I N T R O D U CT I O N

n January 1996, a group of Vermont farmers,

chefs, food producers, and distributors found
itself at a crossroads. Since the late 1980s, we
had met somewhat annually in forums organized
at the New England Culinary Institute to discuss
the joys and challenges of the food scene in Vermont and ways to improve the connection between
chefs and farmers. We were proud of the quality
and variety of food that Vermont producers were
able to provide over the course of an all too short
growing season. At the same time, we were frustrated by the many challenges that prevented those
products from reaching their full potential market.
After years of discussing problems of distribution,
matching supply with demand, fair pricing strategies, and how to market Vermont products to the
public, we were tired of talking and ready to take
action. This particular forum featuring Chef Larry
Forgione, co-chair of Chefs Collaborative and a
longtime proponent of regional American cuisine,
was designed to move us in that direction.
Panelists were charged with identifying three
to five controllable factors that impede the successful interaction between the different links in
Vermonts fresh food chain and to discuss ways to
improve that interaction.1 The discussion focused
on finding solutions for improving the Vermont
food system, and from that the Vermont Fresh Network was officially launched in July 1996 with the
support of the Vermont Agency of Agriculture. We
announced the launch with a celebratory luncheon
in the field next to the New England Culinary

Institutes vegetable garden near our original

administration building in Montpelier. More than
twenty years later, the Vermont Fresh Network has
emerged as one of a core group of organizations
that has helped put Vermont on the map as a leader
in sustainability and the promotion of local foods.
Today, however, what has been called the
Farm-to-Table movement is at a crossroads similar to what we faced in 1996. There are many
accomplishments to celebrate, but also many
challenges to overcome. The term Farm-to-
Table has become increasingly popular in the last
two decades in the United States and appears in a
variety of contexts: on restaurant menus, in media
coverage of food issues, and as a way of describing
an individual chef s approach to food. With such
saturation, Farm-to-Table could be at risk for
becoming a passing phase in the same way that
Continental Cuisine and Nouvelle Cuisine became
in the 1980s, or it could be relegated to a subset of
the food scene: interesting for a certain elite population, but irrelevant to most. Yet as the movement
has matured, it has evolved from a focus mostly
on fine dining restaurants into all segments of
the food industry: moderately priced restaurants,
schools, institutions, and retail stores and markets.
A number of additional terms have appeared that
encompass the concept and reflect its widespread
appeal: Farm-to-Plate, Farm-to-Fork, Farmto-School, and Farm-to-Institution.
At the same time, Farm-to-Table producers
fight for market share with an industrial farming
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For this movement to survive and grow, we need

to understand how and why it evolved and how it
can be nurtured to reach its full potential. That is
the purpose of this book. Farm to Table is written
for those wishing to understand the Farm-to-Table
movement and those working to promote its
growth. This group includes students in culinary
arts, baking, and management programs, as well
as those studying sustainable food systems. It also
includes chefs and restaurateurs, farmers and
food producers, foodservice managers, purchasing
agents, and the general consumer.

Organization

industry that is global in scope, dominated by a

handful of companies, and, in the United States,
heavily subsidized by the federal government. This
industry provides an apparent abundance of cheap
food, but as we will see, this abundance comes with
a number of hidden costs impacting the environment, local economies, public health, and farm
and food industry workers safety and security. We
will also see that the industrial food systems focus
on standardization and specialization has limited
the variety of crops and animals produced, impacting biological diversity; cultural heritage; and food
quality, flavor, and nutrition.

Farm to Table

What Does
Farm-to-Table Mean?

This book is divided into two sections; part 1,

Farm, is devoted to food and agriculture issues,
while part 2, Table, is devoted to food service and
the execution of Farm-to-Table food in a variety of
settings.
In part 1, we will explore the development of
industrial agriculture and its environmental and
human costs worldwide. We will examine the unintended consequences of the Green Revolution and
the widespread use of genetically modified crops.
We will review the efficiency of the industrial
model when true costs are taken into account. At
the same time, we will address the complex issue
of food miles versus methods of food production
in the generation of greenhouse gases. We will discuss how food policy in the United States has been
shaped by the Farm Bill and how changing priorities in that legislation could create positive change
in local as well as global food systems. We will also
review the emergence of new (and the rediscovery
of old) farming and distribution models that offer
viable alternatives to the industrial system. These
include small-scale and regional agriculture, urban
farming, multipurpose farms, and the expanding

