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l Physics
Prepared by Sisay Shewamare.
NOTICE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
This module has four major sections
A. The first one is the INTRODUCTORY section that consists of five parts vis:
1.
2.
3.
TIME REQUIRED: It gives you the total time (in hours) you require to complete the module.
All self tests, activities and evaluations are to be finished in this specified time.
4.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Here you will find the list of materials you require to complete
the module. Some of the materials are parts of the course package you will receive in a CDRom or access through the internet. Materials recommended to conduct some experiments may
be obtained from your host institution (Partner institution of the AVU) or you may acquire
/borrow by some other means.
5.
MODULE RATIONALE: In this section you will get the answer to questions like Why
should I study this module as pre-service teacher trainee? What is its relevance to my career?
B. The second one is the CONTENT section that consists of three parts:
6.
OVERVIEW: The content of the module is briefly presented. In this section you will find a
video file (QuickTime, movie) where the author of this module is interviewed about this
module. The paragraph overview of the module is followed by an outline of the content
including the approximate time required to complete each section. A graphic organization of
the whole content is presented next to the outline. All these three will assist you to picture how
the content is organized in the module.
7.
8.
maximum attention to the specific objectives as they are vital to organize your effort in the
study of the module.
C. The third section is the bulk of the module. It is the section where you will spend more time and is
referred to as the TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITIES. The gist of the nine components is listed
below:
9.
10.
KEY CONCEPTS: This section contains short, concise definitions of terms used in the
module. It helps you with terms which you might not be familiar in the module.
11.
12.
COMPULSORY RESOURCES: A minimum of two video, audio with an abstract in text form
is provided in this section.
13.
USEFUL LINKS: A list of at least ten websites is provided in this section. It will help you to
deal with the content in greater depth.
14.
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES: This is the heart of the module. You need to
follow the learning guidance in this section. Various types of activities are provided. Go through
each activity. At times you my not necessarily follow the order in which the activities are
presented. It is very important to note:
I. Statistical Physics
BY SISAY SHEWAMARE GEBREMICHAEL JIMMA UNIVERSITY ETHIOPIA
III TIME
This module can be completed in 120hrs.
IV MATERIALS
The materials in this module are different books, and from the soft copy available on the internet.
V MODULE RATIONALE
In this module we are focusing on the system of macroscopic particles and we study the statistical
description of systems in terms of probability and the behavior of the density of state which help to
measure the macroscopic parameters like heat, absolute temperature and entropy. As a result of this
discussion we will acquired some very powerful tools for calculating the macroscopic properties of any
system in equilibrium from knowledge of its microscopic constitutes then we shall illustrate their
usefulness by discussing the application of macroscopic thermodynamics and distribution of systems of
particles.
VI OVERVIEW
The central concepts of this module are the macroscopic systems of particles and macroscopic
measurement. The module begins with the study of statistical description of systems with statistical
thermodynamics and measuring the macroscopic parameters and its application.
Activities are related to the interaction of the macroscopic systems of particle and analyzing the
distribution of macroscopic systems in terms of the mean energy, entropy and pressure. The inter relation
between the macroscopic parameter discussed in the application of macroscopic thermodynamics and in
the partition function.
6.1 OUTLINE
1 Unit 1 Statistical description of systems of particle
2 Macroscopic measurements
(30 hours)
(25 hours)
3 Statistical thermodynamics
(25 hours)
(40 hours)
Statistical Theories,
phase space
Heat reservoir.
Accessible States,
Probability calculations,
Simple random walk problem in one dimenssion;
D. Some Applications
Thermodynamic potentials
and their relation with thermodynamical variables,
Enesembles systems,
Connection of canonical distribution with thermodynamics .
Partition function and their properties.
Gibs paradox,
Validity of the classical approximation.
The equi partition theorem
Kinetic theory of dilute gases in equilibrium
Distribution of systems of particles
Statistical
Physics
Binomial distribution.
Gaussian distribution.
Principles of equal priori probability
Relaxation time
The probability of the density of states.
B. Macroscopic Measurements:
Work and internal energy.
Absolut temperature,
Heat capacity and specific heats.
Entropy
Content
1. Unit 1 Statistical description of systems of
particle (25 hours)
Gaussian distribution.
Principles of equal priori probability
Relaxation time
The probability of the density of states .
2. Macroscopic measurements
(25 hours)
3. Statistical thermodynamics
(30 hours)
Dear Learners:
In this section, you will find self-evaluation questions that will help you test your preparedness to
complete this module. You should judge yourself sincerely and do the recommended action after
completion of the self-test. We encourage you to take time and answer the questions.
Dear Instructors:
The Pre-assessment questions placed here guide learners to decide whether they are prepared to take the
content presented in this module. It is strongly suggested to abide by the recommendations made on the
basis of the mark obtained by the learner. As their instructor you should encourage learners to evaluate
themselves by answering all the questions provided below. Education research shows that this will help
learners be more prepared and help them articulate previous knowledge.
3) Two moles of an ideal gas ( =1.4) expand quasi-statically and adiabatic ally from pressure of 5
atm. and a volume of 12 liters to final volume of 30 liters a. What is the final pressure of the gas?
a. 1.4
c. 3
b. 3.4
d. 1
4) An ideal gas ( =1.4) expands quasi-statically and adiabatically. If the final temperature is one
third the initial temperature so by what factor does its volume change?
a. 10
c. 16
b. 20
d. 12
5) Following question 4 above, by what factor does its pressure change?
a. 1
c. 0.02
b. 1.2
d. 2
6) One mole of an ideal gas does 3000J of work on the surroundings as it expands isothermally to a
final pressure of 1atm. and volume of 25l. Determine the temperature of the gas
a. 200K
c. 400K
b. 100K
d. 300K
7) Following question 6 above, calculate initial volume of the gas.
a. 20l
c. 22l
b. 30l
d. 25l
8) Five moles of an ideal gas expands is isothermally at 127 0C to four times its initial volume. Find
the work done by the gas
a. 30,000J
c. 50,000J
b. 40,000J
d. 32,012J
9) A gas is compressed at a constant pressure 0.8 atm from a volume of 9 liters to a volume of 2
liters. If in the process 400J of heat energy flows out of the gas what is the work done by the gas?
a. 57J
c. 50J
b. 37J
d. 400J
10) Using question 9 above, what is the internal energy lost by the system
a. 500J
c. 456J
b. 600J
d. 400J
11) There are two thermometers based on different thermometric properties of two different
materials. The two thermometers show identical readings because
a. each property changes uniformly with temperature.
b. the relation between the property and temperature is identical in the two cases
c. the property of one of increases with temperature and the property of the other decreases
at a uniform rate
d. the two thermometers have been calibrated with reference to a common standard.
12) In a Carnot cycle
a. work done during adiabatic expansion is less than work done during adiabatic
compression
b. work done by working substance during adiabatic expansion is greater than work done
during adiabatic compression.
c. work done during adiabatic expansion is equal to work done during adiabatic compression
d. work done during adiabatic expansion is equal to the heat absorbed from the source.
13) Which of the statements below is wrong about an ideal gas?
a. The total number of molecules is large
b. The molecules are in random motion
c. The molecules do not exert any appreciable force on one another or on the walls
d. The volume of the molecule is negligibly small compared with the volume occupied by
the gas.
14) The mean free path in a gas is
a. the distance travelled by a molecule before hitting a wall
15)
16)
17)
18)
7. c
13. c
2. c
8. d
14. d
3. a
9. a
15. .b
4. c
10. c
16. c
5. c
11. a
17. d
6. d
12. c
18. b
Abstract :
Contents: Random Walks and Emergent Properties; Temperature and Equilibrium; Entropy; Free
Energies and Ensembles; Quantum Statistical Mechanics; Computational Stat Mech: Ising and
Markov; Order Parameters, Broken Symmetry, and Topology; Deriving New Laws; Correlations,
Response, and Dissipation; Abrupt Phase Transitions; Continuous Phase Transitions.
Rationale:
This chapter covers most of the topics in the second and third activities of the
module...
Description: Rodney Baxter's classic book is officially out of print. Contents: basic statistical mechanics; the onedimensional Ising model; the mean field theory; Ising model on the Bethe Lattice; The Spherical Model; Duality
and Star Triangle Transformations of Planar Ising Models; Square-Lattice Ising Model; Ice-Type Models;
Alternative Way of Solving the Ice-Type Models; Squared Lattice Eight-Vertex Model; Kagom Lattice EightVertex Model; Potts and Ashkin-Teller Models; Corner Transfer Matrices; Hard Hexagon and Related Models;
Elliptic Functions. .
