives of

'

*fl

,
resist
postpone risk
practise suggest
putoff . , rrnderstand

rniss

Someof the verbs, nouns and adjectives in the list above can also be followed by an object befo'=

the -ina form.

t cin't stand people cheating in exams.


When we put a verb after a preposition, we almost always use an -ing form.
/ l'm interested in heorinq more about that course.

full infinitive

verb/no un/adjective phrase

Some verb, noun and adjective phrases are usually followed by the full infinitive.
,y' Your answer appears to be wrong.

able''

arrange

affard

ask

agree

atternpt

appear

--/\4

>i*'n''9
4-t^,,-

choose
decide

encourage

fail
happen
help

manage

offer
plan

'

,prepare

pq!eld
promrse-

r5frl
,

tend,
want

., wish
expect hope
,beg
? a So^"of the verbs, nouns and adjectives in the list above can also be followed by an object befo'
the full infinitive.
-I
/ ldidn'twanttotaketheexam.
,, My mum didn't want me to take the exam.
|
:

pleased

'Ygf1155r :'

verb + h are infinitive


Some verbs can be followed by an objeet

"F

the bare infinitive.,

f--/ " .ry O The verbs feel, hear, notice, see and watch can also be followed by the -ing form.
outte:- We often use the bare infinitive for a completed action (from start to finish).
we often use the -ingformfor an action in progress at the time.
Z$11*;-fT
- /."\,/
/ theardMissJenkinstellJulienottodothat.(=lheardallofit.)
|
/ t heard Miss Jenkins telling Julie not to do that. ( = I heard part of it.)
|
I O ln the passive, ear, make and see are followed by the full infinitive.
/ Active:Theteacher mode mestand in the corner.
|
/ Passive:lwas madeto stand in the corner.
|
S1_*.h

sffi6

would like

{
-ing

f*r*t er dm&nifiv*

pr*fer, would reff*er, ftad sefter

imfinrtfves of purpose

yerb + full infinitive

or -ing form with little or no change in meaning

verb + full infinitive

or -ing form with a change in meaning

prefer, would rather, had belter

infnitive s of purpose

We can also express the same idea using so (that).


I went to university so (that) t could avoid getting

job!

with a negative purpose we don't normally use the full infinitive on its own.
/ I went to university in order not to get aitjob!
/ I went to university so as not to get a job!

Unit

ll

Unit 19
O Question s /

question tags

indirect guestions

Am/Was I on time?
With be as a main verb

Are Allle re yo u /w e/t h ey

tire d ?

ls/Was he/she/it cold?

With be as an auxiliary verb

Am/Was I interrupting you?


Are/llilere you/we/they going on a picnic?
I s/Was h e/sh e/it wo r ki ng?

Wilh have as an auxiliary verb

HavelHad l/you/we/they got any money?


Has/Had h e/she/it fi n i s h ed?

With have as a main verb and with all other


verbs

Do/Did l/you/we/they have enough time?


Does/Did he/she/it need anything?
Should lwait?

Couldyou help me?


Will she be here soon?
Might they be lost?

With modals

With who, whose, whom,


when,why and how

il*..n"'1
O

wh at, which, where,

Who is taking the rubbish out?


Whose book is this?
Towhom did you speak?
What is the weather like?
Which doyou want?
Where did you go on holiday?
When isTerry starting work?
Why did they leave?
How do you spell'environment'?

With the question words who and what,whether we use do or not depends on whether the
question word refers to the subject or object of the verb.
/ Subject: Who sawyouT (= Someone saw you.Who?)
/ Object: Who did you seeT (= You saw someone.Who?)
Remember that after do or does,we use the bare infinitive.
Did you go to the talk on the environment?

/
x
/
x

DoesTom wont a glass of orange iuiceT

Remember that the verb meanforms questions just like other main verbs.
/ What does'environmental' mean?
X lUhet meens'envirenmentel'?

Question tags

With be as a main verb

You ore Canadian,


She is

You

With auxiliary verbs and modals

We

oren't you?

beoutiful, isn't she?

hoven't

lost my CD, have you?

ore hoving the lesson early tomorrow,oren't we?

People should recycle things, shouldn't they?


There will be lots of people there,won't there?

$uestlrns ,/ questi*n tegs

indire*t q*esfions Unit I 9

Example

-:

ask someone to agree

-:

check whether something is true (rising intonation)

with us (falling intonation)

It's really hot,

isn't

You're Spanish,

aF{nk you?

ln sentences with / am,we. use.aren't l? as the question tag. ln sentences


wilh I am not,we

/ l'm the best student in the class. aren,t l?