While we will be defining the term in more detail

throughout the book, in our view, Farm-to-Table
encompasses a few core concepts. These include a
focus on fresh, wholesome, flavorful food; a commitment to supporting local farmers and producers
and the rights of farm and food industry workers;
a commitment to sustainable farming and fishing
practices and humane animal husbandry; and a
commitment to supporting the local economy.
Our strong belief is that Farm-to-Table is here to
stay because it responds to a very real need on the
part of consumers to have a closer connection to
their food. We want to know where our food was
produced, how it was produced, and by whom. The
Farm-to-Table movement can also play an important role in addressing many of the critical issues
of the twenty-first century, including: climate
change, hunger and obesity, our shrinking supply
of arable land and potable water, the disappearing
family farm, exploitation of farm and food production workers, and food safety and security.
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Introduction

demographics of new farmers. These alternative

models bring with them their own sets of priorities
and ideals, including food justice, food sovereignty,
and farm and food workers rights.
Also in part 1, we will review farming methods
and systems that take advantage of new and old
technologies for efficient farm production with
minimal environmental impact. A few of these
include organic farming, permaculture, biodynamic
farming, no-till farming, and rotational grazing.
In part 2, we will examine how Farm-to-Table
can impact food service in a variety of settings:
restaurants, schools, hospitals, colleges and universities, and business and industry food service. Well
also see that while Farm-to-Table has its roots in
fine dining restaurants, its appeal is universal across
all types of foodservice settings. Farm-to-School
is particularly promising because food education
programs offer the promise of getting the next
generation excited about fresh, local food, developing healthy eating habits, and fighting obesity.
Farm-to-Institution is an important sector because
the size of institutions increases their impact
on both the local farm economy and the eating
habits of the large number of people served. In
addition, because many institutions are mission
driven, Farm-to-Institution can help further the
institutions goals: Health Care Without Harm
for hospitals, and social justice issues for mission-
driven colleges and universities, for example.
In many ways, part 2 provides a how-to manual
for Farm-to-Table. In each chapter, we review
the challenges that each sector of the industry
faces and what resources are available to overcome those challenges. Throughout the book,
we highlight both individuals and organizations
operating within the Farm-to-Table system and
examine their successes (and occasionally their
failures) in incorporating sustainable practices
within their operations.

Chapter Summaries
Chapter One: The Environmental
Costs of Industrial Agriculture
In the last century, we have moved from a system
of mostly self-sufficient diversified family farms
to an industrial model of highly specialized megafarms driven by specialization, standardization,
and economies of scale. In this chapter, well
examine how and why that transition took place
and its impact on local economies and regional
infrastructure. While the industrial food system
appears to produce food cheaply and efficiently,
it contains a number of hidden and not-so-hidden
costs. Industrial farming practices such as intensive
monoculture and the use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and herbicides degrade soils, increase
erosion, and pollute water supplies. In an era of
increasing droughts worldwide, industrial farms
intensive water use is also putting a strain on
shrinking supplies of potable water. We will also
review the negative impacts of concentrated animal
feeding operations (CAFOs). These industrial-sized
operations designed to raise meat, poultry, and
dairy animals are not healthy for the environment,
for the animals themselves, or for the workers who
tend them or process them.
Because the Farm Bill, reviewed and renewed
every five years, drives most agriculture policy in
the United States, we will review its history, and how
it influences what is grown and what we eat. We will
discuss how special-interest lobbying on the Farm
Bill often results in food system priorities that are
neither nutritionally nor ecologically sustainable.
In this era of climate change, an ongoing
discussion revolves around the concept of carbon
footprint. How do human activities impact climate change? Much of the early discussion on the
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Farm to Table

impact of industrial agriculture on climate change

focused on food miles, that is, how far food travels
to reach our plate. As we will see, the distance our
food travels it not as important as the type of food
and how it was produced. We will review how
industrial farming methods not only contribute to
carbon dioxide emissions, but also produce nitrous
oxide and methane, two even more powerful
greenhouse gases.

addition, the overuse of antibiotics in CAFOs contributes to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant

bacteria, causing a severe risk to human health.
As the glut of industrial corn and soy is converted
into cheap processed foods and animal feed, consumers are paying a price in diet-related illnesses
including diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. As
food production has moved from smaller local
and regional processing plants to huge high-speed
production facilities, food-borne illnesses have
grown exponentially, with bacteria such as E. coli
contaminating millions of pounds of ground beef,
and salmonella infecting millions of eggs across
multiple states. We will also see how our centralized
food distribution system underserves inner-city
communities and many rural communities as well,
resulting in food deserts where residents have
limited access to fresh, healthy food.
An additional result of the practice of monoculture is the loss of diversity in the food supply. In
the interest of efficiency, the industrial food system
selects foods based on ease of mass production
and ability to be shipped long distances instead
of based on nutrition, flavor, local traditions, or
impact on the planet. We will review how this
lack of biodiversity impacts the resiliency of the
food system, leaving it more vulnerable to pests,
disease, and climate change. Well also review the
negative impact of the use of genetically modified
organisms and the pesticides and herbicides used
in combination with them.