Rationale: This book can be downloaded and used for personal and non-commercial use
Date Consulted: - Aug 2007
Useful Link #2
Title: STATISTICAL PHYSICS An Introductory Course
URL: http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/3526.html
Screen Capture
By Daniel J Amit (Universita di Roma "La Sapienza" & The Hebrew University) & Yosef
Verbin (The Open University of Israel
Description: This invaluable textbook is an introduction to statistical physics that has been written
primarily for self-study. It provides a comprehensive approach to the main ideas of statistical
physics at the level of an introductory course, starting from the kinetic theory of gases and
proceeding all the way to BoseEinstein and FermiDirac statistics. Each idea is brought out with
ample motivation and clear, step-by-step, deductive exposition. The key points and methods are
presented and discussed on the basis of concrete representative systems, such as the paramagnet,
Einstein's solid, the diatomic gas, black body radiation, electric conductivity in metals and
superfluidity.
The book is written in a stimulating style and is accompanied by a large number of exercises
appropriately placed within the text and by self-assessment problems at the end of each
chapter. Detailed solutions of all the exercises are provided.
How do we determine the state of a many particle system? Well, let us, first of all, consider the
simplest possible many particle system, which consists of a single spinless particle moving classically
in one dimension. Assuming that we know the particles equation of motion, the state of the system is
fully specified once we simultaneously measure the particles position q and momentum p. In
principle, if we know q and p then we can calculate the state of the system at all subsequent times
using the equation of motion
1.2 Statistical ensemble
If we are informed about any of the initial conditions of a thrown up coin like its position, the height
of the throw and the corresponding velocity of the coin, we would indeed predict the out come of the
experiment by applying the law of classical mechanics.
In an experiment that describes the outcome in terms of the probability of a single coin, we consider
an ensemble consisting of many such single experiments.
1.3Probability
In this section we will discuss some of elementary aspect of probability theory. It is important to
keep in mind that whenever it is desired to described a situation from a statistical point of view
(i.e., in terms of probabilities), It is always necessary to consider an assembly ( ensemble) consists
of a very large number of similar prepared systems.
Group discussion
Give some example which can be described by two states of systems of particles
Answer
a)
In throwing a pair of dice, one gives a statistical description by considering a very large number.
b) In the basic probability concept, it will be useful to keep in mind a specific simple but important, illustrative
example the so called random walk problem
c)
1
and a magnetic moment ; in accordance with quantum mechanics, its
2
spin can therefore point either up or down with respect to a given direction. If both these possibilities are
equally likely, what is the net total magnetic moment of N such atoms?
d) Diffusion of a molecule in a gas: A given molecule travels in three dimensions a mean distance l between
collisions with other molecules. How far is it likely to have gone after N collisions?
Where
N mN
The probability PN (m) of finding the particle at the position x ml after N such steps.
W N ( n1 )
N!
p n 1 q n2
n1!n 2 !
Group discussion
Derive the probability W N (n1 ) for finding the particle at position x=ml after N steps
You can see the derivation as follow
The total number of steps N is simply
N n1 n2
m n1 n2 n1 ( N n1 ) 2n1 N
Our fundamental assumption was that successive steps are statistically independent of each other.
Thus one can assert simply that, irrespective of past history, each step is characterized by the
respective probabilities
P = probability that the step is to the right
q =1 p = probability that the step is to the left
Now, the probability of any one given sequence of n1 steps to the right and n2 steps to the left is
given simply by multiplying the respective probabilities, i.e., by
p1p 2 p3 L pn q1q 2q 3 L q n p n1 q n 2
The number of distinct possibilities is given by
N!
n1!n2 !
The probability W N (n1 ) of taking n1 steps to the right and n2 = N - n1 steps to the left, in any
order, is obtained by multiplying the probability of this sequence by the number of possible
sequences of such steps. This gives
W N ( n1 )
N!
p n 1 q n2
n1!n2 !
(p + q)N =
n 0
N!
pnq N n
n!( N n)!
Read the binomial distribution in the fundamentals of thermodynamics book (Federick Reif)
pp.7-23
Group discussion
Given that n1
1
( N m),
2
n2
1
( N m)
2
Show that
p N ( m)
N!
1
[( N m) / 2]![( N m) / 2]! 2
In this discussion you may consider the probability PN (m) that the particle is found at position m
after N steps is the same as WN (n1 ) given by
PN (m) = WN ( n1 )
f (u )
p(u ) f (u )
i
i 1
P(u )
i 1
This expression can be simplified. Since P(ui) is defined as a probability, the quantity
M
P(u ) 1
i 1
f (u ) p (u i ) f (u i )
i 1
Activity
Derive the summation and the product of the mean value of different function
Solution
If f(u) and g(u) are any two functions of u, then
M
i 1
i 1
i 1
deviation
( u ) 2 P (ui )(ui u ) 2 0 second moment of u about its mean, or more simply the
i 1
* u u
1
2 2
n n
exp
2
2 * n1
2 * n1
1
This is the famous Gaussian distribution function. The Gaussian distribution is only valid in the
limits N>>1 and n1 >>1
Activity
Solution
Let us expand lnP around n = n~ . Note that we expand the slowly varying function lnP(n), instead of
the rapidly varying function P(n), because the Taylor expansion of P(n) does not converge sufficiently
rapidly in the vicinity of n = n~ to be useful. We can write
~ n) ln P (n
~ ) B B ...
ln P(n
1
2
2
2
where
d k ln P
Bk
dn k n n
n n
P n P n1 exp
2
2 * n1
1
The constant P( n1 ) is most conveniently fixed by making use of the normalization condition
For discrete case
N
P (n ) 1
N
n1 0
P (n)dn 1
N
for a continuous distribution function. Since we only expect P (n) to be significant when n lies in the
relatively narrow range n1 * n1 , the limits of integration in the above expression can be replaced
by with negligible error. Thus,
n n
exp
2 * n
Pn
dn P n1
2
2 * n1 exp x 2 dx 1
Activity
Take a bottle of gas which is isolated with the external environment.
Solution
In this situation, we would expect the probability of the system being found in one of its accessible
states to be independent of time.
This implies that the statistical ensemble does not evolve with time.
Individual systems in the ensemble will constantly change state; but the average number of systems
in any given state should remain constant.
Thus, all macroscopic parameters describing the system, such as the energy and the volume, should
also remain constant.
There is nothing in the laws of mechanics which would lead us to suppose that the system will be
found more often in one of its accessible states than in another. We assume, therefore, that the system
is equally likely to be found in any of its accessible states. This is called the assumption of equal a
priori probabilities, and lies at the very heart of statistical mechanics.
1.8 The relaxation time
Activity
Take an isolated many particle systems will eventually reach equilibrium, irrespective of its initial
state.
Number of particle
Solution
Time
The typical time-scale for this process is called the relaxation time, and depends in detail on the
nature of the inter-particle interactions.
The principle of equal a priori probabilities is only valid for equilibrium states.
The relaxation time for the air in a typical classroom is very much less than one second. This suggests
that such air is probably in equilibrium most of the time, and should, therefore, be governed by the
principle of equal a priori probabilities.
1.8 Behavior of the density of states
A macroscopic system is one which has many degrees of freedom denote the energy of the system by
E. We shall denote by E the number of states whose energy lies between E and E+dE in a
system. Let E denote the total number of possible quantum states of the system which are
characterized by energies less than E. Clearly E increase when E increases. The number of states
E in the range between E and E+dE is then
E E E E
E
E
Activity
Consider the case of a gas of N identical molecules enclosed in container of
volume V. The energy of the system can be written
E=K+U+Eint Where
K=K(p1,p2,.pN)=
1 N
2
pi , U=U(r1,r2,rN)
2m i 1
Px
R
E
E+dE
E E
d 3 r1...d 3 rN d 3 p1...d 3 p N
BV N E
3N
In other words, the density of states varies like the extensive macroscopic parameters of the system
raised to the power of the number of degrees of freedom. An extensive parameter is one which
scales with the size of the system (e.g., the volume). Since thermodynamic systems generally
possess a very large number of degrees of freedom, this result implies that the density of states is an
exceptionally rapidly increasing function of the energy and volume. This result, which turns out to
be quite general, is very useful in statistical thermodynamics.
