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5. CONCRETE

5.1 Introduction
Today the concrete, is the most important material for all types of construction
works and has been used for innumerable construction work . Some forms of concrete are
reinforced cement concrete, plain concrete, pre-cast concrete, pre-stressed concrete & many others.
In construction industry, the concrete is mainly used for foundations , columns ,slabs & beams
,staircase , lintels ,doors , window frames , sun shades, storage tanks etc..
Concrete is mainly composed of cement , water and aggregates with or Without
additions known as an admixture to improve strength , durability and other physical properties .
It is used to construct most of the structures in construction field. Concrete can not bare tensile
forces (only compressive forces), so reinforcements are used with it, where required.
Basically concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate
(metal), water, and admixtures. Admixtures are used to delay or accelerate the setting time of
cement in concrete. The above mentioned materials are mixed to certain ratios to obtain different
types of concrete for different types of jobs. Also coarse aggregate sizes are varies for different
mixes (ex: lean concrete, r/f concrete, chip concrete).
In a site, concrete can be produced by using a concrete mixture or by hand out side
the sites concrete is produced at the batching plants.

5.1.1. Properties of the concrete depend upon the various factors.

Quality and quantity of material
Method of batching
Method of mixing
Method of transporting, placing and compacting etc.

A single truck mixer can contain a maximum volume of 6.5m 3 & there are truck
mixers with different volumes (1m3, 3m3). When ordering concrete, wastages should be
included. All the details regarding the concrete, contains in the delivery sheet. (A copy is kept

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in the site and the other one is sending to the batching plant). When a truck mixer is came to

the site a sample of concrete is taken to do the slump test and cast test cubes before
using.
After three hours from batching a concrete is rejected. If a problem arises in the site and the
concrete is unable to carry on, the batching plant should be informed immediately to stop batching of
concrete.

5.2 Properties of concrete

Concrete, in its fresh stage should;
a)

Be composed of correct proportion of fine and coast aggregate.

b)

Have the correct cement aggregate ratio.

c)

Have the water cement ratio appropriate to the strength required .

d)

Be well mixed.

e)

Be well cured.

Concrete in its hardened stage should;

a)

Be durable.

b)

Have sufficient strength.

c)

Be fully compacted so that it is a dense mass .

d)

Be able to resist water from penetrating.

e)

Be resistant to friction.

5.3 Reinforced concrete

Concrete is strong in compression and is extremely weak in tension . Its
resistance to tension is so low that plain concrete can be only used where the members
is in pure compression . Steel is equally strong both in compression and tension . Hence
steel combined with concrete is found to be ideal for construction work such a
combination is called reinforced concrete . The combination of steel and concrete become
practicable and workable for the following reason .

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The concrete , while setting , grips very fast to the surface of the steel bars .
Hence , the concrete is able to transmit to the steel bars , those stresses which it cannot
resist by itself .
a) The coefficient of linear expansion of concrete and steel are almost the
same ; therefore , no internal stresses are set up within the reinforced concrete
due to variation of temperature .
b) The coring of cement grout on the surface of the steel projects the bars from
corrosion and does not produce any advance chemical effects .

5.3.1. Advantages of reinforced concrete

It is economical in ultimate cost.
Its monolithic character gives much rigidity to the structure.
It is durable and fire resisting.
It is almost impermeable to moisture.
The cost of reinforce concrete structures is almost nil.
The materials used are easily obtainable.

5.4 Materials of the concrete

5.4.1 Cement:Cement is finely ground powder used for making concrete and mortars and having
property of provides a very hard and strong, and substances which bind together the particles of
aggregates to from a mass of high compressive strength. The most commonly used cement is
Portland cement.