/ |m not very tall, am l?

use

am l?

w-ith everyone, no one and someone, we use questions tags with a plural
verb and fhey.
/. Everyone's going to be there, aren,t they?
/ No one wants to come, do they?
/ Someone's been in here, haven,t they?
Usually, when we have a positive verb in a sentence, we use a negative
question tag.when we have
a negative verb in a sentence, we use a positive question tag. ln
slentences with a n6gative word like
no,little,,never, nobody, no one, hardly,etc, we use a positive q-uestion
tag.
/- You have got no manners, have you?
/ We never enjoy our holiday, do we?
ln sentences where the subject is th.ere,we repeat thereinthe question
tag.
/ There's no point callingTim now,is there?'
ln American English, a question tag with do can be used after a
sentence with hove got.This is not
usually done in British English.
U5: They've got a lot of money, don,t they?
UK: They've got a lot of money, haven,t ihey?

lndirect guestions
. :'r,.

Form

'

.i:,

introductory phrase or question + clause with normal word order


we use indirect questions when we want to ask questions politely.

Some introductory phrases and questions


ian/Could you tell me

... ?

Could you tell me what time

lould you let me know...?

it

is?

Could you let me know when it starts?


Do you know who that woman is?

wonder if you could tell me...

wonder if you could tell me how much this costs.

lwonder if you know what the starting salary


twould like to know

...

=-a-

Y" 9o n9l

is

going to do about it.

use question word order in the second part

of the sentence.
{ I would like to know when the next train to London leaves.
X lt "rld lile t, lrrrn nhrn dr"t th" n"*t trat, t, LrnCx 1""r",

O Sg[.

would like to know what your company

is.

indirect questions, which begin with a question word, need a question mark
at the end.

Could you tell me where the

tibriry

is?

lf a direct question is a 'yeslno'question, the equivalent indirect question


uses if or whether.
I wonder if/whether you have read this book.

ra m

Unit 21

Reported speech

reported questions

rI

reporting verbs

Reported speech; tense and modal changes

s
&

We use reported speech when we want to say what someone else said'
.
eg Joson said he was going to buy ct new poir of trainerx
person
(eg
the
what
tense,of
past
have
change
the
we
usually
to
said),
verb
in
is the
lf the reporting
actually said.

' .

present simple

present perfect
simple

past simple

past perfect simple

'l

need a credit card,'saidTim.

Tim said he needed a credit card.

'l'm taking Lizzie shopping,' said Tim.

Tim said he was taking Lizzie shoppi r

'l've boughtTom

Tim said he'd boughtTom a present'

present,'saidTim.

continuous

'l've been thinking about buying


thinking about buying a car.

past simple

'l spent

present perfect

continuous

euros,'saidTim.

Tim said he'd been

Tim said he'd spent six euros.

'lwas hoping to find a new top,'saidTim.

past continuous

past perfect

six

a car,'saidTim.

Tim said he'd been hoping to finc

a new top.

past perfect simple


(no tense change)

'l'd looked everywhere for my credit card before I found it,' said Tim.
heA boked everywhere for his credit card before he found it.

past perfect
continuous (no

looking for that bookfor weeks before I found it,'saidTim. s


he'd been looking for that book for weeks before he found it.

tense change)

't'd been

'l'm going to go shopping,' said Tim.

am/is/are going to

'l'll need a credit card,'said Tim.


'l

Tim saic

Tim said he was going to go shopping.

Tim said he would need a credit card.

can take Lizzie shopping,'saidTim.

Tim said he could take Lizzie shopping

'l must go to the supermarket,'saidTim.


supermarket.
'l

Tim saic

moy go shopping later,' said Tim.

Tim said he had to go to the

Tim said he

might go shopping later'

We do not need to make any changes to the verb tense or modal when we are reporting a scient;':

fact or when something is still true.


/ 'Most banks charge interest,'saidTim.

Tim said most banks charge interest.

Reported speech: pronoun and determiner changes


These changes include:

o Tim said he had lost his credit card.

'l've lost my credit card,'saidTim.

Tim said he loved the

this/that + noun

'l love

this/that+verb

'This is a lovely sweater,'saidTim.

these /those + noun

'l love those sweaters,' said Tim.

these/those + verb

'These are lovely sweaters,'saidTim.

verb + these/those

'l'm going to buy these,'saidTim.

this sweater,' said Tim.