Problem
1. A penny is tossed 400 times. Find the probability of getting 215 heads. (Suggestion: use the
Gaussian approximation)
Solution
A penny is tossed 400 times. Find the probability of getting 215 heads is given by the Gaussian
approximation
P ( n)
n n
exp
2
2 * n1
2 * n1
1
where
N=400, n1=251, p=1/2, q=1/2
n1 Np
* n1
* n1 2 100 ,
Npq
400 x1 / 2 x1 / 2 100 10
n1 200
P (251,400)
1
10 2
251 200 2
200
Problem
2. A particle of mass m is free to move in one dimension. Denote its position coordinate by x and its
momentum by p. Suppose that this particle is confined with a box so as to be located between x=0
and x=L, and suppose that its energy is known to lie between E and E+dE. Draw the classical phase
space of this particle, indicating the regions of this space which are accessible to the particle
Solution
Let us represent the particle motion in the coordinate of p, x
p
P+ dp
p
0
The particle with position x and momentum p position lies between x=0 and x=L, energy lies
between E and E+dE
The momentum of the particle is given by
E=p2 /2m
p
2mE
d E
E the number of states which have an
dE
E = p
2mE
3. What is the probability of throwing a three or a six with one throw of die?
solution
the probability that the face exhibit either 3 or 6 is
1 1 1
6 6 3
Abstract :
Thermal and Statistical Physics: From Classical Mechanics to Statistical Mechanics;
thermodynamic Concepts and Processes; Concepts of Probability;The Methodology of
Statistical Mechanics; Magnetic Systems; Noninteracting Particle Systems; Thermodynamic
Relations and Processes; Theories of Gases and Liquids; Critical Phenomena and the
Renormalization Group; Introduction to Many-Body Perturbation Theory...
Rationale:
This chapter covers most of the topics in the second and third activities of the module...
Macroscopic Measurements:
pdV
Vi
If the system is isothermally insulated so it cant absorb any heat then Q=0
The internal energy E W
Activity
Consider a system that consists of the cylinder containing a gas. Supply the external energy to the
system by switching the circuit. What do you observe? Consider a standard macrostate i of volume
Vi and mean pressure pi , where E Ei . How would one determined the mean energy E j of any
other macrostate j of volume V j and the mean pressure p j ?
Figure A system consists of cylinder containing gas.
The volume V of the gas is determined by the position of the piston. The resistance can brings
thermal contact to the system.
Solution
The microstate of the system can be specified by the two parameters, volume V and internal
As the gas expand from 1 to its final volume 3 the mean pressure decrease to some value p3 and the
work done by the piston W13
To bring the pressure p 3 without changing the volume, work is done by the electric resistance by an
amount WR and if the amount of energy consumed by the resistance then the energy supplied by
the external system is WR .
The total internal energy of the system in state in state 2 is then given by
E E a Wac (WR )
The amount of heat absorbed from a macrostate 1 to a macrostate 2 is given by
E 2 ( E 2 E1 ) W12
Heat
The heat Qab absorbed by the system in going from a macrostate a to another macrostate is given by
Qab Eb Ea Wab
2.2 Absolute temperature
Properties of absolute temperature
1. The absolute temperature provides one with a temperature parameter which is completely
independent of the nature of the particular thermometer used to perform the temperature
measurement.
2. The absolute temperature T is a parameter of fundamental significance which enters all the
theoretical equations. Hence all the theoretical predictions will involve this particular
temperature.
Activity
From the equation of state p
N
kT = nkT
V
Consider a macroscopic system whose macrostate can be specified by its absolute temperature T and
some other macroscopic parameter y (y might be volume or mean pressure)
Activity
Take a macroscopic system at temperature T, an infinitesimal amount of heat dQ is added to
the system and the other parameters y kept fixed.
The resulting change dT in temperature of the system depends on the nature of the system as
well as on the parameters T and y specifying the macrostate of the system
Result
The specific heat capacity at constant y is defined by
dQ
dT
Cy
The specific heat per mole or heat capacity per mole is thus defined by
cy
1
1 dQ
Cy
dT
1
1 dQ
Cy
m
m dT
Task
Take a gas or a liquid whose macrostate can be specified by two parameters say the temperature T
and volume. Calculate the heat capacity at constant volume C and at constant pressure C p
1. To determine C
We clamp the piston in position that the volume of the system is kept fixed.
In this case the system cannot do any work, and the heat dQ added to the system goes entirely to
increase the internal energy of the system
dQ dE
2. To determine C p
The piston left completely free to move the weight of the piston being equal to the constant force per
unit area (mean pressure) on the system
In this case the piston will move when heat dQ is added to the system; as the result the system does
also mechanical work. Thus the heat dQ is used both to increase the internal energy of the system and
to do mechanical work on the piston
dQ dE pdV which is the fundamental law of thermodynamics
From the result we expected
i). dE is increase by small amount( and hence the temperature T will also increase by smaller
amount) in the second case compared to the first.
ii). C p C
2.3.1 Heat capacity using the second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is given by dQ TdS the heat capacity
S
Cy T
If all external parameters of the system kept constant, then the system dose no macroscopic work,
dW 0 then the first law reduced to dQ dE
E
S
T V T V
CV T
Example
Let us consider heat measurements by the method of mixtures in terms of the specific heats of the
substance involved. Consider that two substances A and B, of respective masses mA and mB , are
brought into thermal contact under condition where the pressure is kept constant. Assume that before
the substance are brought into thermal contact their respective equilibrium temperature are TA and TB
respectively. Compute the final temperature T f
Solution
2.4 Entropy
The entropy can readily be determined by using the second law dQ TdS for an infinitesimal quasistatic process.
Given any macrostate b of the system, one can find the entropy difference between this state and
some standard state a to state b and calculating for this process
b
Sb S a
a
dQ
T
Suppose that the macrostate of a body is specified by its temperature, since all its other parameters
are kept constant.
b
S Tb S Ta
a
dQ b C y T ' dT '
T
T'
Ta
T
then
S Tb S Ta C y ln
Tb
Ta
Problem
Consider two system A and system B with constant specific heat C ' A and C 'B and originally at
respective temperature TA and TB , are brought into thermal contact with each other. After the system
come to equilibrium, they reach a come final temperature T f . What is the entropy change of the
entire system in this process?
System A,TA
B,TB System
Isolated system
Answer
To calculate the entropy change of system A, we can imagine that it is brought from its initial
temperature TA to its final temperature T f by a succession of infinitesimal heat additions.
dQ mAC ' A dT
T
f
T
dQ
m C ' dT
dS
S A (T f ) S A (TA ) A A
mAC ' A ln f
T
T
TA
TA
f
T
dQ
m C ' dT
dS
S B (T f ) S B (TB ) B B
mB C 'B ln f
T
T
TB
TB
Tf
TA
+ mB C 'B ln
Tf
TB
Problems
(a) One kilogram of water at 00C is brought into contact with a large heat reservoir at 1000C. When
the water has reached 1000C, what has been the change in entropy of the water? Of the heat
reservoir? Of the entire system consisting of both water and heat reservoir?
b) If the water had been heated from 00C to 1000C by first bringing it is contact with a reservoir
at 500C and then with a reservoir at 1000C, what would have been the change in entropy of the
entire system?
C) Show how the water might be heated from 00C to 1000C with no change in the entropy of the
entire system.
Answer
Entropy of water
dS 01000 C
dQ
where dQ mCdT
T
mCdT
T
373 k
S mC
273 k
S mC ln
dT
T
Tf
Ti
S water mC ln
373
273
= 1310J/K
S reservoir
mC (T f Ti ) water
T373
=-1126J/K
Total entropy
S total S reservoir + S water
S total
mC (T f Ti ) water
Stotal 184J/K
T373
+ mC ln
373
273
Abstract :
Thermal and Statistical Physics: From Classical Mechanics to Statistical Mechanics;
thermodynamic Concepts and Processes; Concepts of Probability;The Methodology of
Statistical Mechanics; Magnetic Systems; Noninteracting Particle Systems; Thermodynamic
Relations and Processes; Theories of Gases and Liquids; Critical Phenomena and the
Renormalization Group; Introduction to Many-Body Perturbation Theory...
Rationale:
This chapter covers most of the topics in the second and third activities of the
module...
Reading 5:
Complete reference: Introduction To Statistical Mechanics | Free eBooks
Download!
From
URL:http:// www.ebookee.com/Introduction-To-Statistical-Mechanics_139834.html Accessed
Abstract
Rationale:
Reading 6:
r.
Abstract:
Rationale:
.
Energy of the systems E and E, the external parameters are constant, so that A and A cannot do work
on one another and the systems are thermally contact heat will exchange. Considering the energy
width E
Let us calculate the accessible state
The temperature at equilibrium
The entropy at equilibrium
Result
The number of microstates of A consistent with a macrostate in which the energy lies in the range E
to E + E is denoted (E). Likewise, the number of microstates of A consistent with a macrostate
in which the energy lies between E and E + E is denoted (E ).