5.4.2 Aggregates :-

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The essential characteristics for aggregates are;
Strength
Density
Durability
Cleanliness (Cleanliness includes free from organic impurities)
Facility for working
There are two forms of aggregate used in concrete.
Fine aggregates
Coarse aggregates
These fine and coarse aggregates should be clean when they arrive on the site
for concrete work .They must contain neither animal nor vegetable matter nor lumps of
clay , and must be well graded . When good quality natural sand can be found , it should
be used as it is cheaper .Nowadays quarries which produce stone dust out of granite may
be found .This type of sand is expensive and is mostly used for high class work such as
bridges and road building .Stone dust does not have any of the problems of impurities
associated with natural sand

1). Fine aggregates

Sand is most common material used for construction. This should be river sand, pit sand or
crushed stone sand. Fine aggregates used for building construction, should be hard durable
cleaned and free from clay, salt and all other matters. Generally sea sand should not be used for
construction, because it contains salts, which have reaction with cement.

2). Coarse aggregates

It should be hard and free from decay cracks and sand holes. Generally stones which are
heavy, tough and compact gained are considered to be strong and durable. The maximum size of
coarse aggregate is determined by the class of work with reinforced concrete. This type of
aggregate used directly influences the fire protection and thermal insulation qualities of the
concrete.

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5.4.3 Water:Water needs to be added to mix due to two reasons .One of them is water is required
for reacting with cement so that the practical are bound together . The other reason is for
making the concrete sufficiently workable to be placed and compacted . However the
amount of water required for the chemical reaction is very small and as such the rest
will remain or evaporate gradually as the concrete hardens , leaving small holes or voids
as they are usually called .Not surprisingly ,voids weaken concrete and so the more water
there in mix , the weaker will be the concrete .There will always be some voids in the
concrete because we must use sufficient water to make the mix workable enough to
obtain full compaction , but it is important not to add more than is necessary .Evaporation
of water will also cause cracks due to shrinkage .
Water for concreting was equal in quality to a good drinking water .Sea water may
be used but it has certain disadvantages such as delayed hardening and subsequent
efflorescence .If sea water is used in reinforced concrete it easily Leeds to corrosion of
he reinforcing steel .

5.5 Mixing of concrete

There are two types of mixing concrete.
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
For small quantities concrete is mixed by hand and large quantities are mixed by
machine. For work involving greater importance , the mix will have to be designed
generally , the coarse and fine aggregate are taken in the ratio of 2:1 for example 1:1
:3 , 1:2:4, 1:3:6 .The proportioning of the mix may be done by either volume or by
machine .

5.5.1 Hand mixing :In this method ,mixing is done manually on a leveled , cleaned and
non-absorbent platform .( When mixing concrete by hand , the mix would not be as
uniform as when mixed by machine ). Hence , it should be done only when small

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quantities of concrete is required . For easiness of mixing , it may be necessary to add a
little bit more water than that which has been recommended .The mixing is done which
is non-porous surface . If the surface is porous the water used for mixing would be
absorbed by the surface and therefore will not have the designed amount of water. This
method is resorted to when the quantity of cement needed for the work is small dry
state .
First cement and sand were mixed in dry state. Then measured quantity quantities
of aggregates were placed on the flat hard surface .Next , measure the cement , place on top
of the heap of aggregates and spread evenly with the mixing shovels , turning mixture
form side to side on the platform several times. When the heap shows an even color
throughout the mix is ready for the addition of water. Then water is added to a chosen
formed in the middle of the heap preferably in sprays from a garden watering can or a
hose pipe ,water added from buckets on to the heap tends to wash away the cement in
the mix before the mixer has time to mix the concrete. The mixture is further turned with
shovels until it reaches a plastic state without being too wet . A well mixed concrete
should be capable of standing in the heap . The concrete is now ready to be placed into
position.

