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FirstMonday,Volume21,Number66June2016

BloggingisoftenseenasaprotoWeb2.0technologyandinmanywayssetthestageforthekindsof
applicationsthatfollowed.Buttheblogospherealsorepresentedaconversationalmediumthatallowed
forcivicdiscourserarelyencounteredinthefragmentedWeb2.0thatfollowed.Blogosphereswereopen,
distributed,andrelativelynoncommercial,particularlyintheirearliestform,andprovidedcivic
Webspacesinwhichpeoplecouldgather,discuss,andchangetheirsocialorganization.TodaysWeb2.0,
whileretainingsomeoftheformalelementsofblogospheresismorecentralized,monopolistic,and
commodified.Web2.0lostthecivicnatureofblogospheres,whileretainingtheformalsocialand
technologicalstructuresandrecoveringthosecivicWebspacesshouldremainatthecenterofcritiqueof
Web2.0.
Contents
Introduction
Bloggingandblogospheres
Whatablogospheresgoodfor
Smallpieces,tightlybound
Conclusion:Openspacegardening

Introduction
BloggingisbarelypresentinTimOReillys2005descriptionofWeb2.0.Ratherthannotingtheimportant
waysinwhichbloggersfomentedthechangesthatOReillydescribesadoptingandadapting
syndication(RSS),imagehosting(Flickr),andfolksonomies(Delicious),amongothersblogsarelisted
asmerelytheWeb2.0versionofpersonalhomepages.Infact,thecultureandpracticesthatmadeup
blogospheresrepresentnotonlythevalue(interactive,participatory,modular)thatwasinitiallyseenas
representingWeb2.0butapromiseforacivicWebthatmayyetberecovered.Althoughblogospheres
havefadedfromtheirhyperbolicpeak,theystillrepresentsamodelofthesocialWebworthappraising
andreviving,andonethatpresentsanalternativetothecommercialized,centralizedvisionofWeb2.0.
BlogospheresmarkedtheemergenceofasetofprototypicalcivicWebspaces,spacesthathave
graduallyfadedinthefaceofnewformsofcommerciallycontrolledsocialmediaplatforms.These
blogospheresaremoribund.Thisarticleaimstounderstandwhythatis,whyweshouldcare,andwhat
wemightdoaboutit.Webeginwithdefinitions,bothofbloggingandblogospheres.Thesedefinitionsare
necessarilyprovisionalunderstandingwhatismeantherebyablogosphereisessentialtothe
argumentthatfollows.Thatargumentisthatwhilethesuperficialfunctionsofblogsremain,muchofthe
culture,sharedunderstanding,andspiritofblogginghaveputdownrootsinotherWeb2.0platforms
onlyrarelyandwithgreatdifficulty.Becauseoftheephemeralnatureofblogospherestheirslowdeath
passedlargelyunnoticedatleastoutsideofthoseblogospheresthemselves,whereithasbeen
endlesslymemorialized.
TounderstandthecurrentshiftsinhowtheWebisused,whousesit,andwhoisusedbyit,weneedto
markandunderstandthelossofblogospheres.Withthatlosscomesthelossofmuchofwhatwas
trumpetedastherevolutionofsocialmedia.Wemaynotbeabletorecoverblogospheres,butthereare
wayswecanreclaimthesocialfunctionsthattheyserved.

Bloggingandblogospheres
Blogshaveresisteddefinition,inpartbecausethetechnologiesandpracticesthatmakeupblogging
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evolvesorapidly.Themostusefulwaytodefineablogisasaconstituentpartoftheblogosphere.This
definitionforegroundsthesocialandnetworkednatureofthepracticesofblogging,ratherthanany
particularpieceofsoftwaretechnologyorformalfacetsoftheWebsitesthemselves.Thispushesthe
moredifficulttaskofdefinitiontoblogosphereswhichneedtobeexplainedasmorethanjustthe
totalityofblogstoavoidtautology.Butbeforemovingontodefiningblogospheresasthemostessential
partofblogging,weshouldrevisitthemorecommonlyaccepteddefinitions.
Genrebaseddefinitions,includingJillWalkerRettbergs(2003)widelycitedversion,whichindicatesthat
ablogisafrequentlyupdatedwebsiteconsistingofdatedentriesarrangedinreversechronological
ordersothatthereaderseesthemostrecentpostfirstconsiderfeaturesofthewriting,ratherthanany
particularsetoftechnologies,tobedecisive.Rettberggoesontosuggestthatthewritingistypically
informalandpersonal,thereaderstendtoengagewiththewritingovertime,andthatblogentriesoften
linktoothermaterialsontheWeb.AmorerecentdiscussionofthatdefinitionappearsinRettbergs2014
bookBlogging,whereshenotesthatblogginghasadaptedtothesocialmediaecosystem,andthatalot
ofpeopleenjoybloggingonmorelimitedserviceslikeTumblrandPinterest.EvenFacebookisakindof
blogging[1].(Itisperhapstellingthatthewordblogosphereappearsinthebookonly28times,while
Facebookappears124times.)Atsomepoint,however,thedefinitionbecomessobroadthatitseems
toencompassanykindofonlineexpression.Perhapsblogging,asanactivity,islittlemorethan,as
DaveWiner(2007)suggested,theuneditedvoiceofaperson.
Ifthistraditionalviewofbloggingisourdefinition,blogsarenotsomuchdeadasgroundupand
sprinkledliberallyacrosstheWeb.Thereareindicationsthatthenumberofpeoplewhowriteon
individualblogs,orwhoreadthem,isdwindling.ThePewInternetandAmericanLifeprojectfoundthat
halfasmanyteenswerebloggingin2010ashadbeenin2006,thoughmanyolderpeoplecontinuedto
blogandmostpeopledidbloglikethingsonthenewlyemergingplatforms(Zickuhr,2010).Formal
elementsthatmakeupbloggingfromtimestampedentries,tothreadedcomments,tosyndication,to
contenttagging,tosharedmemesarefoundonthemicrobloggingsiteslikeTwitterandonsocial
networkingsiteslikeFacebookandonpinboardslikePinterestandacrossthewiderangeofplatforms
thatmakeaclaimtobeinginsomesensesocial.
Likewise,thesitesfortodaysnewspapersandothernewsorganizationsareoftenindistinguishablefrom
blogs,andmanyofthefeaturesthatdefinedblogsarefoundinplacesasvariedasproductreviews,
academicarticles,andrecipes.OnemeasuresuggeststhatmorethanaquarterofthedynamicWebis
nowdrivenbythebloggingsoftwareWordPress(Ewer,2015).Itisusedtomanagemanycorporate
homepagesandshoppingsites,amongothers.Bythisaccounting,blogginghasneverbeenhealthier.
