3

MATERIALS

3.1

CONCRETE

3.1.1

General
This section applies to normal and high strength concretes made from locally available natural
aggregates.

3.1.2

Characteristic strength
Unless otherwise stated in this Code of Practice, the characteristic strength of concrete is that value
of the cube strength at 28 days below which 5% of all compressive test results would be expected to
fall.

3.1.3

Strength grades
For the purposes of this Code of Practice, the grade of concrete is the characteristic strength as
defined in clause 3.1.2.
The recommended strength grades to be used in specifications are given in table 3.1.
For reinforced concrete the lowest grade that should be used is C20 for concrete made with normal
weight aggregate.
Concrete strength grade

Minimum characteristic strength

2

(N/mm )
C20

20

C25

25

C30

30

C35

35

C40

40

C45

45

C50

50

C55

55

C60

60

C65

65

C70

70

C75

75

C80

80

C85

85

C90

90

C95

95

C100

100

Table 3.1 - Compressive strength grades for normal weight concrete

3.1.4

Deformation of concrete
For the ultimate limit state, the effects of creep and shrinkage are usually minor, and no specific
calculations are required.
Where it is necessary to reliably predict the deformation of structural concrete, assessments of
elastic, creep, shrinkage and thermal strains are required. The creep and shrinkage of concrete
depend mainly on the ambient humidity, the dimensions of the element and the composition of the
concrete. Creep is also influenced by the age of the concrete at loading, and the duration and
magnitude of the load.
Thus a knowledge of both environmental and loading history is required for accurate predictions of
deformation.
Clauses 3.1.5 to 3.1.9 give general guidance on the predictions of the different strain components.
This guidance is considered satisfactory to assess movements and deformations for the majority of
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structures. If an accurate prediction of these strains is considered to be an essential part of the

design, this should be obtained from tests carried out on actual concrete similar to that used in the
structure.
3.1.5

Elastic deformation
The elastic deformations of concrete largely depend on its composition, particularly the aggregates.
The elastic modulus is also affected by the aggregate/cement ratio and the age of the concrete. The
values given in table 3.2 are sufficiently accurate for general application. They may also be used for
estimating loss of prestress (see section 12). If the structure is likely to be sensitive to deviations in
these values, the values should be specifically assessed. The value chosen in any particular case
should depend on the importance of the estimate and why it is needed.
The design values for normal-weight concrete in table 3.2 are derived from the following equation,
2
which is applicable for concrete of cube strengths between 20 and 100 N/mm :
Ec = 3.46fcu + 3.21

3.1

where:
Ec

is the short-term static modulus of elasticity,

fcu

is the cube compressive strength in N/mm .

Concrete cube compressive strength, fcu

2

Design value of elastic modulus, Ec

2

(N/mm )

(kN/mm )

20

18.7

25

20.5

30

22.2

35

23.7

40

25.1

45

26.4

50

27.7

55

28.9

60

30.0

65

31.1

70

32.2

75

33.2

80

34.2

85

35.1

90

36.0

95

36.9

100

37.8

Note:
1.

Where the mean or characteristic value of elastic modulus is required, the appropriate mean
or characteristic strength should be selected from this table.

Table 3.2 - Design values of elastic modulus for normal-weight concrete

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3.1.6

Poissons ratio
Where linear elastic analysis is appropriate, Poissons ratio may be taken as 0.2.

3.1.7

Creep
The creep strain in concrete cc at a particular time after casting can be predicted from:

cc =

stress
c
E 28

3.2

where:
E28

is the 28-day value of concrete secant modulus which may be taken from table 3.2,

is the creep coefficient, see equation 3.3.

c = KLKmKcKeKj

3.3

where:
KL

is the coefficient relating to environment conditions, see figure 3.1,

Km

is the coefficient relating to the hardening (maturity) of the concrete, see figure 3.2,

Kc

is the coefficient relating to the composition of the concrete, see figure 3.3,

Ke

is the coefficient relating to the effective thickness of the section, see figure 3.4,

Kj is the coefficient defining the development of creep relative to time, see figure 3.5.
The values of creep which are for plain concrete, should be multiplied by the reinforcement
coefficient Ks to obtain the corresponding values for reinforced concrete:

Ks =

1
1 + e

3.4

where:

is the modular ratio Es/Ec,

As

is the steel ratio As/Ac,

is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement,

Ac

is the gross cross-sectional concrete area,

Es

is the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement,

Ec

is the short-term modulus of the concrete.

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Creep Km

Creep KL

Figure 3.1 - Coefficient KL (Creep)

Creep Ke

Figure 3.2 - Coefficient Km (Creep)

Figure 3.3 - Coefficient Kc

(Creep and shrinkage)

Figure 3.4 - Coefficient Ke

(Creep)

Figure 3.5 - Coefficient Kj

(Creep and shrinkage)

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The effective section thickness, he, is the ratio of the area of the section to the semi-perimeter, u/2,
in contact with the atmosphere. If one of the dimensions of the section under consideration is very
large compared with the other, the effective thickness corresponds approximately to the actual
thickness (e.g. for a slab).
If the dimensions are not constant along the member, an average effective thickness can be defined
by paying particular attention to those sections in which the stresses are highest.
In individual cases, judgement, based on experience, is essential in interpreting these data; this
judgement will depend on the importance of the estimate and why it is needed. It may be advisable
to consider a range of values to bracket the problem, since an overestimate may be just as bad as
an underestimate. Stresses and relative humidities may vary considerably during the lifetime of the
structure and appropriate judgements should be made where detailed calculations are carried out.
Drying shrinkage
An estimate of the drying shrinkage strain of plain concrete cs at any instant is given by the product
of five partial coefficients:

cs = csKLKcKeKj

3.5

where:

cs

is 3.0, Hong Kong modification factor to allow for properties of the crushed granitic
aggregate,

KL

is the coefficient relating to the environment, see figure 3.6,

Kc

is the coefficient relating to the composition of the concrete, see figure 3.3,

Ke

is the coefficient relating to the effective thickness of the section, see figure 3.7,

Kj is the coefficient defining the development of shrinkage relative to time, see figure 3.5.
The shrinkage to be expected over an interval of time should be taken as the difference between the
shrinkage calculated for the beginning and the end of the interval.