The combined system A(0) = A + A is assumed to be isolated (i.e., it neither does work on nor
exchanges heat with its surroundings). The number of accessible to the entire system A0 let us denote
by 0 (E) when A has energy between E and E+dE.
The probability
P(E)=C 0 (E)
Total accessible state
0 E E ' E 0 E
Temperature at equilibrium
The probability of system A having the energy an energy near E is given by
P(E)=C E ' E 0 E
~
To locate the maximum position of P(E) at E= E
ln P ( E ) 1 P
=0
E
P E
ln P( E ) ln C ln E ln ' E '
ln P( E ) ln E ln ' E '
=0
E
E
E
ln E ln ' E '
=0
E
E '
E ' E'
1
ln
kT
where k is some positive constant having the dimension of energy and whose
S
E
Solution
Where we have introduced the definition S k ln this quantity S is given the name of entropy
Total accessible state 0 E E ' E 0 E and taking the logarithm
ln 0 E ln E ln ' E 0 E
S 0 S S '
The condition of maximum probability is expressible as the condition that the total entropy
S S ' max imum entropy occurs when T=T
which are
f f
'
'
The mean energy change in each system is simply the net heat absorbed, so that
Q E f Ei
ln
E
Temperature
1. If two systems separately in equilibrium are characterized by the same value of the
parameter, then the systems will remain in equilibrium when brought into thermal contact
with each other.
2. If the systems are characterized by different values of the parameter, then they will not
remain in equilibrium when brought into thermal contact with each other.
If two systems are n thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other
'
'
'
using Expanding ln E , Q at E=Q
1 2 ln '
ln '
Q' 2 ...
Q'
2 E ' 2
E '
using approximation
Q'
ln '
Q' =
the higher order becomes zero
kT '
E '
ln ' E ' , Q ' ln ' E '
Q'
kT '
Q '
T'
Q '
For a heat reservoir
T'
3.5
Activity
Now that we have examined in detailed the thermal interaction between systems, let us turn to the
general case where mechanical interaction can also take place, i.e. where the external parameters of
the systems are also free to exchange. We begin, therefore, by investigating how the density of states
depends on the external parameters.
Solution
E+
E
The number of states accessible to the system microstates accessible to the system when the overall
energy lies between E and E + E depends on the particular value of x, so we can write
E, x .
The number of states (E, x) whose energy is changed from a value less than E to a value greater
than E when the parameter changes from x to x + dx is given by the number of microstates per unit
energy range multiplied by the average shift in energy of the microstates, Hence
E, x
E , x E r
dx
E
x
where the mean value of Er/ x is taken over all accessible microstates (i.e., all states where the
energy lies between E and E + E and the external parameter takes the value x). The above equation
can also be written
E, x
E , x
X dx
E
where
X E, x
E r
is the mean generalized force conjugate to the external parameter x.
x
Consider the total number of microstates between E and E + E. When the external parameter
dx . In symbols
x
changes from x to x + dx, the number of states in this energy range changes by
E , x
dx E E E
E
x
E
which yields
x
E
X
x
E
E
E
then
ln ln
X
X
x
E
E
ln ln
X X
x
E
Thus,
ln
X
x
where
n
ln
ln
dE
dx
E
1 x
ln
,
E
ln
X
x
d ln dE X dx
dW X dx
Then d ln dE dW dQ
The fundamental relation valid for any quasi-static infinitesimal process
dQ TdS dE dW or equivalently
dS
dQ
T
Adiabatic process
dQ 0 which asserts
dS 0
Equilibrium
Consider the equilibrium between the systems A and A in the simple case the external parameters
are the volumes V and V of the two systems. The number of state available to the combined system
A0 is given by the simple product.
0 E , V E , V ' E ', V '
Activity
Using the accessible state given for the combined system derive the equation that guarantee for
thermal and mechanical equilibrium.
Solution
0
For the combined system the accessible state given as E , V E , V ' E ', V '
d ln
ln E , V
V
dV
ln E , V
E
dE +
where
ln E , V
V
dV '
dE ' =0
ln E , V
E
similarly '
dV dV '
'
pdV = ' p ' dV
Then mechanical equilibrium
p = p'
Thermodynamics laws and basic statistics relation
Summery of thermodynamic laws
Zero law: If two systems are in thermal in equilibrium with a third system, they must be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law: an equilibrium macrostate of a system can be characterized by a quantity E
(called internal energy) which has the property that for an isolated E =constant. If the
system is allowed to interact and thus goes from one macrostate to another, the resulting
change in E can be written in the form E W Q
In any process in which a thermally isolated system goes from one macrostate to
another, the entropy tends to increase S 0
If the system is not isolated and under goes a quasi-static infinitesimal process in
dQ
which it absorbs heat dQ, then dS
T
Third law: The entropy S of a system has the limiting property that T 0 , S S0 where
S0 is a constant independent of all parameters of the particular system
Derive the equation for the canonical distribution and kinetic theory of dilute gasses in
equilibrium
Useful Link # 1
Title MACROSCOPIC AND STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
URL: http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6031.html
Screen Capture
This textbook addresses the key questions in both classical thermodynamics and statistical
thermodynamics: Why are the thermodynamic properties of a nano-sized system different from
those of a macroscopic system of the same substance? Why and how is entropy defined in
thermodynamics, and how is the entropy change calculated when dissipative heat is involved?
What is an ensemble and why is its theory so successful?
They include the introduction of the grand canonical ensemble, the grand partition function
and its application to ideal quantum gases, a discussion of the mean field theory of the Ising
model and the phenomenon of ferromagnetism, as well as a more detailed discussion of ideal
quantum gases near T = 0, for both Fermi and Bose gases.
Reading 2:.
Complete reference:
Fundamentals Of Statistical And Thermal physics
From
URL: http://www.ebookee.com/Reif-Fundamentals-Of-Statistical-And-Thermal-Physics_
Abstract:
Rationale:
Reading 3
Complete reference: Maxwell Velocity Distribution simulation
URL: http://www.kfki.hu/physics/physedu/kinetic_gas_model/exp/veldistr.html
Abstract: A graph which show the Maxwell velocity distribution
Reading 4
http://colos1.fri.unilj.si/~colos/COLOS/TUTORIALS/JAVA/THERMODYNAMICS/THERMO_UK/HTML/Vel_
Distri.html
Abstract: Distribution of particles in their energy leel
The work done by the system when the volume is changed by an amount dV in the process is given
by
dW pdV
The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the temperature of the gas, and is independent of
the volume
E = E (T) independent of V.
Entropy
The entropy of an ideal gas can readily be computed from the fundamental thermodynamic relation
TdS dE pdV
ds vCV
dT vR
dV
T
V
V 1T cons
For two independent variables S and V using the fundamental thermodynamics derive the
thermodynamics state of a homogeneous system.
Answer
The independent thermodynamic function
E E S , V the internal energy
Differentiating the function
E
E
dS
S V
V
dE
dV
S
E
p
Using the second order differential and dE is a perfect differential. E must be independent of the order
of differentiation.
V S
S V
V S
p
S V
Then
T
Activity
For two independent variables S and p using the fundamental thermodynamics derive the
thermodynamics state of a homogeneous system.
Answer
The independent thermodynamic function
dE TdS pdV
dE TdS d pV Vdp
d E pV TdS Vdp
let H E pV which we call it enthalpy
H H S, p
dH TdS Vdp
Differentiating the function
H
H
dp
dS
S p
p S
dH
p S
Using the second order differential and dH is a perfect differential. H must be independent of the
order of differentiation.
H T
p S S p p
S p p s
Then
T
V
p S S
Activity
For two independent variables T and V using the fundamental thermodynamics derive the
thermodynamics state of a homogeneous system.
Answer
The independent thermodynamic function
dE TdS pdV
dE d TS SdT pdV
d E TS SdT pdV
let F E TS which we call it Helmholtz free energy
F F T ,V
dF SdT pdV
Differentiating the function F F T ,V
F
F
dT
T V
V
dF
dV
T
T V
V T
Using the second order differential and dH is a perfect differential. H must be independent of the
order of differentiation.
T V V
F
V T T
Then
p
T V
Activity
For two independent variables T and p using the fundamental thermodynamics derive the
thermodynamics state of a homogeneous system.
Answer
The independent thermodynamic function
dE TdS pdV
dE d TS SdT d pV Vdp
d E TS pV SdT Vdp
let G E TS pV which we call it Gibbs free energy
G G T , P
dG SdT Vdp
Differentiating the function G G T , p
G
G
dp
dT
T p
p T
dG
p T
Using the second order differential and dH is a perfect differential. H must be independent of the
order of differentiation.