Tim said

it

/ thot sweater.

was a lovely sweater.

Tim said he loved the

/ those sweaters.

Tim said they were lovely sweaters.

Tim said he was going to buy them'

ffeport*d $peerfu,/;spssrted ry*csfi**s

r*p*rting verh* Unit 21'

With reported speech,we also usually have to change words and phrases connected to time and place,
These changes include:

Example

Reported speech

Direct speech

here,'saidTim.

Tim said he usually shopped there.

there

'l usually shop

* 2ment

then / at that moment

'l'm shopping ot the moment,'said Tim.


then / at that moment.

_'norrow

the next/following day

'l'm going shopping tomorrow,'saidTim.


shopping the next/following day.

that night

'l'm going shopping tonight,'said Tim.


shopping that night.

:.9

' :,v / at the

tight

Tim said he was shopping

Tim said he was going

Tim said he was going

Tim said he was going

month/year

'l'm going shopping next week,'said Tim.


shopping the following week.

.sterdaY

the day before / the


previous day

'lwent shopping yesterday,'saidTim.


the doy before / the previous day.

si weeAmonth/

the weeWmonth/year
before / the previous

'lwent shopping lost week,'saidTim. s Tim said he'd been shopping


the week before / the previous week.

.-(t weeUmonth/

the following week/

weel(month/year

shopping two days ogo,'said Tim.


two days before / previously.
'l went

before / previously

_/\a.

outt<
ll^tch
(
- rr-

);,.-J
'/ "

|
|
I

at the moment of

Tim said hed been shopping

Tim said heA been shopping

speaking/writing.

/'l'mgoinEshoppingtomorrow,'saidTimtoBen.tBenimmediatetycatledLizzieandsaid,
'Tim said he's going shopping

tomorrow.'

.WeusereportedqUestionswhenwewanttosaywhatsomeoneelseasked.
fWeusethesamerulesregardingtense,pron0Unandtimeandplaceword/phrasechangeswith
reported questions as we do with reported speech.
Direct
r

speech ;

Reported

eye's/noquestions)

.\1ere,why and

how

f-JV^(Zlo
fi"a6.f5'-/'-|. -

^tL^luse'ro'*netne'

Example

speech

'tve,do,beormodal I .. ^,,^...-.t

where,why and

how

: TimaskedTom
/*hetierhecouldgethimanicecream. ___]

|'Canyougetmeanicecream,Tom?'askedTim.
I

if

I hod boughtthose

shoes

...?).

use the question form and question marks (Can you


questions
we don't use the question form or question marks (asked if he could
ln reported

ndirect questions we

*--l
...).
I

@
a

Different reporting verbs take different grammatical patterns. Some verbs can take more than one
pattern.
{ {eny (verb + noun) Katie denied the accusotian.
/ ileny (verb + rhat clause) Katie denied (thdt) she was a shoplifter.
/ deny (verb + -ingJ Katie denied stealing thE chocalate biscuits,
See page 197 for a full list of verbs and patterns.
t&"$

Relative crauses

PartrciPles

Relative clauses
Relative clauses give us extra information about something/someone or identify which particular"..
thing/person we are talking about.They are often introduced by the following words.

Example

Use
which (for things and animals)

Did you see the film which was onTV last night?

who (for people, and animals when we want to give


them a personality)

Tom Davies, who is appearing in concert in Reading this week, is


with me in the studio.

razhen

Do you remember the daY when we met?

(for times)

where they filmed Citizen Kane.

where (for places)

This is the place

why (for reasons)

That's the reason why he's so popular.

whom (for people as the object of the relative clause)

ts

whose (for possession)

My next guest on the show is JohnTravolta,whose career goes


back to the early seventies.

that the man whom we saw at the cinema yesterday?

When the relative pronoun (who,which,etc) is the subject of the relative clause,you do not need
another subject.
/ t admire Jude Law,who always warks hard on his films.
I I admirc Jude Lawwho he always wsrks hard on his frhs-Whom is quite formal.lt is natural in informal English to use uzho instead of whom, even when it is
the object of the relative clause. After a preposition, however, we always use whom.lnformally, we
usually put the preposition at the end of the clause and use r'vho.
/ ls that the man who we saw at the cinema yesterday?
/ Charlie Chaptin was a comic genius to whom all comedians awe a great deal.
/ Chsrlie Chaiplin was a comic genius who all comedians owe a great deal to.
Where can be replaced by a preposition + which. Less formally, we can put the preposition at the
end ofthe clause.
/ The theatre where / in which tfirst acted

t--

rI

somewhere around here.