Chapter Two: The Human Costs

of Industrial Agriculture
In chapter 2, we review the human costs of industrial agriculture, practices that put at risk many of
the basic needs of humanity: fresh air, clean water,
and food security. As the world has moved from
local subsistence farming to global commodity
food production, small shareholders have lost jobs,
land, and independence. In the interest of cheap
food, farming and food production have become
more mechanized, reducing the number of jobs
and the compensation for those jobs. Workers
throughout the industrial food system are at risk
for exploitation in terms of wages, housing, safe
working conditions, and available healthcare.
Independent farmers producing poultry and
hogs under contract to large vertically integrated
meat companies are squeezed by input costs controlled by the company. Farming communities
have declined in population. In addition, they have
lost local businesses and schools while gaining air
and water pollution and low paying, often dangerous jobs in CAFOs and meat processing facilities.
Chapter 2 also explores the health impacts of
the products of the industrial food system. We
will explore the impact that the use of pesticides
and herbicides has on the farm workers and food
processors who deal with them (either in the
field or fresh from the field), and on consumers,
particularly children who ingest their residue. In

Chapter Three:
Beyond Monoculture: Crops
After exploring the problems of the industrial
food system in the first two chapters, chapter 3 is
the first of three chapters that offer solutions and
alternative approaches to the industrial model.
Two common themes throughout the book are
following the rhythms of nature and taking
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Introduction

advantage of new and old technologies to increase

efficiency in ways that are sustainable for the environment and the local community. In contrast to
industrial agricultures emphasis on conformity
and standardization, these alternative approaches
value culture, heritage, and diversity. In chapter
3, we profile the Batad rice terraces in the Philippines as an example of how to combine cultural
knowledge and traditional farming methods with
the realities of a global economy. We explore the
importance of seed saving to preserve biodiversity,
even as the industrial system seeks to suppress the
practice through seed patents and lawsuits. This
biodiversity is important not just for the security
and resilience of the food system but also to preserve flavor and nutrition.
Chapter 3 also highlights the role chefs and consumers can play in popularizing heirloom fruits
and vegetables to keep them in the food culture.
Finally, we end the chapter with a review of a number of alternatives to monoculture and industrial
farming, including organic agriculture, biointensive
farming, permaculture, and aquaponics.

In chapter 4, we also review alternatives to

CAFOs (concentrated animal feeding operations) and highlight their different approaches
to feed sources, manure management, animal
welfare, and worker safety. We share research
that reveals the increased profitability and efficiency of smart pasture operations over CAFOs
without the environmental damage and animal
welfare issues caused by industrial production.
We also review some of the smart technology
that contributes to that efficiency while improving quality of life for farmers.
As we look for alternatives to the industrial food
system, we need to develop the infrastructure to
support those alternative food systems. We review
the role that right-sized slaughterhouses and food
production facilities, producer cooperatives, food
hubs, and food venture centers can play in supporting a local and regional food system.

Chapter Five: The Future of Farming

Chapter 5 highlights new and rediscovered
farming models that offer hope for a revitalized,
sustainable local and regional food system. As an
aging, largely white farmer population retires, it
is being replaced by a new generation of farmers
coming from diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds
drawn to the farming lifestyle and embracing the
values of an alternative agricultural system. Many
are motivated by ideals of the ecology movement
and campaigns for food justice, food sovereignty,
and racial justice. At the same time, these new
farmers face a number of challenges: finding
affordable farmland; developing both the farming
and business skills needed to be successful, adapting to climate change and severe weather events,
and maintaining work-life balance. Well review
a number of models that have the potential to
address those issues, including the role agritourism
can play in supporting small farms.