5.5.2 Machine mixing :Normally concrete should be mixed in a mechanical mixer .Machine mixing is
faster than the hand mixing and save the materials and a better mixture is turned out
.The revolving drum type of machine is used for concrete mixing . The capacity of the
machine being chosen to meet the required quantity of concrete on the job and the speed
at which each batch can be laid .There is no advantage to be gained by mixing the
materials dry first so the required amount of water is first added into the drum .This
moistens the drum and removes any fresh mortar or concrete adhering to the sides . The
remaining materials are then measured into the drum in their correct proportions . In
mixing coarse aggregate should be take first , then sand and last cement .In the revolving
state ,When the three materials get thoroughly mixed , water should be added . Mixing
should be continued until there is a uniform distribution of the materials and the mass is
uniform in color and consistency . The fully loaded drum is allowed to mix for about two
minutes by which time the concrete is thoroughly mixed and ready to be laid in
position .The revolving drum can tilt the concrete directly on to a platform to one side of

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the machine from where it will be carted away in barrows or head-pans , or directly into
a waiting wheelbarrow or dumper .Check that the entire contents of the drum have been
discharged .At the end of the day's work , the mixer should be properly covered up after
it has been hosed out with water and dried concrete has been knocked form the sides
and wheels .

5.6. Ready mix concrete

Nowadays ready mixed concrete is one of the most commonly used artificial
stone in construction industry .Due to the rapid development of the building constructions ,
the construction world demands for ready mixed concrete if often competes with quality ,
price and convenience with concrete mixed on site . It frees the area form the congestion
caused by plant and material storage , and the batch can often delivered exactly where it
is needed avoiding double handling .Factory made concrete is mixed under special
supervision with only materials on standard quality in used .So that the results are
generally in satisfaction .The mix is less effected by whether conditions and supplies and
deliveries can be agonized as convenient .These ready mixed concrete is transported to the
site from batching plants in specially designed truck mixers and always admixtures are
used to increase the setting time.

5.6.1 Advantages: Usually of high quality due to well controlled batching in to correct proportions.
No space is required on site for a mixing plant and storage of materials.
Saves lot of time on site operation.
Labor force required is reduced.

5.6.2 Disadvantages: No ways of checking quantity of concrete coming in trucks other than measuring the
deposited area.
A continuous supply of truck mixers may restrict due to heavy traffic on roads.

The truck mixers are basically a mobile mixing, drum mounted on a lorry chassis. It
can be employed in one of three ways:

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1)

Loaded at the depot with dry batched materials plus the correct quantity of water, the

truck mixer is used to complete the mixing process at the depot before leaving for the site. During
transportation to the site the mix is kept agitated by the revolving drum, on arrival the contents are
remixed before being discharged.
2)

Fully or partially mixed concrete is loaded into the truck mixer at the depot. During

transportation to the site the drum revolving at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute agitates the mix. On
arrival the mix is finally mixed by increasing the drum's revolutions to between 10 and 15
revolutions per minute for a few minutes before being discharged.
3)

When the time taken to deliver the mix to the site may be unacceptable the mixing can

take place on site by loading the truck mixer at the depot with dry batched materials and adding the
water upon arrival on site before completing the mixing operation and subsequent discharge.

All forms of truck mixer carry a supply of water which is normally used to wash out
the drum after discharging the concrete and before returning to the depot.
When using ready mixed concrete the main requirement that should be considered .
Availability of space for parking the truck mixture to unloaded to concrete and the
pump car to pump the concrete to higher positions .
There must be a good water supply to clean the every truck mixture after
unloading the concrete contained .

A good communication system is required between the site staff and the contractor .
The distance between site and the batching plant to where the order for concrete is
given must be minimum.
Ready mixed concrete is not always cheaper than site mixed concrete .Delivery
time can be irregular and the continuity of operations is upset by unavoidable delays and
reject batches .For small
to

quantity requirements (such as 1m 3 or 2m3 ) it is not economical

get ready-mixed and for slow moving concreting . (Eg: columns concreting in higher

floors).

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It is not also much economical because the setting time of the concrete is
over . So the contractor has to bring it little by little which make much cost .