Perhapstheonlyclaimthatmightbemadeisthatblogsarenolongerdistinctfromwhatmakesupthe
restoftheWeb.So,whileitmaybethattheinfluenceofblogging,asitoncewasdefined,isonthe
wane,theDNAofblogginghasspreadacrosstheWeb,bythisreckoning(Kottke,2013).
Whilemanyofthefeaturesandsomeoftheactivitiesthatblogssupportednowpermeatethesocial
Web,whathappenedbetweenblogsdidnotmanagetosurvivetheevolutionoftheWebquiteaswell.
Theblogosphere,asitcametobeknown,wasasmuchabouttheconfigurationandinteractionamong
bloggersasitwasaboutanygivensite[2].Theblogwasindividual,butblogospheresweresocial,and
bloggingwasinherentlyasocialactivity.Popularaccountsofblogs,particularlyintheearlydays,saw
thepracticeasespeciallyselfcentered,andthereisevidencethatthisviewwasnotentirelyoffthe
markformanybloggerswhofailedtoconnectsignificantlywithinblogospheres(Herring,etal.,2005).
Butthereciprocal,conversationalelementofbloggingiswhatmadeforblogopheres:clustered,
interlinkedsitesthatengagedinongoingdiscourse(Halavais,2005).Althoughmostfrequentlyusedin
thesingular,indicatingthatanindividualbloggerwasinconversationwiththeuniverseofotherbloggers,
inpracticethereweremanyblogospheres:clustersofrelativelydenselyconnectedblogsthatwere
nonethelesspartoflargerconversationsoutsidetheblogospherestheylivedin.ThroughoutthispaperI
refertoblogospheresinthepluraltoemphasizethedegreetowhichtheywerenetworked,ratherthan
mass,phenomena.
Theconnectionsbetweenblogswithinandacrosstheseblogospherescouldhappeninseveralways.
Bloggersmightlinktooneanothersarticlestocontinuecommentingonthemontheirownblogs.This
couldresultintrackbacklinksthatreciprocatedthehyperlinkandmadeitbidirectional.Theymight
alsocommentonpostsonothersblogs,leavingalinkbacktotheirown.Orthebloggermightmaintain
ablogroll:asidebarlistingofotherblogsworthreading.Orthelinkagesmightbelessvisible,with
usersfollowingoneanothersRSSfeeds.Thetiesthatlooselyconnectedblogospherescouldbeboth
convolutedandoccurinmultiplespaces(EfimovaanddeMoor,2005).Theselinkagesdescribespaces
thatarefairlydense,connectedbycommoninterest,geography(Lin,etal.,2007),orothersocial
relationship.ThepoliticalblogosphereintheUnitedStatesseemedtodividealongpoliticalpartylines,
formingtwolightlybridgedclusters(AdamicandGlance,2005).Butthetechnologicalwaysinwhich
thesediscussionsweremediatedwaslessimportanttheconfiguration.LiketheInternetitself,
blogosphereswereconstitutedthroughsharedunderstandingofprotocols,ownedbynoone.This
consensualarrangementofdiscussionallowedforcontrolofonesownspace,butcontinuedvoluntary
engagementwithothers.
Thewordblogospherequicklygainedpopularityintheearly2000s,onetermamongothersusedto
refertogreatercollectionsofblogsandtheconversationthatoccurredamongthem.WilliamSafire
notedtheemergenceofthetermasearlyasthemiddleof2002inhiscolumnintheNewYorkTimes,
butithadbeenusedforsometimeamongbloggers.Mosttrackitsusetoanoffhandedcommentona
blogattheendof1999(Graham,1999).WhileRebeccaBloodsearlyhistoryofblogging,publishedin
2000,doesnotmentiontheblogospherebyname,shedoesprovidesomeindicationofhowblogswere
becomingmorethanjustindividualdiariesorcommonplacebookshostedontheWeb.Shenotedthatan
earlydirectoryofblogs(Eatonweb)rapidlybecameoverwhelmedbythenumberofnewentries.She
concludesthatwhatseemedlikeacommunityformingaroundfilteringtheWebwasquicklybecoming
overwhelmedaspeoplerushedtocreatetheirownblogs.

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Figure1:ArticlesmentioningthewordblogosphereinnewspapersinLexisNexisAcademic,byquarter
(red),andfrequencyofthesearchtermaccordingtoGoogleTrends(blue).

AsshowninFigure1,theuseoftheterminnewspaperarticlespeakedattheendofthe2000s.Most
often,thetermwasusedasasortofplacewherediscussionhappenedforexample:Ofcourse,the
blogospherecanalsobearoughplaceforfragileegos(Paul,2005).Sometimesthisspacewasfurther
restricted:theThaiblogosphere,orthepoliticalblogosphere,forexample.Occasionallyitwasused
metonymically,asonemightusethepublicforexample,Theblogospheredidnotexactlygreetthese
planswhosepossibilitywaspreviouslyexploredintheHollywoodtradepublicationslastyear
rapturously(Itzkoff,2010).Butthetermhassurvivedinnewspaperslongerthaninothervenues.As
theGooglesearches(asrevealedbyGoogleTrends,andindicatedbythebluelineinFigure1)show,the
numberofsearcheshascontinuallydroppedsinceGooglestartedrecordingsuchtrends.Itishardly
surprisingthatwhenresearchersinvestigateblogospherestoday,theyfindverylittleinthewayof
interconnectionsandconversations(e.g.,TodevaandKeskinova,2014).Onecouldeasilyassumethat
thesearchfrequencyhasfallenmerelybecausethetermwasalreadypartofeverydayspeech,but
giventheshiftstowardcomments(oftenmanagedbyathirdpartyplatform,likeDiscusorFacebook),
andtweets,andawayfromblogentriescommentingonotherblogentries,itseemsfarmorelikelythat
blogosphereswerealreadyslippingawaybytheendofthe2000s.
Chartingthedeathofblogsandblogospheresissomethingofacottageindustry.Asearlyas2006,a
journalistwritingforFTMagazine,referredtobloggingasasomewhatflacciddirigiblethatwasunlikely
togainanyfurtheraltitude(Himler,2006).JodiDean(2010),inherbookBlogtheory,rejectsthe
narrativeofthedeathofblogging,andtheideaofblogospheresalltogether.Sheframesherdiscussion
ofbloggingaroundtheriseofcorporateblogsandseesthefrequencyofuseofFacebookandother
platformsasaneverintensifyingexpansionofbloggingpractices[3].Whiletherecanbenodoubtthat
therearecontinuitiesbetweenthesocialWebbuiltuparoundbloggingandtheWeb2.0thatcameafter,
whatthismissesthatthattheessenceofblogosphereswascivic,notcommercial.