Chapter Four: Beyond CAFOs:

Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Production
In chapter 4, we continue our discussion of alternatives to the industrial system as it applies to
livestock. We review the importance of biodiversity in livestock to ensure food system resilience,
food flavor, nutritional value, and cultural traditions. We examine some methods for preserving
heritage breeds, ranging from the use of high-tech
cryogenics to the advocacy of heritage breeders
associations. In contrast to the specialization of
industrial livestock operations, where animals
are bred purely for meat or dairy production, we
discuss the value of multipurpose animals for small
farmers who may use them for meat or dairy, or as
draft animals.
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Farm to Table
Chapter Six: Farm-to-Restaurant

from the exchange. It is therefore very important

that each operation establish its own sustainable
purchasing policy to guide its choices and fit the
reality of its business.
Chapter 7 also reviews the barriers to sustainable
purchasing, as well as some resources and strategies for overcoming them. Chefs or purchasers in
a Farm-to-Table business need to have the training
and experience to source ingredients of appropriate quality and to maintain that quality until
sold. They need to be creative in solving logistical
problems such as meeting volume demands when
buying from many small producers, planning for
the use of seasonal ingredients, and maximizing
profit by total utilization of ingredients. A big
challenge is matching the local and regional producers to the businesses wishing to buy from them.
We share a number of resources for making this
connection and for maintaining mutually beneficial relationships. This chapter also reviews the
many options for Farm-to-Table purchases, from
direct sales from the farmer to food hubs, to virtual
farmers markets. When direct sales are not possible, we review options for third-party verification
of food safety, animal husbandry standards, and
sustainability standards. In addition, we review the
standards for fair trade as an option when purchasing imported foods.
Also included in this chapter is a buying guide
for each category of product that highlights
sustainability issues for items from fruits and vegetables to meats and seafood. We share information
on the Dirty Dozen and Clean Fifteen
rankings of pesticide residue in various fruits and
vegetables so purchasers can focus on organic
purchases where it matters most. We finish the
chapter by introducing the concept of transitioning to Farm-to-Table purchasing. Some further
strategies are included in the Farm-to-School and
Farm-to-Institution chapters.

In chapter 6, we discuss how Farm-to-Table restaurants differ from other restaurants, the history
behind the current Farm-to-Table movement, and
the benefits and challenges of operating within the
Farm-to-Table concept. Well explore the importance of providing value, maintaining seasonality,
and developing relationships.
We also profile some highly successful Farmto-Table restaurants and some that were perhaps
ahead of their time. In this and the following chapters, we discuss the importance of defining local
both for the foodservice operation and the guest.
Well review a number of organizations that help
support the farmer-chef connection and the kinds
of resources that have emerged to help support
the Farm-to-Table system. Further, well examine
seasonality and the use of food preservation to
extend the harvest of the season. In this chapter, we
also review a number of strategies that successful
Farm-to-Table restaurants employ to control costs,
maintain supply, increase profitability, and educate
the consumer on the value of Farm-to-Table.

Chapter Seven: Purchasing within

a Farm-to-Table System
A foodservice operations purchases provide
concrete proof of its commitment to the values of
Farm-to-Table. We start this chapter by reviewing the potential advantages of sustainable
and local purchasing and by noting that each
operations priorities will shape its choices.
Some of the many elements to consider include:
food quality, business location, customer base,
the operations focus on the environment, the
importance of workers rights, the humane treatment of animals, and the commitment to and
definition of local. Also, imbedded in the notion
of sustainability is the concept of economic viability. Both the buyer and seller need to profit
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Introduction
Chapter Eight:
Green Restaurant Practices

challenges but also has the potential for the greatest

rewards. In this chapter, we note that in addition
to the health and nutrition crisis facing the United
States and much of the Western world, we face a
food literacy crisis. If students are so far removed
from the source of their food that they cant recognize vegetables, how are we going to get them
to eat them? School foodservice programs, which
have the potential to solve these problems, face a
number of challenges themselves including lack
of funding, poorly trained staff, aging equipment,
and a complex series of federal regulations and
required paperwork. In addition, like the Farm
Bill, the Child Nutrition Reauthorization (CNR)
bills face intense lobbying by special interests and
criticism by a vocal minority in Congress that seeks
to limit the power of the federal government and
its programs and sees antihunger programs as inefficient and a drain on the economy.
Despite these challenges, a number of Farm-toSchool programs have emerged in the last twenty
years both in the United States and in other Western countries. The most successful of these combine
food education, school gardens or farm visits, and
local food. A key concept is the integration of the
Three Cs: Cafeteria, Classroom, and Community.
When these three sectors work together, Farm-toSchool programs are usually successful. We profile
a Native American school whose success shows
how Farm-to-School can revitalize a community.
In chapter 9, we also document the resources
that have emerged to support Farm-to-School and
offer some strategies for overcoming challenges
facing these programs, including steps to help fund
successful Farm-to-School programs and tips for
marketing Farm-to-School. Were pleased to note
that a number of professional chefs have provided
support for Farm-to-School, both at the national and
local level. Many chefs are transitioning to careers in
school food service, not just for the family friendly