-6

The values of shrinkage, which are for plain concrete, should be multiplied by the reinforcement
coefficient Ks to obtain the corresponding shrinkage strain for reinforced concrete. See equation 3.4.

Shrinkage Ke

Shrinkage KL x 10

3.1.8

Figure 3.6 - Coefficient KL

Figure 3.7 - Coefficient Ke

(Shrinkage)

(Shrinkage)

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3.1.9

Thermal expansion
The linear coefficient of thermal expansion for normal weight concrete may normally be taken as
-6 o
10x10 / C.
If the estimate is exceptionally important, the coefficient should be determined for the concrete mix
actually used, with due allowance for the effect of moisture content.

3.1.10

Stress-strain relationships for design

The short term design stress-strain curves for design of sections in normal weight and normal weight
high strength concretes are given in figure 3.8 below, with m having the relevant value.

Figure 3.8 - Short-term design stress-strain curve for normal weight concrete

When sustained loading is being considered, refer to the information provided at clauses 3.1.7 and
3.1.8 on creep and shrinkage.
3.2

REINFORCING STEEL

3.2.1

General
This section applies to hot rolled mild steel, and hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel complying
with CS2, or the acceptable standards as appropriate, used as reinforcement in concrete structures.

3.2.2

Characteristic strength
The characteristic strength of reinforcement, unless stated otherwise, means the proof or yield
strength below which 5% of all possible test results would be expected to fall.

3.2.3

Strength classes
The specified characteristic strengths are given in table 3.3.

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Specified characteristic strength

Designation

(N/mm )

Hot rolled mild steel

250

High yield steel

460

(hot rolled or cold worked)

Table 3.3 - Strength of reinforcement
3.2.4

Elastic modulus
2
The elastic modulus for reinforcement should be taken as 200 kN/mm .

3.2.5

Physical properties
The following mean values may be used:

3.2.6

density

7850 kg/m ; and

coefficient of thermal expansion

12x10 / C.

-6 o

Stress-strain relationships for design

The short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement is given in figure 3.9 below, with m
having the relevant value. This curve may also be used for sustained loading.

Figure 3.9 - Short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement

3.2.7

Weldability
Reinforcement may be considered weldable provided the types of steel have the required welding
properties given in the acceptable standards. Welding to be inspected and approved by a
competent person.
Where the weldability is unknown, tests should be carried out.

3.2.8

Mechanical couplers

3.2.8.1 Bars in compression

The load may be transferred between butt jointed bars by means of end bearing where sawn square
cut ends are held in contact by means of a suitable sleeve or other coupler. The concrete cover to
the sleeve should not be less than that specified for normal reinforcement.
3.2.8.2 Bars in tension
The only acceptable full strength butt joint between bars in tension is formed using a mechanical
coupler satisfying the following criteria:

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when a representative gauge length assembly comprising reinforcement of the diameter,

grade and profile to be used, and a coupler of the precise type to be used, is tested in
tension the permanent elongation after loading to 0.6fy should not exceed 0.1 mm; and

the coupled bar assembly tensile strength should exceed 287.5 N/mm for grade 250,
2
and 483 N/mm for grade 460.

3.3

PRESTRESSING TENDONS

3.3.1

General
This section applies to wires, bars and strands complying with acceptable standards, and used as
prestressing tendons in concrete structures.

3.3.2

Characteristic strength
The characteristic strength of a prestressing tendon, unless stated otherwise, means the ultimate
strength below which 5% of all possible test results would be expected to fall.

3.3.3

Ductility
The products shall have adequate ductility in elongation and bending.

3.3.4

Physical properties
The following mean values may be used:

3.3.5

density

7850 kg/m ; and

coefficient of thermal expansion

12x10 / C.

-6 o

Stress-strain relationships for design

The short-term design stress-strain curve for prestressing tendons is given in figure 3.10 below, with
m having the relevant value. For sustained loading, appropriate allowance for relaxation should be
made.

Figure 3.10 - Short-term design stress-strain curve for prestressing tendons

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3.4

PRESTRESSING DEVICES

3.4.1

Anchorages and couplers

3.4.1.1 General
This section applies to anchoring devices (anchorages) and coupling devices (couplers) in post
tensioned construction.
All anchorages should comply with the acceptable standards.
3.4.1.2 Mechanical properties
Tendon-anchorage assemblies and tendon coupler assemblies shall have strength, elongation and
fatigue characteristics sufficient to meet the basic requirements of section 2.
3.5

NEW MATERIALS

3.5.1

General
The requirements of this code of practice are not to be construed as prohibiting the use of new and
alternative materials.

3.5.2

Acceptance requirements
The properties of new materials must be adequately demonstrated to comply with the basic
requirements of section 2.
For this purpose sufficient information must be provided, including manufacturing data, testing and
proposed quality controls, to allow independent third party evaluation of such compliance.

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