Butthispopularlabellingofwhathappenedwithinblogospheresmissesmuchofthecomplexityofwhat
occurredwithinthem.Byprovidingaspaceofinteractionthatallowedforeasyconnection,asystemthat
wasvoluntary,andeasilyunderstoodbythoseparticipating,blogospheresprovidedaspacefor
participationanddeliberationthatwasnotwidelyavailableatthetime,andhasnotbeenreplicatedby
theplatformsthatarecurrentlyfarmorepopular.

Whatablogospheresgoodfor
Therearemanyreasonswelostblogospheres,butchiefamongthemwasalackofappreciationforthe
valuetheyprovided.Thereareseveralwayswecouldlookattheroleofblogospheresasatechnology
forbuildingcivicWebspaces.Theyservedasapopularcounterweightsandwatchdogsforthetraditional
institutionsofpublicinformationandinfluence.But,morebroadly,theyprovidedspacesinwhichcitizens
couldengagetheirinterestandreachconsensuswithinterestedpeers.Whilenotanidealpublicsphere,
ablogosphereprovidedanewandrelativelydistinctspaceforcitizenstoengageoneanotherpolitically
andculturally.
Mainstreammedia,presentmainlyintheformsoftelevisionandnewspaperjournalism,wasfacedwith
decentralizedforcesthatchallengedoverarchingnarrativesofthenewsagenda.Thiswasparticularly
truewhenitcametopoliticalcoverage.Coverageofpresidentialcampaignshadbeengrowingmore
uniformacrossnewspapersforseveralpresidentialelectoralcyclesleadinguptothe2004election
(Halavais,2007),butthedecentralizednetworkofpoliticalblogospheresdisruptednewscycles,addeda
distributednetworkofinterestedcitizenswhocouldchallengethenewsagenda,andasinthecaseof
Rathergateraisedquestionsaboutstoriespresented(Woan,2008).
Thisroleofwatchdogsforthewatchdogscouldbeoveremphasized.Ontheotherendofthespectrum,
blogospheresmadevisiblethekindsofmultistepflowsdescribedhalfacenturyearlierbyKatzand
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Lazarsfeld(1955).Thereisverylittleevidenceofblogstakingoverthejournalisticfunction,butby
surroundingandinterpretingthenews,theyhelpedtoshapethatfunction.Theirinfluenceonpublic
conversationwascomplex,andbothdrewonprofessionaljournalismasasource,readytochallenge
thosesources(Reese,etal.,2007).Althoughitspotentialwentfurther,bydrawingonalonghistoryof
personaljournalismandrollingbacksomeoftheeffectsofcorporatejournalismofthelatetwentieth
century(Gillmor,2004),inpracticeitmoveddiscussionofthenewsandtheeventsofthedayfromthe
kitchentabletoadistributedandrelativelylesshomogenousspace.Thisprocessofidentifyingand
amplifyingparticularinformationstreamingfromawiderangeofsourcesaprocessBruns(2005)
referstoasgatewatchingshiftedthewaysinwhichjournalismrelatedtothepublicagenda,andto
howthepublicassessedthenewsoftheday.
Theeffectonexistinginstitutionsextendedtopoliticalcampaignsthemselves,andbloggingforced
presidentialcampaignstorespondtothedecentralizingpressureofblogospheresiftheywantedto
succeed[4].ItisdifficulttounderestimatetheeffectofHowardDeanonthefutureofpresidential
campaigningintheUnitedStates.WhilehisbidfortheWhiteHousewasultimatelyunsuccessful,by
engaginganonlineaudience,andblogospheresinparticular,Deancreatedamovementthatcoulddraw
notjustattention,butdollars.Theopportunitiesforcandidatesthatfailtoconformtotheconservative
expectationsofpartyelites,fromBarackObamatoDonaldTrumptoBernieSanders,oweagreatdeal
tothenetrootsmovementcloselyassociatedwiththeDeancampaign.Whiletheagendawasreshaped
inpartbytheAlistpoliticalbloggers,whocontinuetoattractsignificantreaderships,theabilityto
gathertogetherlargenumbersoflooselyaffiliatedbloggershelpedtoenergizethevotingpublicand
raisefundsfromamuchlargerandmorediversegroupofsupporters.
Buttheeffectsofblogospheresonexistingmediaandpoliticalinstitutionsunderestimatethebroader
potentialofconversationonline.Naturally,therehasbeensignificantdiscussion,andsomedisagreement
astowhatsortofsphereablogosphereis.Generally,thereissomeconsensusthatdiscussionamong
thecitizenryisessentialtothefunctioningofdemocracy.Theappropriatenatureofthesediscussions
andwhoshouldbeinvolvedremainsacontinuingdebate.Particularlywellrepresentedarearguments
overthedegreetowhichnetworkedmediagenerally,andblogsinparticular,mightadheretomodelsof
thepublicspheredescribedbyHabermasandothers.Generally,thesehaveexaminedthenatureof
discoursesupportedbythesesystems,ratherthanonthestructureoroutcomesofthatinteraction,
recapitulatingwhatsomehaveconsideredHabermasownnarrowfocusonrationaldiscourse.
Democraticparticipationismessyenoughtoprovidespaceforbothrationalandlessrationaldiscourses
[5].WhileHabermasarguesthatmodernityhasimposedconstraintsnotaddressedbyhiswork,
HabermasdrawsheavilyonanargumentJohnDewey(1984)makesinThepublicanditsproblems,that
discussionisnot(despitecritiquesfromhiscontemporaries)somehowdivorcedfromtheactivitiesthat
makeupdemocraticparticipationmorebroadly:
Fromthestandpointoftheindividual,itconsistsofhavingaresponsible
shareaccordingtocapacityinforminganddirectingtheactivitiesofthe
groupstowhichonebelongsandinparticipatingaccordingtoneedinthe
valueswhichthegroupssustain.Fromthestandpointofthegroups,it
demandsliberationofthepotentialitiesofmembersofagroupin
harmonywiththeinterestsandgoodswhicharecommon.Sinceevery
individualisamemberofmanygroups,thisspecificationcannotbe
fulfilledexceptwhendifferentgroupsinteractflexiblyandfullyin
connectionwithothergroups.[6]
Ofcourse,Deweyalsopresentsanargument(refinedbyHabermas)aboutthenatureofthediscourse
itself.Butamongthefactorsthatleadtosensationalismandotherlessthaneffectiveformsof
communicationaretheaffordancesofthetechnologiesthatsupportthiscommunication.Byprovidinga
spacethatisbothrelativelyeasilyaccessiblebyanyinterestedspeaker,andprovidesabridgebetween
privateandpublicdiscourse,blogospheresrepresentsarevolutioninpublicdiscussion[7].