One of the reasons that green restaurant practices

have received so much attention in recent years is
that in addition to helping to save the environment,
these practices save money. This makes it easy for
many different types of operations to support green
practices. For a Farm-to-Table operation, which
may have some higher product costs, such savings
can help offset those costs. In this chapter, we
review some additional reasons why it makes sense
to employ green practices and the value of green
restaurant certification. We discuss the standards of
a number of green restaurant certification agencies
at home and abroad and how to incorporate them
into foodservice operations. Common to all of these
programs are efforts to conserve water and energy,
reduce waste and pollution and increase recycling.
Sustainable food sourcing also plays a key role, and
restaurant menus are rated on the environmental
impact of the foods produced. As a result, vegetarian
and vegan menu items are rated higher than foods
with a bigger carbon footprint such as beef and pork.
One of our favorite resources in chapter 8 is the
Food Service Technology Center website, which
offers interactive tools for researching energy efficient foodservice equipment, based on its extensive
testing of all major equipment brands. The site also
offers a number of tips for improving equipment
efficiency and energy and water conservation.
The chapter also highlights the practices of
a university foodservice operation that has won
national awards for sustainability and is a leader in
Farm-to-Institution dining.

Chapter Nine: Farm-to-School:

Primary and Secondary School
Foodservice Programs
Of all the segments of the Farm-to-Table movement, Farm-to-School faces some of the greatest
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Farm to Table

hours and benefits, but also because with great local

ingredients, school food is fun to cook again.

Chapter Ten: Farm-to-Institution:

Business and Industry, College,
and Healthcare Food Service
According to the USDA, Nationwide, tens of
millions of people each day eat their meals outside
of home at schools, colleges, hospitals, corporate
cafeterias and government agencies. Each one
of these institutions represents an opportunity
for U.S. farmers, ranchers and food businesses.2
While large institutions are often slow to change,
once committed, their potential impact is huge.
This is especially true in the area of Farm-to-
Institution. In this chapter, well explore barriers
and opportunities to facilitate and scale up the
production and distribution of local and regional
foods; the ins and outs of developing partnerships
between institutions and local farms; and issues
for farmers to consider if they are interested in
selling products to area institutions. We also offer
strategies for implementing institutional change
to promote sustainable and local purchasing.
While producers of all sizes can participate in
this sector, it is particularly suited for mid-sized
farms and producers who are too large to engage
in direct sales settings such as farmers markets, but
too small to compete with large farm corporations
in the commodity market. By keeping mid-sized
farms engaged in sustainable farming practices,
Farm-to-Institution can have a beneficial impact
on the environment, local and regional economies,
and the health of institutional customers.

Chapter 10 reviews the challenges and resources

available to promote Farm-to-Institution in each
of the major sectors of this market: college and
university food service, business and industry
onsite restaurants, and hospital food service. Each
sector has its own identity and mission, and each
has powerful resources to draw from. We offer a
number of strategies for each sector and highlight
institutions in each one who operate successful
Farm-to-Institution programs.

Chapter Eleven:
Marketing Farm-to-Table to the
Public and to Your Staff
All Farm-to-Table operations from farms to
restaurants to institutions have a unique story
to tell; a key part of their success is the ability to
convey that story to the consumer. In chapter 11,
we share marketing concepts that can be applied to
all businesses supporting Farm-to-Table, as well as
strategies and resources geared toward individual
sectors of the market. We start by reviewing how
the concept of niche marketingtargeting products to small, unique groups of customersoffers
tremendous potential for those interested in promoting Farm-to-Table and sustainable agriculture.
While sustainably raised products sold at the farm
stand or in a restaurant cant always compete with
industrial farm products on price, they often can
in terms of flavor, freshness, and the sustainable
methods used to produce them.
Chapter 11 also applies the Seven Ps of Marketing to Farm-to-Table: Product, Price, Place,
Promotion, People, Process, and Physical Evidence.

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