G
T p p T
G
S
p T T p p
Then
S
V
T p
p T
Summary for the thermodynamics function
Maxwell relations
The entire discussion of the preceding section was based upon the fundamental thermodynamics
relation
dE TdS pdV
V
T
V
S
S
V
Thermodynamics functions
E.............................E E ( S , V )
H E pV ............H H ( S , p )
F E TS ..............F F (T , V )
G E TS pV ......G G (T , p )
Specific heats
Consider any homogeneous substance whose volume V is the only relevant external parameter.
The heat capacity at constant volume is given by
dQ
dT
CV
T
V
dT
Cp
T
p
Activity
a) For an infinitesimal process of a system the molar specific heat at constant volume and at
constant pressure is given by CV and C p respectively. Show that C p C v R which shows
C p Cv
b) Using the heat capacity and thermodynamics function relation show that the heat capacity at
constant volume and at constant pressure related by C p CV
Solution for a
At constant volume dV 0
Then first law of thermodynamics reduced to dQ dE
Using the molar heat capacity
Cv
1 dQ
v dT
1 E
v T
2V
k
dE
The change of energy depends only on the temperature change of the gas
dE vC v dT
1 dQ
v dT
Then
1 dQ
v dT
Cv R
p
C p C v R Which shows C p C v
Solution for b
Considering the independent variable S S T , p and second law of thermo dynamics
S
dQ TdS T
dQ T
dT
p
p
dT
p
p
T
T
dT
V
dT
p
p
dQ T
T
p
C p CV
p
T
T
T
T
T
T
dT then
V
1 V
V T
=p
1
V
=- V
T
dV
dT
p
p
dp =0 since V= constant
T
1
V
, kV p
T
=- V
T
C p CV
p
T
T
= CV - V
= CV
2V
k
If E<Er<E+ E
Pr 0
Other wise
Normalized
An ensemble representing an isolated system in equilibrium consists then of system distributed in the
above expression. It is some times called a microcanonical ensemble.
A T
We consider the case of a small system A in thermal interaction with a heat reservoir A. What is the
probability Pr of finding the system A in any one particular microstate r of energy Er?
The combined system A0=A+A and from the conservation of energy E0=Er+E
When A has an energy Er, the reservoir A must then have an energy near E=E0-Er.
The number of state ' ( E 0 E r ) accessible to A
The probability of occurrence in the ensemble of a situation where A in state r is simply proportional
the number of state accessible to A0
Pr C ' ' ( E ' )
Using
ln '
'
E
ln ' ( E 0 E r ) ln ' E 0
E r ....
E ' E0
ln ' ( E 0 E r ) ln ' E 0 E r
' E ' ' E 0 e E r
then
Pr C ' ' E 0 e Er
C'
C ' ' ( E 0 )e Er 1
1
' E 0 e E r
r
Pr
e E r
e Er The probability of the canonical distribution
r
Activity
Spin system: paramagnetic particles which has N atoms in a system with spin
Answer
Considering a system which contains N atoms, spin particles interact with external magnetic field
H with the magnetic moment
state
+
_
Magnetic moment
P Ce E Ce H
Energy
E H
E H
1
e H
e H
e H e H
e H
e H e H
If the molecules position lies in the range between r and r+dr and momentum lies between P
and P+dP then the volume in phase space is given by d3rd3P=(dxdydz)dpxdpydpz)
The probability that the molecule has position lying in the range between r and r+dr and
momentum in the range between p and p+dp
2
d 3 rd 3 p 2pm
P(r,p)d rd p
e
h03
The probability that P(p)d3p that a molecule has momentum lying in the range between p and
p+dp
P p d p P r , p d rd p Ce
3
2 m
d3p
/2
Generalized force
Activity
Using the canonical distribution write the generalized force
Solution
If the a system depends on the external parameter x, then Er=Er(x) and from the definition of the
generalized force we have that
Xr
E r
x
e
X
e
Er
E r
Er
then
X
1 ln Z
x
1 ln Z
dV
V
1 ln Z
V
Activity
One can write the thermodynamics function in terms of the partition function derive the equation
Solution
The partition function given by Z e Er x so it can be represented in terms of , x since Er=Er(x)
Z=Z ( , x) considering a small change
d ln z
ln z
ln Z
dx
d
dx
d ln Z dW Ed
The last term can be written inn terms of the change in E rather than the change in . Thus
d ln Z dW d E d E
d ln Z E dW d E dQ
dQ
therefore
T
S k ln Z E
TS kT ln Z E
If a system can be treated in the classical approximation then its energy E E q1 ,...qn , p1 ,.. pn
depends on some f generalized coordinates and f momenta.
The partition function in the phase space given by
Z ... e E ( q1 ,...qn , p1 ,... pn )
Activity
Consider the energy of the system is only defined by a function to which is an arbitrary additive
constant. If one changes by a constant amount 0 the standard state r the energy state becomes
E r Er 0 using the partition function
a. Show the corresponding mean energy shifting by the amount of 0
b. Show the entropy of the combined system will not change S S
Solution
a. The mean value of the energy when shifting the system energy by 0
Partition function
Z e ( Er 0 )
r
0
Er
= e e
= e 0 Z
r
ln Z ln Z 0
from the definition E
ln Z
ln Z
and E
ln Z
ln Z
E E 0
b. The entropy
let the partition function in terms of the variables Z Z ( , x)
d ln Z
ln Z
ln Z
ln Z
ln Z
d
dx where E
and dW
dx
S k ln Z * E
dQ
kT
S k ln Z * E = k ( ln Z 0 E 0 ) =k ( ln Z + E )=S
S S the entropy keeping constant
Activity
The second remark concerns the decomposition of partition function for a system A which consists
of two parts A and A which interact weakly with each other, if the states of A and A are labelled
respectively by r and s find the partition function for the total system
Solution
Part A state r corresponding energy Er
Part A state s corresponding energy Es
System A state r,s corresponding energy Ers
The partition function for the system A is given by Z
Z e ( Er Es ) where E E E
r ,s
r
s
r ,s
then
Z e ( Er Es ) = e ( Er )
r ,s
( Es )
Z Z ' Z ''
ln Z ln Z ' ln Z ''
Activity
Consider a gas consisting of N identical monatomic molecules of mass m enclosed in a container of
volume V. The position vector of the ith molecule denoted by ri
N
Pi 2
U r1 , r2 ,...rN where for non-interacting
2m
monatomic ideal gas U=0 and write the partition function in phase space
Solution
Taking a gas consisting of N identical monatomic molecules of mass m enclosed in a container of
volume V. The position vector of the ith molecule denoted by ri
Pi 2
U r1 , r2 ,...rN where for non-interacting
, its momentum by pi the total energy given by E
i 1 2m
N
monatomic ideal gas U=0 therefore the partition function in phase space can be given as follows
Z exp
p12 ... pN 2 U r1 ,...rN
2m
1
h0
p12 ... pN 2
2m
exp
3N
exp U r ,...r d
1
3
1
3
1
...d 3 N
...d 3 N = V N
VN
1
exp
p12 ... pN 2
3N
h0
2m
dp13 ...dpN 3
2
2
2
2
3
where p 1 p1x p1 y p1z , dp1 dp1x dp1 y dp1z so for the ith particle
V
1
exp
p2
3
h0
2m
dp
Z N
p1 x 2
2m
2m
dp1x
,
V
3 2m
h0
p2
2m
2m
=V
2
h 0
2m
Z N = V
h 2 0
2m
dp
3 2m
3
ln Z N ln V ln 2 ln
2 h 0
2
Activity
With the given partition function, find
i) The value for the mean pressure,
ii) The mean energy,
iii) The heat capacity,
iV) The entropy
Solution
i) The mean pressure
p
1 ln Z NkT
V
V
pV NkT
ii) The total mean energy
E
ln Z
3N 3
NkT
2 2
3
kT
2
E N
iii) The heat capacity at constant volume
E
3
R
T V 2
CV
iV)The entropy
S k ln Z E , where
3
N
2
3 2m
3
ln Z N ln V ln 2 ln
2 h 0
2
3 2m
3
3
S Nk ln V ln 2 ln
2 h 0
2
2
3
3 2m k
3 2m k
S Nk ln V ln T (ln
1) where ln
2
2
2 h0
2 h 2 0
S Nk ln V ln T
2
e dp e
e dp e
dp1 ,...dp f
E '
E'
e dp
e dp
i
i dp1 ,...dp f
i E '
dp1 ,...dp f
dp1 ,...dp f
considering that
p2
i
ln e 2 m i dpi let
p2
i
bp 2 then
2m
i
i
4 mi
ln
kT
2
E n h
2
k
m
Activity
Using the partition function of the harmonic oscillator derive the mean energy of the oscillator for
h 1 and h 1
Solution
The mean energy for the harmonic oscillator given by
e
n0
En
e
n 0
En
En
ln Z
where
Z e
En
n 0
Z e
n h
2
e
n0
h
2
nh
n 0
Z e
Z e
h
2
1 e
h
2
1 e
e 2 h .....
h 1
1
h
ln e 2 1 e h
ln(e
h
2
) ln 1 e h
h e h h
2 1 e h
h 1
1
2
h ...
