How to prevent falls among older

adults in outpatient settings

April 2012 Vol. 7 No. 4
Author: Marilyn Ponce, MSN, RN, CS, CPHQ

Unintentional injuries caused by falls are a serious health problem for adults ages 65
and older. Each year approximately one-third of community-dwelling older adults (those
ages 65 and older) fall; roughly 10% of falls lead to nonfatal but serious injuries. Whats
more, many older adults experience multiple falls. In the United States, fall-related
healthcare expenses are estimated at $27.3 billion. This article addresses falls among
older adults living in the community or long-term care facilities.

Why falls occur

Falls result from a complex combination of medical and lifestyle factors, alone or in
conjunction with environmental factors. Among older adults in residential-care facilities,
acute diseases and drug side effects are important precipitating factors. In these
settings, falls should be viewed as a symptom of a disease or a drug side effect unless
proven otherwise.

The following aging-related physiologic factors increase the fall risk:

alterations in mobility, gait, balance, and sensory perceptions

decreased reflex responses

cardiovascular and neurologic changes

changes in drug processing leading to side effects

acute illnesses

language and communication disorders.

Multiple diagnoses complicate the clinical picture, potentially causing difficulty in

determining the underlying cause of the fall. Heres a closer look at risk factors and how
to manage them.

Medication side effects

Progressive loss of organ-system functional reserve, changes in liver and kidney
function, and altered composition of body fat, water, and muscle predispose older adults
to adverse drug events. More than 90% of elderly patients in emergency departments
already are taking one or more medications; most take an average of four to eight.
(See Medications that increase the fall risk.)

Medications that increase the fall risk

Drugs that increase the risk of falls, especially in older adults, include nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), benzodiazepines, anticholinergics, and opioids. Antidepressants
and neuroleptics also are linked to falls.

Because these drugs cant always be avoided, here are suggestions for reducing the risk.

For older adults who need NSAIDs, some experts recommend low-dose ibuprofen.
Older adults receiving benzodiazepines must take particular care during the first 2 weeks
of drug therapy, when the risk of falls and hip fracture is higher.

For those who need anticholinergics, prochlorperazine is preferred to promethazine. If an

antihistamine is needed, a second-generation histamine1 antagonist (such as cetirizine or

loratadine) is preferred.

Opioids can have mixed results in older adults and are associated with fractures. When
possible, avoid administering meperidine, propoxyphene, and codeine because these
drugs may significantly increase the fall risk. Start with low dosages and titrate upward
slowly as needed. Know that tolerance to side effects usually develops within a few days;
after that, patients typically return to a fully alert status and baseline cognitive function.

Gait and balance disorders

Primary causes of marked gait or balance disorders include muscle weakness,
reductions in sensory input, spasticity or rigidity, joint contracture, and central
processing dysfunctions. Specific deviations may be compensatory or may relate
directly to one or more of these primary causes.
While normal aging can cause gradual and characteristic gait changes, significant
problems typically result from specific pathologic processes. To guide treatment
selection, clinicians must identify the most probable cause of a gait or balance
disturbance. (See Assessing your patients functional status.)

Assessing your patients functional status

You can use the tools described below to assess an older adults functional status.

Tinetti Gait and Balance Assessment tool

This test, which enables clinicians to follow the patients progress over time, can be done quickly
either alone or combined with observational gait analysis. The balance portion of the tool
evaluates the patients balance while sitting, standing, and turning in various circumstances. The
gait portion assesses gait initiation, stepping, trunk sway, stance, and other factors. (You can
access the tool at < a href=http://geriatrics.uthscsa.edu/tools/TINETTI.pdf
target=_blank>http://geriatrics.uthscsa.edu/tools/TINETTI.pdf and other websites.)

Timed up and go (TUG) test

To perform this screening test for balance problems, time the patient as he or she rises from a
chair, walks 3 meters around a cone, returns, and sits down. (Keep an assistive device within
reach.) Have the patient repeat this action as you keep time. Then average the times from the two
attempts. Score the test based on the average time, as shown below:

freely mobile: less than 10 seconds

mostly independent: 10 to 19 seconds

variable mobility: 20 to 29 seconds

impaired mobility: more than 29 seconds.

Functional reach test

For the functional reach test, have the patient sit with feet a comfortable distance apart, behind a
line perpendicular to and adjacent to the wall. Instruct the patient to raise the arm closest to the
wall to shoulder height; then measure the position of the middle fingers knuckle.
Next, ask the patient (with feet flat on the floor) to lean forward as far as possible without losing
balance, falling forward, or taking a step. Record the middle fingers knuckle position at the point
of furthest reach; then determine the difference between the measurements. Have the patient
perform the test three times, and determine the average. The result indicates your patients fallrisk category:

very high risk: unable to reach

high risk: reach of less than 6 (15.2 cm)

moderate risk: reach of 6 to 10 (15.2 to 25.4 cm)

low risk: reach greater than 10 in (25.4 cm).

Cognitive impairment
Patients with cognitive impairment and dementia have a poorer post-fall prognosis than
cognitively intact patients. Also, they are at greater risk for sustaining a serious injury,
less likely to make a good functional recovery, and five times more likely to be
institutionalized than patients with dementia who dont fall.
If your patient has dementia, assess for cognitive or perceptual limitations so you can
plan and implement a rehabilitation program that promotes functional safety and helps
the patient to continue or resume activities of daily living (ADLs).