Itseemsthattheonlyconsensusonthisfrontiswhatkindofspheretheblogosphereisnot.Cass
Sunstein(2008)arguesthatitisneitherthemarketplaceofinformationHayekdescribesnorthepublic
discursivespheredescribedbyHabermas.Butthefactthatitmaynotfittheseidealssayslittleabout
howitrelatestothewiderspaceofcivicdiscourse.ForDewey,therewasthedangerthatentertainment
couldhaveanarcotizingeffect,leadingtothedissolutionofpoliticallymotivatedpublics.Butgiventhat
evennonpoliticallyorientedblogsoftencontainedpoliticalpostings,itseemsthatablogospheremeets
theobjectivesDeweysetout.AnduntilthemigrationtoplatformbasedWeb2.0expression,italso
managedtobeadiscussionthatwasrelativelyimmunetotheinfluenceofentrenchedandmoneyed
interests.
Blogsarefarfromtheonlywaytoeffectanonlineconversation,andforthisreasontheyareoftenlisted
aspartofalongserializationofonlinetechnologiesthatcanprovidethisblogs,forums,emaillists,
wikis,socialnetworksseeminglywiththepresumptionthatthesearesimilarenoughthatdistinctions
neednotbedrawn.ButasStromerGalleyandWichowski(2011)note,thedesignofthespaceinwhich
discussiontakesplacemattersagreatdeal.Clumpingtogetherspaceswithmoreorlesssynchronicity,
reciprocity,orcapacityforvariouskindsofmediamakeslittlesense.Likewise,ignoringwhocontrols
accesstothespace,andunderwhatconditions,makesbroadassessmentsregardingonline
deliberationsmeaningless.Constraintsmatter.
Someofthetechnologicalaffordancesandthegenreexpectationsfoundinblogospheresmadethem
differentfromtheotherelementsonthatlist,andmoresuitedtodemocraticdiscourse(Woodly,2008).
Whilesomehavearguedthattheblogrepresentsahighlyindividualisticwayofexpressingoneselfa
diarymadepublicithasmoreincommonwiththepamphleteeringthatisassociatedwith
Enlightenmentidealsofcommunitydiscussion.Bloggerscertainlypresentanindividualvoiceand
opinion,butdosointhehopeofattractingandconvincinganaudienceofpeersthattheauthors
messageiscompellingandcorrect.
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Oneofthemajorcriticismsofblogosphereswasthattheyallowedpeopletoshapetheirownrestrictive
publics,andsetupanechochamberofselfcongratulatoryposts(Gilbert,etal.,2009).However,the
questionisoneofdegree.Itistruethatthenetworkednatureofsocietycontinuesonacenturieslong
pathofallowingindividualstoselecttheirsocialcircleratherthanbeingforcedintocommunitiesbased
ongeography,family,orclass.Thisprocessbeganwithurbanizationandhascontinuedthroughthe
etherealizationofnetworkedpublics.Nonetheless,thepublicandopennatureofbloggingensuresthat
thesekindsofechochambersremainchallengedattheperiphery.Inparticular,discourseamong
bloggersdifferssignificantlyfromthekindsofinsulardiscussionsthatcanhappenonclosedplatforms
thediscussionforumsforrightwingracistgroups,forexample(Halavais,2010).Fragmentationitself
providesspacesforcontestationthatremainpoorlyunderstoodandrequirefurtherstudy(Dahlberg,
2007).Ultimately,thequestionshouldnotbewhetherblogospheresencouragedechochambers,but
ratherhowthesecomparetothefilteringthatoccursinotherareasofpeopleslives,onlineandoff.
Severalyearsbeforeblogospheresemerged,HarrisonandStephen(1996)describedtheelementsof
computernetworkingthatmadeitsoappealingtoacademics:unendingandinclusivescholarly
conversationcollaborativeinquirylimitedonlybymutualinterestsunrestrainedaccesstoscholarly
resourcesindependent,decentralizedlearningandatimelyanduniversallyaccessiblesystemfor
representing,distributing,andarchivingknowledge[8].Theseidealsfoundtheirgreatestexpressionin
theblogosphere,andthosevalueswereextendedbeyondthescholarlycommunitytothebroader
citizenry.AlthoughsomeoftheseelementsfoundtheirwaytoWeb2.0platforms,muchofthe
blogospheresindependenceanddecentralizationwaslost.

Smallpieces,tightlybound
BloggingisapartofWeb2.0muchinthesamewayacowispartofaBigMac.Whenpeopletalkabout
Web2.0,blogospheresareoftenlumpedinwitharangeofotherservicesandpractices.Butblogging
predatestheWeb2.0eraandinmanywaysgavebirthtoit.Bloggingformsakindofdistributed
consciousnessfortheWeblikewikisitmanagestodrawpeopletogetherintoopendiscussionand
providesavaluablemechanismforaggregatingideas.Thatvaluewasoneworthyofexploiting:because
oftheblogospheresdynamismandrichinterconnection,itprovidedanunparalleledaccumulationof
attention.Thiscouldbemeasuredinpartbythewaysinwhichblogscouldbecomehighlyrankedin
searchengineresults.Thisinturnmeantthattheybecamehighlysoughtafterpropertiesfor
advertisers.Blogospheresrepresentedanewwayoforganizingthought,andforOReilly(2005),therise
ofbloggingwasnotjustacompetitionbetweensites,butacompetitionbetweenbusinessmodels.
CentraltoOReillysconceptionofWeb2.0wasthatusersaddvalue.Thekeywastoextractthatvalue
withoutkillingthegoosethatlaidthegoldenegg.Heacknowledgedtheelementsofbloggingthatpulled
thisdistributedarchitecturetogether.Thecombinationofpermalinks(linksthatcouldberelieduponto
reachagivenblogupdate)andRSSfeedsbalancedthestaticanddynamicelementsofablogosphere
andactedasakindofglue.Thisopensetofstandardsallowedanyonetoparticipatewithouthavingto
useanyparticularpieceofsoftwareorplatform.Asaresult,youcoulduseRSStosyndicatenewsabout
packagedeliveriesorcurrentweatheraseasilyasyoucouldyourlatestblogposts.Thiskindofopen
structureforlinkeddataisreallyanextensionofthearchitectureoftheInternetitselfitsstrengthisin
itsopennessandinsharedprotocols.Andasaresult,blogospheresbecamesomethingofalatticeon
whichyoucouldlayertheapplicationsofWeb2.0akindofsocialsuperglue.
TheideaofthepanoplyofWeb2.0technologiesactingasakindofsocialglueiswidespread(e.g.,
KamelBoulosandWheeler,2007).Butblogospherestookonthisroletoamuchgreaterextentthanany
singleplatformbasedservice,preciselybecauseitcouldeasilydrawtogetherdisparatesocialplatforms.