2
1
1
h
2 e 1
E h
1
1
2 h
E h
h 1 ,
1
1
1
2 h h
1
= kT
ii) Considering
h 1
1
1
h
2 e 1
then E h
1 h
e which shows T 0 the ground state energy given by
2
E h
E
1
h
2
P2
int
2m
P2
due to the kinetic energy of the centre of mass motion
2m
int the molecule is not monatomic the internal energy due to rotation and vibration of the atom
with respect to the molecular centre of mass
3
3
The probability Ps r , p d rd p of finding the molecule with centre-of mass variables in the
ranges (r,dr) and (p,dp) and with internal state specified by s the result
Ps r , p d rd p e
3
p 2 int
2m
d 3rd 3 p
int
p2
2m
V2
2m
Ps r , p d rd p e
3
f r ,V d rd V Ce
3
d 3rd 3 p
d 3rd 3V
Activity
Using the normalization condition for N number of molecules in a system derive the value of C and
write the Maxwell velocity distribution
Solution
r V
f r ,V d 3rd 3V N
Ce
r V
V2
2m
C d 3r
r
d 3 rd 3V N
CV
N
C
V
m
2
mV 2 x
2m
dVx N
N
3
2
,n
m
f r ,V d rd V n
2
3
V2
2m
Activity
Derive the velocity distribution component
Solution
Let the number of molecule per unit volume with x-component of velocity in the range between Vx
and Vx+dVx, irrespective of the values of their other velocity is given by
g (Vx )dVx
f V d V
3
Vx
Vy
m
g (Vx )dVx n
2 kT
m
g (Vx )dVx n
2 kT
2 kT
Vy
V dV e m 2 kT V d 3V
y
z
2
Vz
2 kT
2 kT
m 2 m
g (Vx )dVx n
2 kT 2kT
V dV e m 2 kT V dV
y
z
y
2 kT
V dV
x
x
Problem
Solve the value for
Vx and Vx 2
Formulation of the statistical Problems
Consider a gas of identical particles in a volume V in equilibrium at the temperature T. We shall use
the following notation
Label the possible quantum states of a single particle by r or s
Denote the energy of particles in state r by r
Denote the number of particles in state r by nr
Label the possible quantum states of the whole gas by R
The total energy of the gas when it is in some state R where there are n1 particle r=1, n2 particles in
state r=2 etc.,
ER n11 n2 2 ... nr r
r
In order to calculate the thermodynamic function of the gas it is necessary to calculate its partition
function
Z e ER
R
Z e n11 n2 2 ...
R
Activity
Derive the mean number of the particles in state s
Solution
n e
n1 1 n2 2 ...
ns
n1 1 n2 2 ...
ns
1 ln Z
s
Problem
Calculate the dispersion
Solution
One can similarly write down an expression for the dispersion of the number of particles in state s.
One can use the general relation.
(ns ) 2 ( ns ns ) 2 ns 2 ns
n e
ns 2
n1 1 n2 2 ...
n1 1 n2 2 ...
n2s
1 2 ln Z
2 Z 2 s
1
ns 2
1 Z
1 Z
Z 2 s
Z s
1
2
1 Z
2
2
ns
Z s
n2s
ns
1 Z
Z s
1
2
1 2 ln Z
2 s 2
ns
1 ns
the dispersion of the distribution of particles
s
Photon Statistics
The average numbers of particles in state s in case of photon statistics
n e
e
s
ns
ns
ns
ns
1
e ns s
s
e ns s
ns
1
ln e ns s Using the geometric series
s
ns s
1 e s e 2 s ...
ns 0
ns
ns
ns
1
1
ln
s 1 e s
1
ln 1 e s
s
1
e
1
1 e s
Fermi-Dirac Statistics
Activities
Consider particles in a system where the total number N of particles is fixed n1 , n2,.... such that
nr 0 and nr 1 for each r, but these numbers must always satisfy nr N , let us derive the
r
Solution
Considering the above mentioned condition where the total number N of particles is fixed n1 , n2,....
such that nr 0 and nr 1 for each r, but these numbers must always satisfy nr N , to derive
r
the average number of particles in a given system for Fermi-Dirac Statistics we consider
the partition function
zs N
n
s
then
n1 , n2,...
s state omitted
n e
s
ns
n11 n2 2 ...
ns
ns s
ns s
ns
n1 , n2 ,..
e n11 n2 2 ...
e n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,..
0 e s
ns
e n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,..
n1 , n2 ,..
n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2
n11 n2 2 ...
0 e s Z s N 1
ns
Z s N e s Z s N 1
ns
Zs N
1
s
e 1
Z s N 1
ln Z s Z
N
Z s N 1
ln Z s N
Z N
=- N where
N
s
ln
Z s N N Z s N e N if we approximate N 1
Z s N 1 Z s N e
since we have
ns
Zs N
ns
1
s
and substituting
e 1
Z s N 1
1
s
Bose-Einstein Statistics
Activity
Derive the distribution of the particles in a system considering the case where the total number N of
particles is fixed n1 , n2,.... such that nr 0 ,1,2,.but these numbers must always satisfy
Solution
zs N
n1 , n2,...
n e
ns s
ns
ns
n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,..
ns s
ns
e n11 n2 2 ...
e n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,..
0 e s Z s N 1 2e 2 s Z s N 2 ...
ns
Z s N e s Z s N 1 e 2 s Z s N 2 ...
where
Z s N 1 Z s N e and
Z s N 2 Z s N e 2
Z s N 0 e s e 2e 2 s e 2 ....
ns
Z s N 1 e s e e 2 s e 2 ....
0 e e 2e 2 e 2 ....
ns
1 e e e2 e2 ....
s
n e
e
ns
s ns
ns
considering
n e
ns
n e
e
ns
n
e s s
s ns
ns
n
ln e s s
ns 0
ns 0
ns
1 e
2 s
... 1 e
ns
1 e
ns 0
ln 1 e s
ns
e
1 e
1
e
Bose-Einstein Distribution
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics
Activity
n n ...
With the help of the partition function is z e 1 1 2 2
compute the Maxwell-Boltzmann
R
distribution distribution
Solution
n n ...
Hence, the partition function is z e 1 1 2 2
R
For N number of molecules there are, for given values of (n1 ,n2,)
N!
possible ways in which the particle can be put into the given single- particle states, so that
n1 !n2 !..
there are n1 particles in state 1, n2 particles in state 2, etc. By virtue of the distinguishability of
particles, each of these possible arrangements corresponds then to a distinct state for the whole gas.
Hence the partition function can be written
N!
e n11 n2 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,.. n1 ! n2 !...
where the sum overall values nr 0 ,1,2,.for each r, subject to the restriction
z
N!
e 1 n1 e 2 n2 ...
n
!
n
!...
n1 , n2 ,.. 1
2
N!
e 1 n1 e 2 n2 ... = e 1 e 2 ...
n1 , n2 ,.. n1 ! n2 !...
ln Z N ln
from the mean values of the distribution of the particle we have defined as
s
1 ln Z 1 N e
ns
e r
s
r
ns N
where
e s e r
r 1
e s
e r this is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
r
Reference http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Balloon/
Date Consulted:Description: This experiment is designed to further demonstrate the properties of the
ideal gas law. In addition, our balloon will also serve as a planetary atmosphere for the
second part of the experiment
2.
Reference:-: http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/~mmp/kap10/cd283.htm.
Date Consulted: - August 2006
Description: - This Java applet helps you understand the effect of temperature and
volume on the number of collisions of the gas molecules with the walls. In the applet,
you can change the temperature and volume with the sliders on the left side. You can
also adjust the time for which the simulation runs. The applet counts all collisions and
displays the result after the run. By varying temperature and volume and keeping track
of the number of collisions, you can get a good feeling of what the main result of kinetic
theory will be.
3.
Reference: video.google.com
Date Consulted: Nov 2006
Complete Reference: - Computer calculation of Phase Diagrams.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?
docid=1397988176780135580&q=Thermodynamics&hl=en
Rationale: Thermodynamic models of solutions can be used together with data to
calculate phase diagrams. These diagrams reveal, for a given set of all parameters (such
as temperature, pressure, and magnetic field), the phases which are thermodynamically
stable and in equilibrium, their volume fractions and their chemical compositions...