Poor nutrition and limited activity

Vitamin D plays a central role in calcium and phosphorus hemostasis and skeletal
health; its inadequacy is a largely unrecognized epidemic in many populations
worldwide. Research shows vitamin D and calcium supplementation significantly reduce
older adults fall risk.
Counsel postmenopausal women on the benefits of regular exercise to help maintain
muscle and bone strength throughout adulthood, reduce the risk of fragility, promote
overall fitness, and improve quality of life. Regular weight-bearing exercise can preserve

bone mass and conserve or improve bone mineral density; it also might reduce hipfracture risk by decreasing the risk of falls.
Epidemiologic evidence suggests that being physically active can nearly halve the
incidence of hip fracture in older adultsan effect probably mediated through the
positive effects of exercise on bone, muscle strength, balance, and joint flexibility.
Studies have found that women who engaged in a walking program and other leisuretime activities were 55% less likely than sedentary women to suffer a hip fracture. Also,
aerobic, weight-bearing, strength-training, and stretching exercises increased lumbarspine bone mineral density in women receiving calcium and vitamin D supplements.
Although the average older woman isnt likely to exercise to the level needed to build
bone, exercise is crucial to strengthening muscles, improving balance, and preventing
falls. Ideally, a weekly exercise program should incorporate at least three sessions
lasting 30 to 60 minutes each.
Research shows exercise and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) have independent
benefits in early postmenopausal women with adequate calcium intake. In a 12-month
study, 320 women (average age, 56) who were 3 to 11 years postmenopausal were
prospectively randomized into two groupsthose receiving HRT and those not
receiving it. Both groups either participated in a supervised weight-bearing and weightlifting program or continued their current physical activity level. All the women received
calcium citrate 800 mg/day. After 12 months, those whod exercised experienced
significant mean increases in trochanter bone mineral density. Those whod received
HRT showed significantly increased bone marrow density in the total body and at the
lumbar spine, regardless of exercise status. Women whod neither exercised nor
received HRT generally lost bone mineral density at all sites.
When encouraging older adults to increase their activity level, consider their possible
need for pain management. Older adults frequently complain of joint pain. If
acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs fail to bring relief or if a patient
has more than mild or moderate pain, consider opioids. Keep in mind that older adults
generally achieve pain relief from smaller opioid dosages than younger people.

Environmental risk factors

Poor vision, improper or ill-fitting shoes, and an unsafe home can increase the risk of
falls. Assess the older adults vision and as needed, take steps to improve it.
Proper shoes are a must. Sole material and tread design can influence the risk of
slipping. Improper heel height and width may cause the shoe to tip sideways on an
uneven surface and may affect gait and posture. Sole thickness and shoe collar height
may affect proprioception (orientation). Good foot care and use of ambulation aids (if
needed) are important, too.

Relatively inexpensive home modifications can reduce the risk of falls. Studies show
home modifications improve overall functional ability and help patients retain better
function in independent ADLs. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs offers grants for
home modifications, mobility aids, and prosthetics to eligible veterans under certain
conditions.
If the patient and family seem overwhelmed by the need to modify the home, help them
identify available resources or find skilled contractors, or suggest they contact the local
affiliate of the National Association of Home Builders (www.nahb.org).

Collaborate with at-risk patients

Older adults may be hesitant to take fall-prevention measures, especially if these
threaten their autonomy and identity. Some may not believe theyre at risk; others may
be unrealistic about their capabilities and think their disability is only temporary. Still
others may believe theyre at risk for falls but dont think anything can be done about it.
Also, elderly people may fear others disapproval; they may assume that if they admit
theyre at risk for falling, others will no longer view them as competent, independent
adults.
Also, the psychological effects of a fallor just the prospect of fallingcan be as
disabling as the fall itself. Older adults who express a fear of falling may be less
confident about their ability to perform activities without falling. As a result, they may
habitually restrict the amount or types of physical activity they undertake, and this can
lead to a fall.
No one can avoid growing older. A healthy lifestyle and environment, accurate
assessment, early diagnosis, and prompt treatment help older adults maintain maximal
functional ability while reducing the risk of a fall.
Marilyn Ponce is a utilization management clinician at the South Texas Veterans
Health Care System in San Antonio.
Selected references
Billek-Sawhney B, Gay J, Wells CL, et al. Reliability of the adapted reach test and its
comparability to the functional reach test in community-dwelling older adults. Top
Geriatr Rehabil. 2006; 22(1):78-85.
Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Orav EJ, Dawson-Hughes B. Effect of cholecalciferol plus calcium
on falling in ambulating men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(4):424-430.
Delaney MF. Strategies for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis during early
menopause.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194(suppl 2):S12-23.
Duncan PW, Studenski S, Chandler J, Prescott B. Functional reach: predictive validity in
a sample of elderly male veterans. J Gerontol. 1992;47(3):M93-98.

Rosenthal TC, Williams ME, Naughton BJ, eds. Office Care Geriatrics. Philadelphia, PA:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.
Terrell KM, Heard K, Miller DK. Prescribing to older ED patients. Am J Emerg Med.
2006;24(4):468-478.