The theatre which I first aated in is somewhere around here.

is

We can do the same thing with when.


/ Do you know the year when / in which the first western was made?
/ Do you know the year which the first western was made in?

!
r

Non-defi ning relative clauses


Non-defining relative clauses simply give us more information about something/someone.
The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause'

Example

Use
To give extra information about something/someone

Ray Watson, who starred in Bandits, ls considering making a


based on the life of Einstein.

filr

from the rest of the sentence by commas.


fJ "-(Zo Non-defining relative clauses i tre separated
,ed
/ Megamo"nsters,whichwas filn in New York, is a very disappointing film.
*u..Ho*-f
'-"
cannot leave out the word wl' ich introduces the relative clause and we cannot use the word
// ,.--) || O We
that instead.
^

I x@
lx@
I O

in1
'ffi.

wnicn can refer back to the wl rolt l of the sentence.

|
I
fr4tr

,t

We finatly

got

tickets for the car rcert, which was very luckY.

(lt doesn't mean the conce rtv ras lucky. lt means getting tickets for the concert was lucky.)

rI

8*fartive cfa*ses ./ parfiefsle* Unit

Definine relative clauses

23

Defining relative clauses tell us which one of a roup of things/people we are talking about.The sentence
doesn't usually make complete sense without re relative clause.

Example

Use
-o tell us which one of a group of things/people we

The book which l've read was the best of all.

are talking about

The one

O
O
O

who is wearing a blue shirt

is

Justin Timberlake, isn't it?

Defining relative clauses are not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

,/

fhis is the DVD which I told you about the other day'
We can also use fhdf to introduce the relative clause.
/ fhis is the DVD that I told you about the other day.
We can often leave out the word which introduces the relative clause when it is the object of

the clause.

fnis is the DVD I told you about the other day.


Notice that we do not need a preposition when we use where or when.
/ fhe theatre where t first acted is somewhere around here.
X The theetre where I first eeted in is semewhere ereand here,
/ Do you know the year when the first western was made?
I De yea knew the yeer when the first western wes mede in?

Particioles
.,,

Present participles end in -lng.


Past participles usually end in -ed, although there are many irregular verbs.
Perfect participles are:formed using hoving + past participle.

Example

Use
follow prepositions and conjunctions
present and perfect ParticiPles)

To

explain the reason for something


present and Perfect ParticiPles)

To

talk about actions happening at the same time


present participles)

appearing in that cigarette advert, he damaged his acting career.


After playing / having played video games all morning,l was really
By

tired.

Being quite good looking, Ralph decided to make a career as a


model.

Having

seen the film before, I knew what was going to happen.

To

Woiting for the show to begin,lfelt really nervous.

To replace some relative clauses

lmagine being the person directing a big budget film! (= lpsgin,


being the person who is directing a big budget film!)
The person chosen for the part will be contacted by phone. (= The
person who is chosen for the part will be contacted by phone.)

present and past ParticiPles)


talk about past actions happening in sequence
,perfect participles)

To

As an

alternative passive form

L,past

participles)

\Natcho,$!

Having finished my homework,l decided to go to the cinema.


Made to wait,the actor began to get very annoyed.

You have to be careful that the participle and the rest of the sentence both refer to the same subject
WatchingTV,lsaw a news report about Hollywood.
Watching TV, a news report came on about Hollywood.

/
X

Unit 25
+,rrF-i+Nli*ltfu

[**,1

Unreal Past, wishes

contrast

Unreal past

p*

iunr", do not always refer to past time.ln


or the future
past tense to refer," #;;;nt

use a
some sentences.and with some ve.rbs or phrases w.e
.
contain'r
or to a general situation.These include sentences that

Example

Structure

l'd buy that top if t had more cash on me"

a second conditional

lknowit,sprobablynotgoingtohappenbutsuppose/imaginelbecameafamous
suppose I what

super model!

if I imagine

ti{ni*'iiii'iobobt, ,ot noin, to hororn

but

*hat if t b"came o fo,out sure' *odel'

l'd rather you didn't come with me to the fashion show tomorrow'

would rather + You/helshe/we/


they

tt's

it's (high/about)time

(high/about) time that hats came back in fashion'

polite questions
lf only / lwish t hod something to wear tonight'

wish / if only

present tense'
Suppotr,what if and imagine can also be followed by a

= A ;i";;;i tunr" inai.utei tr,at the situation is more tikely to 1;tylt1v-lippen


that the situation is less likely to actually happen.
n

/
/

[uii t"nr"

indicates

happen)
What if you ore accepted into art college? (more likely to
(less
happen)
to
likely
What if'you were accepted into art collegei

Mshes
We use different structures with

rarish

I if onty,depending on exactly what we want to express'


ExamPle

Structure

Use
Expressing wishes about the present, future

or generally
Expressing wishes about the Past

wish / if only + Past simPle/

continuous
wish

/ if only + Past Perfect

twish lwas studying history of fashion


instead of

biologY!