ThisabilitytodrawtogethernotjusttechnicalpiecesoftheWeb,butthesocialelementsthattheyare
infusedwiththepullingtogetherofpiecesofpeoplespublicandprivatelivesprovidedaspacefor
sociality.EssentialtowhatwasmakingtheWebsocialintheearly2000s,accordingtoDavidWeinberger
(2002),wasthatittakestraditionalcommandandcontrolstructuresandbuststhemupintomanysmall
piecesthatthenlooselyjointhemselves[9].Theemergenceofopenprotocolsforengagementletthat
happen,andblogospheresweretheoutcome.Theresultwasabitofamess,butonethatseemedto
holdtogether,withoutanyonedirectlycontrollingtheoutcome.
By2006,manybloggerswerewritingnotwithintheirownWebspace,butonahostedblogserver,with
LiveJournal,MySpace,Blogger,andXangabeingamongthemostpopular(LenhartandFox,2006).
About12millionAmericanswerebloggingatthetime,withmostconcentratingonproducingandreading
textratherthanimages,sound,orvideo.Theshiftfromselfhostedblogstoblogshostedbyservers
wassubtleandhadlittleeffectonhowblogospheresworked,forthemostpart.SiteslikeBlogger,and
eventuallyWordPress.com(whichprovidedfreehostingfortheWordPresssoftware),providedfunctions
largelysimilartothosefoundonselfhostedblogs.Userscouldchangethelookandaddatleastsome
functionalitynotoriginallypresent.EvenMySpacespawnedsomeyoungdeveloperswholearnedto
developthemesforthesite(Debenham,2010).
Themovetohostedbloggingplatformsmadesensefromtheperspectiveofmanyusersand
representedanobviousstepintheevolutionoftheblogosphere.Theearliestblogs(includingthe
authors)werecreatedfromscratchtherewasnobloggingsoftwarethatwaseasilyavailableforuse.
ThesegavewaytofreesoftwarethatcouldbeinstalledonaWebhostsystemslikeMovableTypeand
WordPress.ButeventheserequiredsomecomfortwithWebhostingtechnologytodownload,install,and
setup.HostedsystemslikeBlogger(whichboastedPushButtonPublishingforthePeople)allowedthe
usertosetupanewbloginamatterofseconds.Giventhattherewerefewcompaniesmakingmoney
bysellingbloggingsoftwareorservices,competitionwaslargelybasedoneaseofuseandfeaturesets,
andbloggingplatformswonoutinthatprocess.

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Asdidspecializedplatforms.Bloggingplatformswereslowtoprovidebroadsupportfordifferentmedia
forms,andparticularlywhenitcametovideo,accesstofairlyspecializedcontentdeliverynetworkswas
essential.Asaresult,sitesthatprovidedeasyhostingofimages,audio,andvideoarose.WhileFlickr
provideditsownsocialnetworkingonthesiteitself,asignificantpartofitsappealwastheabilitytohost
imagesthatcouldthenbeembeddedelsewhere.Thispatternofembeddingmediamadeupalargepart
oftheearlysocialWeb,andblogospheresrepresentedthestructurethatlinkedtogetherthesepieces.It
isdifficulttoimaginetherewouldhavebeenaWeb2.0withoutasetofbloggerstouseit.Certainly,
today,itiseasytothinkofYouTube(anditsvloggers)orFlickrsamateurphotographerswithoutany
recoursetoblogs.Thesecontentsharingplatformsthrived,however,inpartbecausebloggerswereable
tousethemtoembedmediaintheirblogs.Likewise,socialnetworkingsystems,collaborativetagging
infrastructures,andusergeneratedcontentsitesseemtodowellenoughwithoutablogospheretoday,
butmanyowedtheirearlypopularitytousebybloggers.Overtime,theseserviceshostedtheirown
interactions,andbloggingitselfbecameahostedserviceyetanothersharingplatform.
ThisshifttosharingisemblematicofWeb2.0:usersofFacebookareencouragedtosharetheir
worldwithnetworksoffriends.AsNicholasJohn(2013)suggests,thisnotionofsharingtendsto
paperoverthecommercialaspectsoftheseplatformsoperations.Blogsprovidedakindofpersonal
spaceontheWeb,anoutgrowthoftheoriginalhomepages.Ifyouwantedtofindoutaboutaperson
andwhattheywerethinkingordoing,theblogiswhereyouwouldgo.Thefinalevolutionawayfromthe
blogitselfislikelyMedium,wherelongformblogginggoestobelinkedtofromvariousotherplatforms,
ortobefoundintheresultsofasearchengine.Theideathatyoumightvisitablogthatsomeone
periodicallyupdates(orhavethoseupdatespushedtoyouviaRSSoranemailmessage),seems
quaint,evenwhenthatwasthenormlessthanadecadeago.TheauthoronMediumhasvirtually
disappeared,andinsteadweshareourcontentonthismonolithicrepositorywhatseemslikeitmust
beafinalstrokeofcentralization(Meyer,2015a).
Ofcourse,itisnotjustthecommercialaspectsoftheseplatformsthatareproblematic.Having
centralizedformsofcontrolofdiscoursemeansthatvoicescanbeshutoutofdiscussions,eitherby
directinterventionorbysofterformsofattentionshaping.Inthecaseofdirectcensorship,suchcontrols
areoftenundertakenincollaborationwithstateactors:by2012bothBloggerandTwitterwerefiltering
postsonapercountrybasis,inordertocensorpoststhatwerenotdeemedappropriateinlocal
contexts(Kravets,2012).MorerecentlyTwitter(2016)trumpeteditsroleincombattingviolent
extremism,andnotedthatithadshutdownmorethan125,000accountssincethemiddleof2015for
threateningorpromotingterroristacts.Naturally,thiskindofcensorshipispossiblewithoutthecentral
controlofalargescaleplatform,butthecentralizationofcontrolmakessucheffortsfareasier,andit
makesroutingaroundsuchcensorshipfarmoredifficultbymakingnonplatformeddiscussionakindof
outlawspace.
InarecentessayJasonCranfordTeague(2016)arguesthattheincreasedatomizationofsocial
communicationonline,especiallyamongyouth,meansthatwearebecomingincreasinglyless
connected:Now,kidsuseacombinationofTumblr,SMS,MMS,iMessage,KIK,GoogleHangouts,
FacebookMessenger,Snapchat,Slack,Skype,FaceTime,anddozensofotherinstantmessaging,audio,
andvideosystems,fewofwhich,ifany,cantalktoeachother.Theproblemisnottechnological:the
majorcontributionofblogosphereswastherecognitionthatopensystemscantalktooneanother,and
wehavegoodexamplesofhowopenstandardsandfederalizedservicescanpromotebetteroutcomes
forWebcitizens.Theproblemisthatthisdoesnotfitabusinessmodel.