5.7. Transporting of concrete

The transporting

of concrete is an essential item in the process of concrete

construction and should give enough attention to the choice of the method or to its use on
site .If the equipment is used improperly or carelessly, the concrete quality will suffer and
so will sufficiency and productivity.
The method whereby the concrete is transported from the mixture to the point
of placing depend on the type of job being done , the nature of the site, the ground conditions,
the distance to be covered below or
above ground and the cost of labors at the time . On many jobs several
different methods or a combination of methods may be required, for example when concrete has to
be transported both horizontally and vertically. Transporting concrete must be quickly. Sometimes
we used large vehicle as truck mixers and pump car. By using these vehicle , we can reduced
transporting cost of the site .
Various methods are available for transporting concrete , ranging from wheel
barrows to pumps .The methods used for transporting the concrete in our site are as follows;

1. Wheel barrows
To transport concrete within the site, special wheelbarrows are used. It is
used for handing small quantities in concrete over short distance and is especially useful in
areas where inaccessible to other equipment. A wheel barrow can take a comfortable load
of about 0.03 m3 of concrete.

2. Dumper
It is also used for transport concrete in areas where mobile crane or truck mixers cant
carried , but dumper can take a capacity of 0.3m of concrete.

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3. Buckets
The use of buckets, in conjunction with mobile crane or tower crane is still the most
common method for handing and distributing concrete where has to be transported vertically as well
as horizontally.

4. Truck mixer
Ready mixed concrete is supplied to sites in specially designed truck mixers
which are basically a mobile mixing drum mounted on a lorry chassis .Truck mixer can be
employed in following way .Fully or partially mixed concrete is loaded in to the truck
mixer at the depot .During transporting to the site mix is agitated by the drum revolving at
1 to 2 revolutions per minute . On arrival the mix is finally mixed by increasing the drum
revolutions in between 10 to 15 revolution per minute,
For a few minutes before being discharged. All

forms of truck mixer carry a

supply of water which is normally used to washout the drum after discharging concrete and
before returning to the depot .
Truck mixers are heavy vehicles weighing up to 24 tones when fully loaded
with a turning circle .The site allowance time for the unloading is usually 30 minutes;
allowing for the discharge of a full load in 10 minutes leaving 20 minutes of free time to
permit for a reasonable degree of flexibility in planning and programming to both the
supplier and the user . Truck mixer capacities vary with the different models but 4,5,6 m 3
are common sizes consideration must be given by the contractor as to the best unloading
position .

5.8. Placing of concrete

Concrete should be placed in position as soon as possible after mixing before setting
action has commenced. Before placing concrete all
Formwork should be checked, cleaned and oiled. Placing & compaction should really
be considered together as one operation.

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When placing the concrete, following recommendations should be considered.

Concrete should place in uniform layers, avoiding large heaps or sloping layers because there
is always a danger of segregation.
If it is a column or wall concreting, pour height should not be exceeded 5 ft to avoid the
formation of air pockets and segregation of materials.
Each layers of concrete should fully compact, before placing the next one.
Concrete which dries out too quickly will not develop its full strength, there fore new
concrete should be protected from the drying winds and sun.
The workability of concrete varies according to type of concrete, location is being
used, type of compaction and type of pouring etc. more mobility and workability is required for
beams and columns it they are consist of reinforcement too closer to each other. Otherwise, it won't
be well bonded firmly. If vibrators are sued for compaction more workability is not necessary, but it
concrete pumps are used for, pouring mobility is needed in a large magnitude.

Fig.4.8.Placing of concrete

5.9. Compaction of concrete

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The purpose of compaction is to remove the entrapped air is related to the workability. It
is important to remove the entrapped air for the following reasons.

Voids reduce the strength of the concrete.

Voids increase the permeability, which in turn reduce the durability.

Voids reduce the contact between the concrete and the reinforcement and other embedded
metals, the required bond will them not be achiever and the reinforced member will not be as
strong as it should be.