Formative Evaluation 5
Optional Formative Evaluation 3
1. What is the probability of throwing three dice to obtain a total of score of 6 or less?
Solution
Each dice have the numbers 1, 2, 3,4,5,6
When we throwing the dice the accessible state of the total sum 6 or less will be
1+1+1, 1+1+2, 1+1+3, 1+1+4, 1+2+1, 1+2+2, 1+2+3, 1+3+1,1+3+2 , 1+4+1, 2+1+1, 2+1+2, 2+1+3,
2+2+1, 2+2+2, 2+3+1, 3+1+1, 3+2+1, 3+1+2, 4+1+1
then state of the sum 6 or less is 20
the total number of accessible states is 63=216
Then the probability of throwing three dice to obtain 6 points or less is
P x
x
20
=
=0.093
total 216
2. A penny is tossed 400 times. Find the probability of getting 215 heads. (Suggestion: use the
Gaussian approximation)
Solution
A penny is tossed 400 times. Find the probability of getting 215 heads is given by the Gaussian
approximation
P ( n)
n n
exp
2
2 * n1
2 * n1
1
where
N=400, n1=251, p=1/2, q=1/2
n1 Np
* n1
Npq
400 x1 / 2 x1 / 2 100 10
* n1 2 100 ,
n1 200
1
10 2
251 200 2
200
Solution
The total potential of the connection is given by V
And the total power is given by P=V2/R
From the connection n1 number of the cells has emf each values v
The total potential is given by V=n1v
The mean value of the power is given by
P
V2
Where V=n1v ,v=constant
R
n1v 2 = v 2 n1 2
n1
N!
2
p n1 q N n1 n1
n1 0 n1! N n1 !
and using from equation1.38 and equation 1.39 and rearranging the solution
1 p
2
2
2
n1 = N p 1 Np the substituting in the above equation
2
2
v 2 n1
n1v
=
P
N 2v 2 2
1 p
p 1
R
Np
4Consider the random walk problem with p=q and let m=n1 - n2 denote the net displacement to the
right. after a total of n steps, calculate the following mean values:
m, m 2 , m3 , and m 4 .
Solution
Where
a) m n1 n2
then m n1 n2
where
n1 =
W n
n1 p
n1 p
N!
p n1
p n1 q n1 1 n1 using the relation n1 p n1 p
n1 ! n2 !
p
N!
p n1 q n2 and using the binomial distribution
p
n1! n2 !
p q N
p
= pN ( p q ) N 1 where p q 1 then
n1 Np Similarly you can find for n 2 = Nq
b) m 2 n1 n2 2
N!
n !n
1
2!
p n1 q n2 = p q N
n1
N!
2
p n1 q n2 n1 p
p
n1 n1 ! n 2 !
N!
n !n
n1
p n1 q n2
p q N
pN ( p q)
N 1
2
n2 qN q 2 N ( N 1) Substituting in the equation given below
2
2
2
2
m 2 = n1 n 2 2n1 n 2 = qN q N ( N 1) + pN p N ( N 1) - Np . Nq
5. An ideal gas has a temperature independent molar specific heat cv at constant volume. Let
c p / cv denote the ratio of its specific heats. The gas is thermally insulated and is allowed to
expand quasi-statically from an initial volume V, at temperature Tf to a final volume Vf
a) Use the relation pV = constant to find the final temperature Tf of this gas.
b) Use the fact that the entropy remains constant in this process to find the final
temperature Tf .
Answer
We have given that pV =cont.
from the ideal gas equation pV nRT
then p
nRT f
nRTi
nRT
which is pi
, pf
Vf
Vi
V
piVi p f V f
nRT f V f
nRTiVi
Vi
Vf
which is
TiVi
Tf Vf
V
T f Ti i
V
f
dS
dT
V
dV 0
T
dT
dV
dQ
dT
= CV
V
For monatomic deal gas the internal energy and molar heat capacity is given
E
CV
RT
T 2
=
V
3R
2
RT
p
R
then
V
T
V
V
T
R
V
3R
2T
2
3
ln T
2
ln V
3
which gives
2
TV 3 cons tan t
which is given as
2
5
1 1 for the ideal gas
3
3
6. The Molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic ideal gas is known to be
3
R.
2
suppose that one mole of such a gas is subjected to a cyclic quasi-static process
which appears as a circle on the diagram of pressure p versus volume V shown in the figure below
106dynecm-2 P
B
3
2
D
1
103cm3 V
Answer
a) The work done in one cycle
w
pdV
dV sin cm 3 10 3 d
0
w (2 sin ) sin 10 9 d 10 7 J
2
(2 sin ) sin d 10
w 314 J
3
nRT
2
3
pV
2
3
( p c Vc p a V a )
2
3
( 2 x3 2 x1)10 2 J
2
E c E a 600 J
pdV
0
w (2 sin ) sin d 10 2 J
w (4
)100 J
2
w 557.08
E c E a 600 J
Q ( E c E a ) w
Q 600 J 557 J
Q 1157 J
Answer
Pr r
r
P P_ _
e H e H
e H e H
tanh
H
kT
Answer
The system in the representatives statistical ensemble are distributed over their accessible states in
according with the canonical distribution
Pr
e E r
e Er
r
e E
E
e
Er
Er
where
Er
where Z= e
Er
e Er
Z
1 Z
ln Z
=
Z
E E E2 E
2
e E
e
Er
E2
here
2
r
Er
but
Er
2
E r =
e
r
Er
E r
then
E2
1 2Z
Z 2
1 Z
- E
E 2
12 Z
Z
E 2 - E
2 ln Z
2
1 2Z
Z 2
e
r
E r
10. The internal energy of the ideal gas is given by E=E(T) show that for the ideal gas its internal
energy does not depend on its volume
Answer
Let E=E(T,V)
Then we can write mathematically
E
E
dT
T v
V
dE
dV
T
dS
1
vR
dE
dV using the above equation for dE
T
V
dS
1 E
T T
1 E
T V
dT
vR
dV
V
dS
S
T
S
dT
V
1 E
T T
1 E
T V
vR
with the second order differential equation
V
2S
2S
VT
TV
T T
V V
1 E
T T T
1 E
V T V
1 2E
T VT
vR
1 E
1 2E
T 2 V T TV
1 E
1 2E
T 2 V T TV
1 2E
=
T VT
1 E
T 2 V 0 which implies E is independent of V
System of Particles:- .
Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-scattering
2.
Boltzmanns Distribution:-.
Source: http://hep.uchicago.edu/cdf/cdfglossary.html
Scattering cross section - The area of a circle of radius b, the impact parameter.
3.
4.
URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_physics
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract :
Rationale:
http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer
Abstract :
Rationale:
This book begins with the properties of matter in bulk that introduces statistical mechanics and shows
why it is so fascinating.
Description: Applet shows the motion of the centre of mass of a dumbbell shaped object.
The red and blue dots represent two masses and they are connected by a mass
less rod. The dumbbells projection velocity can be varied by using the velocity and
angle sliders. The mass ratio slider allows shifting of centre of mass. Here m1 is the
mass of the blue object and m2 is the mass of red object. Check boxes for path1
and path2 can be used to display or turn off the paths of the two masses .
Rationale: This applet depicts the motion of centre of mass of two balls (shown in red and blue
colour). The applets speed and angle of projection can be varied...
We may understand this prescription as the rule of a game of fortune, and with the aid of a
computer we may actually play that game!
Resource #1
Title:
Description
The completely revised new edition of the classical book on Statistical Mechanics covers the basic concepts
of equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical physics. In addition to a deductive approach to equilibrium
statistics and thermodynamics based on a single hypothesis - the form of the microcanonical density matrix this book treats the most important elements of non-equilibrium phenomena. Intermediate calculations are
presented in complete detail. Problems at the end of each chapter help students to consolidate their
understanding of the material. Beyond the fundamentals, this text demonstrates the breadth of the field and
its great variety of applications. Modern areas such as renormalization group theory, percolation, stochastic
equations of motion and their applications to critical dynamics, kinetic theories, as well as fundamental
considerations of irreversibility, are discussed. The text will be useful for advanced students of physics and
other natural sciences; a basic knowledge of quantum mechanics is presumed.
Resource #2
Title: MACROSCOPIC AND STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
by Yi-Chen Cheng (National Taiwan University, Taiwan)
URL: http://www.worldscibooks.com
Screen capture
Description: This textbook addresses the key questions in both classical thermodynamics and
statistical thermodynamics: Why are the thermodynamic properties of a nano-sized system
different from those of a macroscopic system of the same substance? Why and how is entropy
defined in thermodynamics, and how is the entropy change calculated when dissipative heat is
involved? What is an ensemble and why is its theory so successful?