',

If only l'd known Burton's was having a sal'

simple/continuous

lost week.

Criticising other people or complaining about


a situation now, in the future or generally

wish / if only + would

lf only Henr{ would get a haircut!

Expressing hypothetical ability or permission


now, in the future or generallY

wish

Expressing desires in a formal waY

wish + full infinitive

/ if onlY + could

lwish I could fit into

/
/ lf oniy / I wish I could afford these shoes' to buy these shoes'
X lf oniy / I wish I woald have enough money

qffi4

hope'
To express desires about the future,we often use
next week'
shoes
these
to
buy
money
enough
have
will
t
iope
t
week'
next
shoes
t nipeto hove rnougi ron"y to buy the.se
week;
next
shoes
these
buy
to
will have eniugh money

i
/
I

wish I

ieans.

wish to try on this ball gown.

We do not usually say lf only / I wish lwould " '


lf onty / I wisi t had enough money to buy these shoes'

these

L!*reaf pasf, rvistu*s

though

*o*tr

a* Unit 25

even though
.l

Ey en

contrast.
contrast'
r.,
,)"i,t',i,iini.iiougni',*'einrJ,*atthanalthoughandeventhou
Although,thoughand even though are used to express
"*or"r,

though is more emphatic than although

-atnoush

Example

Structure
:lthough /Though / Even though + subject + verb'
,ubject + verb

got sunburn'
Atthough / Though / Even though I wore a hat' I

:ubject + verb,although / though / even though +


:ubject + verb

I got sunburn, atthough / though / even though I wore a hat'

Though can also come at the end of a sentence'

in spite of

lwore a hat.lgot sunburn,though'

desPite
xpre55contrast.Theymeanexact1ythesamethin9andtakethesame

gram matical structu res:

Structure

Despite wearing a hat,l got sunburl'

n spite of / despite + -ing form,subject + verb

ln

n spite of / despite + thefact (that) + subject + verb'


;ubject + verb

tn spite of / Despite the fact (that) lwore a hat,l got sunburn'

ln

n spite of / despite + noun, subject + verb

spite of

spite of

Despite my hat,l got sunburn'

also put in spite of / despite in the middle of the sentence'


/ I got sunburn in spite of / despite wearing a hat'
happened before the result'
we can also use the perfect -ing formto show that the action
a
hat'
worn
tgot sunburn in spite of / despite having
of
+ -ingform, the subject of the main verb must also carry out the action

W"

.u,

J-

With in spite of
the -inElverb.

however

/ despite

nevertheless

is even more forma['


. However is formal. Ne vertheless
However and nevertheless are used to exprl ess contrast

The fashion show was expensive to put on. However

Nevertheless, it did make a profit'

Thefashionshowwasexpensivetoputon'ltdidmakeop'ofit'hoyeu"'!n-"':'h"l"s:
/
The fashion show was expensive to put an' tt did' howeve'

while

'"n"'th"l"tt'

*o

whereas

or ideas.
white andwhereasare used to contrast two different facts

Structure
,uhile / whereos + subject + verb, subject + verb

subject + verb, while I whereas + subject + verb

White

/ Whereas

are worn

ieans are
onlY bY women.

worn by both men and women' blouses

Blouses are worn only by women,while

both men and women.

/ whereos ieans

are worn by

l1

lnversions

possessiyes

lnversions with negative adverbial words and phrases


When we put some negative adverbialwords and phrases at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis,
the subject and the verb 'invert'. This means we use the question form of the verb, even though
the sentence is not a question. lnversions are quite formal and are not usually used in conversation.

Form

negative adverbialword/phrase + question form


Na soaner had I accepted the job than they told me I had to work weekends.

Negative adverbial

Example

Never

Never have I worked so hard in all my life.

Rarely

Rarely have I worked so hard in all my life.

Seldom

Seldom have I worked so hard in all my life.

No sooner (...than1

No sooner had Matt started workthon he resiqned.

Hardly (...when)

Hardly hod Mdtt started work when he resigned.