Moneywantshits
By2008,NicholasCarrhaddeclaredtheblogospheredead.Itsdeath,heargued,hadbeenforetoldby
theendofanotheramateurera,thatofearlyradiobroadcasters.Thatmodelthecommercializationof
radiobroadcastingintheUnitedStatesbyindustryandgovernmentisonethatRobertMcChesney
(1996)turnedtowellbeforetherewasablogosphere.Theprocess,however,oftechnologiesbeginning
attheperipheryandthenbeingestablishedaroundbusinessmodelsthatshapethemismanifestin
manycases,andespeciallythoseinvolvingnetworkedcommunication.Itwouldhavebeenfoolhardyto
assumethatblogosphereswouldtakeanyotherroute.
Thisshiftawayfromtheamateur,asTreborScholz(2008)hasdescribed,wasechoedinthechanging
definitionofWeb2.0.TimOReillyeventuallycametosuggestthatWeb2.0wasaboutinfrastructure:
waysofbuildingvaluefromuserssharedcontent.Thetermwasneverreallydefined,butitseemedto
collectasetofdesignpatternsthatwereinserviceofasetofbusinessmodels.Ofcourse,itwouldbe
wrongtoassumethatblogospheresweresomehowcompletelyseparatefromcommercialconcernsor
thattheriseofprofitablesocialmediaplatformsmakethemimmediatelysuspect.Therealityrepresents
acomplexinterpenetrationofprivateandpublicspheres,alongwithcommercialandnoncommercial
logics,thatformhybridspaces(Papacharissi,2014).However,earlyblogsoftenlackednotjust
advertising,butaclearbusinessmodel.Bloggerssharedmuchmorewiththeideasoffreeculturethat
hadgivenrisetootherformsofopenandfreedevelopmentontheInternet(Halavais,2012).
Bythelatterhalfofthe2000s,thatfeelingofafreespacehadevaporated,andmanybloggers(atleast
intheUnitedStatesKobayashi,2011)weremotivatedtoblogforfinancialandprofessionalreasons.
Thebusinessmodelthatnowdroveblogging,andespeciallythenewformsofplatformbasedsocial
interaction,wastiedcloselytoeconomiesofattention.Ifyoucouldproduceviralcontent,youcouldsell
eitheryourowngoods,orviaadvertisingthegoodsofothers.Therecanbenoquestionthat
attentionwasscarceonearlyblogospheresaswell,andthatbloggerssoughttheattentionoftheirpeers.
Buttheintroductionofmonetaryrewardsincreasedtheneedtoattractattentionatanycost.Someof
themostsuccessfulbloggersnotonlycametorelyonthosehits,butwereprofessionalized:broughtin
assalariedbloggersfornewsorganizationsorthenewmultiauthorblogsthathadbecometheirown
formofcommercialmedia(Drum,2015).
Inmostcases,though,individualbloggerswereprofitingfarlessthantheplatformsthathostedthem.
Platformsthatcouldattractusers(bothcreatorsandconsumers)totheirsiteshadtheopportunityto
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siphonattentionfromeach,servingadsalongsidematerialthatwouldenticethemintothesite.
Stickinesswasparamountsocialtiesandfearofmissingoutdrewusersintosocialnetworkingsites.
Outwardlinks,whilenotexplicitlydiscouraged,wereincreasinglytheexceptionratherthanthenorm.
Gradually,thethingsthatmadeblogospheresticklinkages,reciprocity,openstandards,embedding
andfederationwereerodedinfavorofwalledgardens.Whentheaimistogoviral,andtocollecton
theattention,thegiveandtakeofconversationstakeabackseat.
Itisnotonlythecommercializationofplatformsthatrestrictstheircivicpotential,ofcourse.AsJessica
Beyer(2014)notes,platformsthatmayhavenoparticularcommercialimpetusstillshapethediscourse
theysupport,basedonthepoliticalorculturalidealsoftheircreatorsandadministratorsevenifasite
hasnoexplicitcommercialaim,itsformathasitsownersbeliefscodedintoitonmultiplelevels[10].
Thatstruealsoofablogthatisownedbythepublisher,butmanyrightlydescribedbloggingasdifferent
notjustfromjournalismbutfrompublishingonotherplatformsbecausethebloggerhadnoeditorto
restrictwhatwassaid.Thereissomeirony,then,thatdiscussionamongearlybloggerswasoftenmore
civilthanthatwhichoccurredonvariousplatforms.AnilDash(2011)suggestedanumberofways
platformscouldhelptoencouragemorecivildiscourse,butprefacedhisremarksbyindicatinghow
generallysupportivethosewhointeractedonhisownblogwere.Thelackofexternalcensorsdidnot
reducediscoursetoaHobbesianshoutingmatchatleastnotallthetime.Partofthis,hesuggested,
wasthatforthoseseekingtocreateviralmaterialinordertospurshorttermrevenue,sensationalismis
somethingtobeembraced.Certainlytheseplatformsrestrictedmaterialsthatwereconsideredtoo
extreme,buttoooftenitseemslikesuchrestrictionsseektomaximizeusersintheimmediateterm
ratherthanrelyingonbroadercommunitydrivenmanagementofcontenttofosterbetterconversations.
Onewaytountangle,tosomedegree,thiskindofdesignerorientationistoinvolvetheusermore
directlyinthedevelopmentoftheplatform.OnemightseeatleastapartofthedevelopmentofTwitter
beingdrivenbyplatforminnovationandworkaroundsbytheusers(Halavais,2013),butinpracticethere
canbelittledoubtthattheownersoftheplatformdeterminenotonlyhowTwitterfunctions,butwhocan
usethatdataandunderwhatconditions.Likewise,thecyclicaloutcryfromFacebookuserswhenthe
interfaceischangedsuggeststhatitisnottheuserbasethatisdrivingdesign(Sanchez,2009).Contrast
thiswiththedevelopmentoffree/opensourcesoftware.Whiletherearecertainlyusersofsuchsystems
thathavelittleornoeffectonhowtheyareconstructedorrevisedovertime,thereareasignificant
numberofuserswhoparticipateinsomewayrangingfromreportingbugstocreatingnewfeatures
intheproductionofthesoftwareitself.Someblogrelatedsoftware,includingtwoofthemostpopular
Webcontentmanagementsystems,WordPressandDrupal,adheretothismodel.Butmoreimportantly,
bloggersduringthegoldenageoftheblogospheredidnotfitthetitleofuserveryneatly.Unlikethe
userofFacebook,bloggersweredirectlyinvolvedinthecoconstructionandcoconfigurationofthe
blogosphere.