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the mechanics
courses. The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book. The PDF version
is also available.
Rationale: This site has comprehensive coverage of most of physics, in the mechanics
courses. The learner can consult chapters 7, 8 and 9 of the book. The PDF version
is also available.
Statistics websites
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lane/rvls.html The Rice University virtual statistics laboratory
http://www.stat.sc.edu/~west/javahtml/LetsMakeaDeal.html
An applet for demonstrating the "Monty Hall" problem
http://www.stat.sc.edu/~west/javahtml/CLT.html
An applet by the same author for demonstrating the Central Limit Theorem
http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/index.xhtml
A large number of statistics demo applets
Prerequisites
Physics III: Vibrations and Waves (8.03), Differential Equations (18.03) and Concurrent Enrollment
in Quantum Physics I (8.04) is recommended. In Learning Activity 2 of this module you have been
guided through In Learning Activity 3, you have been guided through the evolution of In Learning
Activity 4, you have been guided through the applications of
RT
. Find an expression for the
V
change of entropy of this gas in quasi-static process which takes it from initial volume of
temperature Ti and volume Vi to final values Tf and Vf.
2. A 0.5kg of water had been heated from 7 0c to 870 c by first bringing it in contact with a reservoir
at 340c and then with a reservoir at 870c. When the water has reach 870c
i) What has been the change in entropy of water?
ii) What has been the change in entropy of the heat reservoir?
iii) What has been the change in entropy of the entire system consisting of both water and heat
reservoir?
3. Starting from the fundamental thermodynamic equation derive the general relation which
represent a necessary connection between the parameters T, S, P, V,
T
4. The molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic ideal gas is known to be
3
R.
2
Suppose that one mole of such a gas is taken quasi-statically from state A to state B along straight
line on the diagram of pressure P versus volume V shown in the figure. Find the following
quantities:
i) The internal energy difference (in joule) of the gas between state A and state B
ii) The net work done (joule) by the gas between state A and state B
iii) The heat absorbed (joule) by the gas between state A and state B
In 106 dynes cm-2
P
B
2
1
A
2
4
103 cm3
5. The ideal gas is thermally insulated and is allowed to expand quasi-statically from an initial
volume Vi at temperature Ti to a final volume Vf . Using the relation PV =const to find the final
temperature Tf of this gas.
6. Derive the mean energy equation using the canonical distribution.
7. The mean energy E and the work dW are expressible in terms of lnZ considering Z=Z ( , x )
Consider Using the canonical distribution show that the Helmholtz free energy equation given by
F E TS kT ln Z
8. Consider an ideal gas of N molecules which is in equilibrium within a container of volume V0.
Denote by n the number of molecules located within any sub volume V of this container.
a) What is the mean number n of molecules located within V? Express your answer in terms
of N,V0, and V
b) i) Find the standard deviation
volume V
ii) Calculate
n
, expressing your answer in terms of N,V0 and V
n
9. Consider a system A consisting of 2 spins each having magnetic moment 2 0 , and another
system A consisting of 4 spins each magnetic moment 0 . Both systems are located in the same
magnetic field B. The systems are located in contact with each other so that they are free to contact
with each other so that they are free to exchange energy. Suppose the total magnetic moment for the
combined system is M + M= 4 0
a) Count the total number of states accessible number to the combined system A + A
b) Calculate the ratio of
p( M 0)
p ( M 4 0 )
i)M
ii ) M '
1
10. A simple harmonic one dimensional oscillator has energy level given by En (n )h , where
2
is the characteristic (angular) frequency of the oscillator and where the quantum number n can
assume the possible integral value n=0,1,2,.. Suppose that such an oscillator is in thermal contact
kT
=1
with a heat reservoir at temperature T low enough so that
h
d) Find the ratio of the probability of the oscillator being in the 3 rd excited state to the
probability of its being in the 2nd excited state.
e) Assuming that only the ground state and first excited state are appreciably occupied;
find the mean energy of the oscillator as a function of the temperature T.
11. The heat absorbed in an infinitesimal process is given by the first law islative probability
dQ dE pdV
Considering te ideal gas equation at constant pressure. Show that
C
R
, where p
CV
CV
12. Two states with energy difference4.83 4.83 1021 joule occur with relative probability e 2 .
Calculate the temperature. Given k 1.38 1023 joule/K
13. A system can take only three different energy state 1 0, 2 1.38 1021 joules,
3 2.76 1021 joules. These three states can occur in 2, 5 and 4 different ways respectively.
Find the probability that at temperature 100K the system may be
i)
ii)
14. Let Vx , Vy ,Vz represent the three Cartesian components of velocity of a molecule in a gas. Using
symmetry consideration and equipartition theorem deduced expressions for the following mean
values in terms of k, T and m
i) Vx
ii) VxVz
2
2
iii) V x iv) (Vx bVz )
Answer key:
1. S C ln
Tf
Ti
R ln
Vf
Vi
ii) 300J
iii) 1200J
V
5. T f Ti i
V
f
6. E
ln Z
7. Consider Z=Z ( , x)
S k ln Z E
TS kT ln Z E
V0
V 1
NV
, c)
V0
V0
V 1
9. a) 8 b) 2/3 C) i) 30 ii) 1
10. a)
p3
1
h 1 3e h
h b)
p2 e
2 1 e h
dE Cv dT
Cv R C p
dT p
12.
p3
E E
E E3
4.83 x1021
e 2 e 2 3 Comparing the two equations 2 2
, T=175
p2
kT
1.38 x1023 T
/ kT
13. p1 Ce 1 Ce0 C
p3 Ce 3 / kT Ce
2.76 x1021
p2 Ce
2 / kT
Ce 1
Ce
1.38 x1021
p 1 then
p1 p2 p3 1 , 2C 5Ce 1 4Ce 2 1
1
=0.23
4.38
i)
ii)
14. i) 0 ii) 0 iii)
4C
4
=0.12
2
e
4.38 x(2.72) 2
kT
kT
iV) 1 b 2
m
m
XVII. References:
1. Reif, F. Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, June 1,
1965. ISBN: 0070518009.
Abstract: This standard textbook is an excellent treatment of Statistical Physics. The chapter
end exercises and the summary correlate very well with the contents of the module.
Rationale: This reference on Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics is recommended
for undergraduate text book. The contents have been treated in detail with adequate
mathematical support.
2. Gupta and Kumar Elementary statistical mechanics 21 edition 2006. ISBN 81-7556-988Abstract:
Rationale: This reading provides basic concept methods of ensemble Distribution law
3. Zemansky, M., and R. Dittman. Heat and thermodynamics: an intermediate textbook. 7th Ed.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, 1997. ISBN: 0070170592
Abstract:
Rationale: This reference may serve as an optional reading for this module.
4. Joel Keizer Statistical Thermodynamics of Nonequilibrium Processes (Springer-Verlag) 1987.
Abstract:
Rationale: This reference may serve as an optional reading for this module.
5. Frank E. Beichelt, L. Paul Fatti Stochastic Processes and Their Applications (Taylor &
Francis) 1997.
Abstract:
Rationale: This reference may serve as an optional reading for this module.
6. V.G. Morozov, On the Langevin Formalism for NonLinear & NonEquilibrium Hydrodynamic
Fluctuations Physica 126A (1984) 443-460.
Abstract:
Rationale: This reference may serve as an optional reading for this module.
7. Ming Chen Wang, G.E. Uhlenbeck, On the Theory of the Brownian Motion II Reviews of
Modern Physics, Volume 17; 1945.
Abstract:
Rationale: This reference may serve as an optional reading for this module.
8. Walter Greiner, Ludwig Neise and Horst Stocker, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics,
English edition, translated from the German by Dirk Rischke (Springer, New York, 2000) ISBN
0 387 94299 8
9. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Statistical Physics, 3rd Edition, Part I (Landau and Lifshitz
Course of Theoretical Physics, Volume 5)(Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1980)
ISBN 0 7506 3372 7
10. Chandler, D. 1987 Introduction to Modern Statistical Mechanics Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Sisay Shewamare
Lecturer of Physics
Jimma University
P.O.Box 378
Jimma
Ethiopia.,
E-mail: sisayshew20@yahoo.com
Breif Biography: I am a Graduate from Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia where I did M.Sc in
Physics in the Area of statistical Physics.
Currently Im lecturer in physics at Jimma University Ethiopia.
You are always welcome to communicate with the author regarding any question,
opinion, suggestions, etc this module.
Statistical Physics.doc
Name of all other files (WORD, PDF, PPT, etc.) for the module.