Not only (... but also/too)

Not only were you late for work, but you had also forgotten the report.

Under no circumstances

Under no circumstonces are employees allowed to leave the building without permission.

At no time/point

At no time/point was I told what the job involved.

Little

Little did I realise that I would become managing director just two years later.

Not until

Not until the next day did I heor that I had got the job.

Only

Only at the end of the interview did I think I had a chance of getting the job.

O Little

,/

is used with verbs of thought (realise, know,suspecl; etc) and means'l did not realise/etc at all
Little did I know how things were going to turn out.
(= I did not know at all how things were going to turn out.)

With not until and only,you have to be careful about which verb to invert.
Not until I had finished my homeworkwas I allowed to go out.
Net antil had I finished my hemewerk I was allewed te ge eat.
Only when I hod finished my homeworkwas t allowed to go out.
Only when hed I finished my hemewerk I wes ellewed te ge eat,

/
I
/
I

Other inversions
Example

Use
ln short answers and other similar
structures using so,neither and nor

'l'm a plumber.'
'ReallyT So am l!'

My sister doesn't like getting ready for work, and neither do I / nor do l.

After a5 so and such

The manager was nervous about the director's visit, as were the rest of the staff.
So late was it that there was no one in the office.
Such a hot day was it that no one wanted to work.

ln conditional sentences

Were our staff better trained,we might make a larger profit.1= lf our staff were
better trained ...)
Hod I known about the vacancy,l would have applied. (= lf I had known ...)

Remember that 'So am/do/have /' is used to agree with a positive statement and'Neither/Nor
am/do/have /' is used to agree with a negative statement.
'l really like my job.' '5o do l.'
'l really don't like my job,' 'Neither do I / Nor do l.'

/
/
"866

,..

!*uer*fo*s y' po**essiues Unit

Possessive 's and

s'

27

We can show possession by using 3 and s!

Example

Use
We use 3 with singular nouns, including names, and with

irregular plurals which do not end in


We

-s.

just add an apostrophe to regular plural nouns ending

in -s.

The workers'

pay was increased by ten percent.

After an hour's wait, lfinally got to see the manager.


l'll be at the factory in about ten minutes'time.

We use's or s' in some time expressions.

We usually use's or

That's the manager's car,over there.


We are still waiting for Sarah's decision about who to take on.
I think that women's rights should be protected by law.

s'with people (or groups composed of

people) and animals. For other things, we normally use of

the/my/etc.

ls this John's briefcase?


We held a meeting to discuss the company's finances.
The vet had a close look at the cat's paw.
The technician had a close look at the back of my computer.

(not...at my computer's back)

i*'n''9

With singular names ending in -s, some people use 3 and some people just add an apostrophe.
They are both correct, although using 3 is more common.
The report is on Charles's computer in the office.
The report is on Charles'computer in the office.

/
/

O
O

-s, we just add an apostrophe, as with other plurals.


fhe Smiths'business eventually closed down.
With phrases,the possessive'sand s'must go atthe end of the whole phrase.
Tom, Dick and Harry's office is around here somewhere.

With plural names ending in

,/

x
,/
I

fhe President of France's visit to England will be good for business.


The Presidentt ef Franee visit te Englend wi.tl be geed fer business,

Possessive determiners and pronouns


Structure
Possessive determiners (my,your, his, her,
before a noun and show possession

Example
its,

our,their) come

Possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours,


theirs) are used instead of a noun
Possessive pronouns can also be used after

ofto show

possession

i"ttt' "'9

A common mistake

to be avoided

My new job is great. How about yours? (=...your job)


Our business is doing quite well, but I hear Simon and Julie
are having problems with theirs. (= ...their business)
She's a colleague of mine. (= ...one of my colleagues)
Are they customers of yours?

is using a possessive pronoun instead of a possessive

determiner or using a determiner instead of a pronoun.

/
x
/
)(
O

l'm really excited about my new job.


you looking forward to meeting your new boss?

Are

don't really get on so well with my boss.


know your job is dangerous, but did Frank and Jenny tell you about theirs?
knew year jeb is dangereu+ bat did Frank and Jenny teltyea abeut their?

Remember that there are no apostrophes in possessive pronouns.


I knew year jeb is dangereut bat did Frank and Jenny tetlyea eboat theirb?
Don't get confused between its (possessive determiner, without an apostrophe) and it3
(contraction for it is or if has, with an apostrophe).
/ Our company is hoping to increase its share of the market.

'$6?

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