Todaysblogger,whomaybepostingsomethingtotheirTumblrorwritingalongformpostforMedium,
hasfewerchoicestomake.Thisreducessomeofthebarrierstogettingideasouttothepublic,making
itunnecessaryforanauthortomakedecisionsaboutdesign,interface,orconnectiontotherestofthe
Web,butdoessoatacost.Evenplatformbasedbloggingsystemsthatdonotdirectlybenefitfrom
advertisingwanttolockusersintotheplatformandhavethemcomebackformore.Stockmarket
valuationsofsocialmediacompaniesthatmayhavenosignificantrevenuestreamsatallareoften
basedontheamountoftimeatattentiontheyhave(ormight)attractfromaficklegroupofusers.
Ironically,newspapersitesinitiallyavoidedlinksoffsitebuthavegraduallycometousehyperlinksmore
frequently(JankowskiandvanSelm,2000Steensen,2011).AtthesametimeWeb2.0platformshave
soughtincreasedcontrol.ItisnotenoughtofederalizeyouridentitythroughFacebook,allowingthe
companytotrackyouractivitiesoffsite,theplatformdoesnotevenwantyoutoleavetoread
newspaperarticles,iftheycanavoidit.Anewprogramdeliversnewspaperarticlesfromwithinthe
Facebookinterface,increasingthespeedwithwhichthearticlesload,andincidentallyensuringusers
remainwithintheboundsoftheplatform(Meyer,2015b).
Theplatformsseeknotonlytorestrictusersmovingawayfromthesite,butwanttokeepholdoftheir
dataaswell.Certainly,therehavebeeneffortstoopenupthedatathatuserscontributetoplatforms,
includingaproposedBillofRightsforUsersoftheSocialWeb(Smarr,etal.,2007),andsucharight
hasfounditswayintodiscussionsofdataprotectionintheEuropeanUnion(Bapat,2013).Inpractice,
however,thereisnosignificantrevenueadvantageformostplatformstofederateorotherwiseopenup
thedataontheirsystems.ThemicrobloggingplatformTwitterservesasanexcellentexamplehere.
Althoughuserscanaccessthedataontheirsiteprogrammatically,overtimeTwitterhasputsignificant
restrictionsonwhenandhowthatcanhappen,andtheprocessofgettingatthatdatacanbe
prohibitivelyexpensive.Thisisparticularlytrueforresearchersandotherswhoseekthedatafor
reasonsotherthanprofit,andfortheuserswhocreatedthecontentinthefirstplace(Puschmannand
Burgess,2013).TherecanbelittledoubtthatthemillionsoftweetsthatfloodintoTwitterareavaluable
resource,andtheyhavebecomeavaluablecommodity.Butthispushtocorraldatainordertosellit,or
toselltheattentionitgarners,leadsawayfromaWebthatisdiverse,distributed,andmodular.
Atthepeakoftheblogosphere,DanGillmor(2004)wasconcernedbywhathesawasmajorthreatsto
thefutureoffreejournalism:
Opensystemsarecentraltoanyfutureofafree(asinfreedom)flowof
information.Yettheforcesofcentralcontrolgovernmentsandbig
businesses,especiallythecopyrightcartelarepushingharderand
hardertoclampdownonournetworks.Topreservetheirbusiness
models,whichareincreasinglyoutmodedinadigitalage,theywould
restrictinnovationand,ultimately,thekindsofcreativityonwhichthey
foundedtheirownbusinesses.Thedangerinthisismassive,butthe
publicremainsalltoooblivious,inpartbecauseBigMediahasfailedto
coverthestoryproperly.Idontthinkthatsacoincidence.[11]
Gillmorremainedhopefulthatsucheffortswouldultimatelyfailinthefaceofpublicpressure.Tim
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OReilly(2005)likewisesawthebeginningsofplatformsassertingcontrolovertheconversationthat
happenedlocally,andtryingtomakesurethatusersdidnotstray.Hisexample,atthetime,wasthe
difficultyAmazonhadofkeepingreviewsontheirownsite.Helikewisefeltthatthepublicwouldrally
aroundeffortstomaintaintheopennessofthedatatheywereproducing:
MuchastheriseofproprietarysoftwareledtotheFreeSoftware
movement,weexpecttheriseofproprietarydatabasestoresultina
FreeDatamovementwithinthenextdecade.Onecanseeearlysignsof
thiscountervailingtrendinopendataprojectssuchasWikipedia,the
CreativeCommons,andinsoftwareprojectslikeGreasemonkey,which
allowuserstotakecontrolofhowdataisdisplayedontheircomputer.
Butthatpublicpressurehasbeenslowincoming.Therehavebeeneffortstoresistchangesin
intellectualpropertylaw,butfewhaveabandonedFacebookandotherWeb2.0platforms(i.e.,Web2.0
suicideStieger,etal.,2013),evenwhentheyrecognizetheproblemssuchsystemscause.Thesocial
tiesthatbindustotheseplatformsaretoostrong.Butthatdoesnotmeanalternativesareimpossible,if
wehavethetechnologicalmeansandthesocialwilltofightforthem.

Conclusion:Openspacegardening
In2006,YochaiBenklerwrote:
[I]fweweretostepbackandlookattheentirephenomenonofWeb
basedpublicationfromabirdseyeview,wewouldseethatthe
architectureoftheWorldWideWeb,inparticularthepersistenceof
personalWebpagesandblogsandtheirselfcontained,technical
independenceofeachother,givetheWebasawholethecharacteristics
ofmodularityandvariablebutfinegrainedgranularity.[12]
Whatadifferenceadecademakes.Whileblogosphereshadtheirownissuesofinequalityandtheriseof
Alistblogsmadeblogginglessandlessaboutconversation,ithasbeentheclosestwehavecometoa
distributedcivicWebspace(Miconi,2012).Itisbeyondreviving.Thatdoesnotmean,however,thatwe
mustsettleforthecontinuingpushtowardcentralizationandcommodificationofsocialcomputingthe
realoutcomeofWeb2.0regardlessofitsinitialintent.Therearestepsthatcanleadtorevitalizingthat
space,includingproducingtoolsthatarebetteroptionsandhelpingtoleadthewaytowardtheiruse.
WhilemostWeb2.0servicesarenotexactlywalledgardenstheyinvitenewusersandprovidesome
tentativeexitstheyalsotendnottoplaywellwithothers.WhatcanwedotocreateasocialWebfilled
withcommunitygardens,opentoeasyaccessanddeparture?Doingsorequiresworkintermsof
crediblealternativearchitectures,providinglifelinestothoseinexistingmegaliths,andchangingthe
cultureofWebengagement.