Voids produce visual blemishes such as blow holes and honey combing on a struck surfaces.

There are two types in compaction,

1) Hand compaction.
2) Mechanical compaction.

5.9.1 Hand compaction:Hand compaction is done by rotting, tamping, hammering or ramming on the out
side of the formwork. Rotting consists of inserting a bar (may be a piece of reinforcing rod)
vertically in to the concrete and moving it up and down until the concrete is thoroughly
worked in to place. Rotting is used only for thin vertical sections for awkward corners, or to
work the material around reinforcement. Special care should be taken to see that concrete is
worked well in to all corners, cavities and around reinforcing bar to prevent their distortion.

5.9.2 Machine Compaction:This process of compaction consists essentially of the elimination of entrapped
air . The modern method is vibration. Main types of vibrators are
Internal immersion or porker vibrators - very common
External vibrators -

clamped on to the form work (Eg. Shutter vibrator)

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Vibrating tables -

labs, pre-casting yards.

Surface vibrators -

like road rollers.

When using the poker vibrators following points should be considered.

1)

Care must be taken to ensure that concrete is well compacted against forms and corners
and junctions.

2)

Poker should be inserting quickly and left it in the concrete for about 10 seconds.

3)

Poker must withdraw more slowly and wiggle it about to ensure that the hole which made
by the poker, closes up properly.

4)

Should be avoided the touching the from face and the reinforcement with the poker.

5)

Avoid using the poker to make the concrete flow.

6)

Porker must be put in vertically to the concrete layer

7)

Avoid leaving the porker running when it is not in the concrete.

8)

Avoid over compaction, as this will bring the grout to the surface, which effects the
compaction.

5.10. Curing of concrete

Curing is very important thing which maintains moist conditions on finished concrete
surface for promoting hydration of cement and consist of control of temperature and of
moisture movement and into the concrete .
Curing period depends on;

Type of cement

Mix proportions

Required strength

Size and shape of mass concrete

Weather of future exposure conditions (Humidity , Temperature)

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Curing is essential for the strength of the concrete & it is depending on it .In this
case we have to dewater the dry working chamber until the concrete come to its required
average compressive strength .In the mean time concrete was cured by using pure water
.Because the grout should be protected from drying out and against the harmful affect of the
weather .
Another reason for curing is to prevent that increasing of the internal temperature of
concrete when the concrete getting hardened. Concrete should cured for a period of 7 days or 14 days
after the concrete has began to harden or after 12 hours at casting . Properly cured concrete
ensures the following benefits to the concrete.
The setting and hardening of cement depend on the presence of water. Drying out
if allowed to take place too soon results are low strength and porous concrete, which can
lead to the corrosion of reinforcement.

Curing means keeping the concrete sufficiently damp and prevent of evaporation by
wind, sunny etc. Curing method depend on nature of the work and climatic condition. In our site
there were two methods of curing.

5.10.1. Curing by water slabs, columns:

Shading of concrete.

Damping by covering the surface with wet gunny bags .

Sprinkling water.

Pounding.

Flooding.

Curing by water:1. Shading

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This method has limited applications, the object or shading the concrete is to prevent
evaporation of the water from the surface. It also helps to protect concrete, surfaces from heat
direct.
2. Covering the surface with Gunny Bags
In this case surface to be cured is covered with wet gunny bags which are wetted
periodically. This is the only satisfactory method or curing vertical and inclined surfaces.
3. Sprinkling water
This method requires fair amount of water. Water is sprinkled on the construction surface
at suitable intervals.
4. Pounding method
It is the best method of curing the horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof slabs concrete
road etc. The concrete area is divided in to small portions with the using sand or clay. Then water is
filled into these portions for the period of curing. Though this method is very good the cleaning at
the concrete surface is fairly difficult.

5.10.2 Chemical curing walls:Only the concrete walls were cured by this method. An Acrylic based concrete curing
compound was applied evenly on the wall.

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