Somehaveattemptedtoproducetheirown,betterplatformstodobattlewiththeexisting(and
dominant)providers.Thesearesometimesintendedsimplytowrestcontrolofamarketbyintroducing
differentfeaturesGooglesultimatelydoomedGoogle+site(Gonzalez,etal.,2013),forexample,
attemptedtomovethesocialnetworkingspaceawayfromthedominantFacebookandTwittertoanew
servicehostedbyadifferentlargeInternetcompany.Ello(2016)wascreatedasaTwitteralternative
(because,asoneofitsaboutpagesexplains2014isnot2004,andtheworldhaschanged),with
promisesthatitwouldremainaPublicBenefitCorporation,protectusersprivacy,andnotadvertise.
Whilethismightsuggestastrategyforavoidingsomeoftheissueofpreviousplatforms,itremainsa
centralizedpointofcontrol(andfailure)forsocialcommunication.Moreover,itremainscontent
fragmented,providingonlymicrobloggingservices.Whatisneededisdistributionanddiversity,notjust
intermsofthesystemsbeingusedbutthecontenttheycansupport.
OtheralternativesocialnetworksincludingtheDiasporaproject,Lorea,andSynereohave
recognizedthedangersofcentralizedservicesandhavebeencreatedwithfederalizationordistribution
builtinfromtheoutset(vanderVelden,2012).Ratherthanacentral(andcentrallyowned)system,
theseprovideforthecreationofnodesthatcantheninteractwithothernodeshostedelsewhere,sharing
datawhileprovidinglocalcontrol.Leveragingopensoftware,andopenprotocols,providessomething
thatisstructurallysimilartothepersonallyrunblogoftheearlyblogosphere.Blogswere,fromthe
start,moldablepiecesoftechnology,opentoberepurposedinmyriadways,evenwithoutchangingthe
underlyingsoftware,butalsoopentoalterationsandextensionsofthesoftwareitself[13].Neitherof
theseoptionsisavailabletotheuserofFacebook,butaDiasporausercanseeandwithtechnical
knowhowchangehowthesoftwareworks.Sofar,however,thesesystemshavehadmodestsuccess
inattractingusers.NetworkeffectsleaveusersclingingtoFacebookandTwitter,andswitchingcostsare
high.
Butswitchingoverentirelyisnottheonlyoption.Blogosphereswerenotableinpartbecausetheywere
designedforbrowsing,formovingfromoneplacetoanotherwithoutaspecificaim.JamesFallowsnoted
in2002thattheWebremainedunfilteredandfilledwithsurprisesthatthefeelingwassimilartothat
ofgoingthroughlibrarystacksiftherewerenodustandyoucouldinstantlyzoomfromfloortofloor.
Indeed,earlygroupblogslikeSlashdot,Metafilter,Kuro5hin,orFarkcouldquicklybringcrowdsto
relativelyundiscoveredpartsoftheWeb.Recoveringthatserendipityrequiresbuildingpathwaysoutof
FacebookandTwitter,usingsomeofthesametechniquesandtechnologiesthatbroughtuserstherein
thefirstplace.
Suchcontroldoesnotrequireabsoluteseparationfromcorporatelycontrolledorstateregulated
infrastructure.Justascommunitygardensarenottheantithesisofprivatelycontrolledspaces,but
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ratheraspacethathelpstorenegotiatetherelationshipsbetweenstate,nonstateandcorporateactors,
alternativestothesocialmediaoligarchsneednotrequiretippingatwindmills[14].Althoughtherehave
beeneffortstocreatemeshbasedalternativestotheexistingInternet(Frangoudis,etal.,2011),
blogospheresdemonstratethatitisentirelypossibletobuildspacesforcivildiscourseridingonthe
backoftheprivatizedinfrastructure,touseDahlbergs(2001)phrase.Itmayrequirethatusers
challengebothtechnologicalandlegalconstraintsontheirdata.Zimmer(2008)suggeststhatcritical
technologicaltoolsmaybecreatedtohelpwrestcontroloverautomaticprocesses.Butbeyondthis,they
mayopenupconnectionsoutsideofFacebook,Twitter,Google,andthelikebycreatingpeerbased
connectionsthathelptodecentralizecontrol.
Teachersatalllevelshaveanimportantroletoplayhere.Themostobviouswayisinbuildingacritical
literacyamongtheirstudents.Thatincludesrecognitionthatcriticalmakingbystudentsandby
teacherscanmakesignificantdifferences.ThefutureoftheWebasweknowitrequirestinkeringat
thegrassroots(BernersLee,2010).Educatorshelpedtobuildtheblogosphere,andtheyhavealsoled
thewayontoplatformslikeTwitterandFacebook.Inmanyuniversities,coursesaretaughtfromwithin
Facebookorstudentsareencouragedtotweet.Whenteachersmakethesechoices,theyshouldthink
beyondeaseofuseandmeetingstudentswheretheyare,andconsiderwhatmessagestheysendwhen
theychoosetheirmeansofcommunicatingandcollaborating.Aretheremoreliberatingalternatives?
IfWeb2.0continuesalongitscurrenttrajectory,wecanexpectplatformstocontinuetoconsolidateand
userstocontinuetolosetheabilitytocontroltheircontent,theirprivacy,andtheirliberty.Atthevery
least,arobustnewcivicWebspace,liketheblogosphere,activelyshapingtheflowofmedia(Jenkins,
2004)wouldtipthelocusofcontrolbackalittlefromlargecorporationsandgovernmentsandtoward
citizens.Scholarscanplayanimportantrolehere,byidentifyingthewaysinwhichtechnologicaland
organizationalchoicesaffectdemocraticparticipationandparticipatoryculturemorebroadly.Remember
theblogosphere!

Abouttheauthor
AlexanderHalavaisisanassociateprofessorofsocialtechnologiesintheSchoolofSocialand
BehavioralSciencesatArizonaStateUniversity,whereheresearcheswaysinwhichsocialmediachange
thenatureofscholarshipandlearning,andallowfornewformsofcollaborationandselfgovernment.
Hisbloglives(ifbarely)athttp://alex.halavais.net.
Email:theprof[at]asu[dot]edu

Notes
1.Rettberg,2014,p.5.
2.BowmanandWillis,2003,p.23.
3.Dean,2010,p.35.
4.StromerGalley,2014,p.74.
5.Papacharissi,2014,pp.2526.
6.Dewey,1984,pp.327328.
7.ColemanandBlumer,2009,pp.8689.
8.HarrisonandStephen,1996,p.32.
9.Weinberger,2002,p.23.
10.Beyer,2014,p.130.
11.Gillmor,2004,p.238.
12.Benkler,2006,p.103.
13.Zittrain,2008,p.95.
14.Arora,2014,pp.8489.

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Editorialhistory
Received27May2016accepted28May2016.

Theblogosphereanditsproblems:Web2.0underminingcivicWebspacesbyAlexanderHalavaisis
licensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttributionNonCommercialShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense.
Theblogosphereanditsproblems:Web2.0underminingcivicWebspaces
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FirstMonday,Volume21,Number66June2016
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