The political history of Albania.

Sontag, Raymond James, 1897-1972.

1921.
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THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF ALBANIA

1907

1920

BY

RAYMOND JAMES SONTAG

B. S. University of Illinois,

1920

THESIS
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
Degree of
>

MASTER OF ARTS
IN HISTORY

IN

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
1921

for the

CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER

THE

SITUATION

CHAPTER

II

THE

INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

CHAPTER

III

THE

WINNING

CHAPTER

IV

THE

TRIPLE

CHAPTER

THE

ESTABLISHMENT

CHAPTER

VI

THE

GOVERNMENT

CHAPTER

VII

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ITALY

AND

OF

IN 1907

IN 1907

21

AUTONOMY

ALLIANCE AND ALBANIAN

OF

ALBANIA

OF

THE

13

STATE

WILLIAM OF WIED

INDEPENDENCE

32

39
47

56

INTRODUCTION

Something less than a

man

ago the

ablest states-

Bismarck, blandly informed Albanian delegates at the

of Europe,

Congress

half century

of Berlin that "there is

Albanian nationality."

no

Within

year the Albanians had upset the treaty carefully prepared under

In

of this statesman.

the guidance

1908 Abdul

Hamid

acquiesced in

the demands of the Young Turks only when the Albanians,

faithful

time his most

"constitution,"

a term,

as

approximately what

"paradise."

And

December

free

of

finally, after
we

find

we

later,

see

to this

for

demand

then connoting to

popularly connect with the word

bewildering kaleidoscopic succes-

the Assembly of the League

of Nations in

Albania to membership in the League

admitting

1920

shall

we

the Albanian

sion of events,

joined in the popular

supporters,

up

as

sovereign state.

and

It will

be

the somewhat

ambitious purpose of this study

to trace the interaction of the forces at work in Albania during the

years from 1907 to 1920 in such a manner that the events of this

period in themselves
an

historical

discontinuous

explanation

What might

be

and chaotic may serve

as

of the present status of Albania.

called the external or international forces

active during this time arise out of the rival interests and ambitions of neighboring powers the strategic importance
country for
the

Italy

historical

^Chekrezi,

and

C. A.

and Austria-Hungary;

ethnographical

of the

the economic needs of Serbia;

claims of Greece.

Albania . Past and Present

Within the

N.Y.(1920).

p. xv.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2015

https://archive.org/details/politicalhistoryOOsont

country the character

for,

attention,
whether

as

Brailsford aptly points out,

can be

in connection with its history

and

interesting

the most

It is

difficult part of
I take it, to state

especially the significance

1914

when

accessible.

the writer has been forced

Here

now

have

and

verifying these,

that our sources

For the years

abso-

periodicals, supple-

and

possible,

wherever

writer's

knowledge,

such documents

by

there is no work

the works covering any part of the

propagandist

subject

nature.

rigid tests

applying

These

have

field

The

needs to be pointed out.

which center in Albania would alone

international events
remembered

by

^Brailsford, H, N.

for

be

those

as

to furnish a very

Macedonia,

its

Albania

practically

and

distinctly
importance

of a

fruitful

Races and

after

of the

international

The

sufficient to
who

have

make

wish to judge

It

reason rather than by instinct.

that the boundaries of Albania

determined and promise

on

been used sparingly and only

knowledge of the country desirable

be

are

to the material given.

itself scarcely

rivalries

ther

become

to rely almost entirely

covering the whole period from ISO? to the present,

some

con-

appeared.
To the

all

will

closed to the historian are

material which has appeared in newspapers

menting

the way in

the whole problem.

of events can

lutely clear only

archives

This peculiar

other

on each

and

not necessary,

Finally,

environment.

so recent a period must at best be incomplete.

after

knows

understood only when studied

internal forces react

which the external and

on

scarcely

one

to compare the Albanian to "the knight errant of the Middle

Albanian mentality, of course,

stitute

chief

demand the

or to the head-hunters of the Malay Peninsula."

Ages

for

will

of the people themselves

must

fur-

not yet been

source

their Future,

of discord.

p.336.

CHAPTER

THE

IN 1907

SITUATION

In 1907 there was scant evidence of patriotic

nationalist feeling in Albania.

civilization

practically stationary for four centuries,

two

fairly distinct

groups by geography,

or

which had been

and a

people divided into

civilization,

and language

seemed

at best but very unpromising material for the making of a

modern

state.

Although the actual creation of this state was due

largely to the necessities of European politics,

previous

some

Albanian history and of the people themselves

knowledge of

is essential

to a real understanding of the period.

At the opening

of the Christian era the Albanians,

rather their ancestors the Illyrians and Epirots, ^occupied

the northern Balkan Peninsula, but by 1907 successive

confined

them

chiefly to

with large numbers

Monastir.
about one

the Turkish vilayets

In the area within the boundaries of

million people, practically

all

most

of

invasions had

of Scutari and Janina,

vilayets of

in the neighboring

or

Kossovo
1913

and

there were

of Albanian stock.

An excellent discussion of Albanian ethnography may be found in

Gibert, Frederick; Les Pays d* Albanie et Leur Histoire , Paris (1914)
pp. 167-194;
the results of the voluminous but far from conclusive
studies of German students in this field are admirably summarized.
p
For an account of the Albanian colonies in Greece, Italy, and
Sicily see Eliot, Sir Charles; Turkey in Europe , el. 2, London

(1908). pp. 351-55.

These

isolated

of the tenacity with which they

traditions.

3 In Dominian,
Europe.
N.Y.,

Leon;

have

Frontiers of

total of

one and

groups

are

interesting

because

maintained their language and

Nationality in
one-half million is quoted, in-

Language

and

The Shkumbi

Illyrians

Epirote,

and

of the south.
primitive
usually

River, in ancient times the boundary between

divides the

The Ghegs

of the north from the Tosks

Ghegs

preserved in their mountain

have

vices and virtues of the old Albanian stock.

much

taller

their southern

and

homes

the

They are

of greater physical strength and grace than

At home they are

countrymen.

the large number who, under the old regime

tions in other parts of the Empire,

chiefly

shepherds,

but

in Turkey, sought occupa-

frequently secured very

responsible posts because of their native intelligence and loyalty.

The

Tosks are of a milder

the more mature Greek

fertile

temperament

civilization.

a3 a

result of contact with

comparatively

The

land of the south has also been a

level

civilizing force.

and
The

strong Greek influence, which is further manifested by the fact that

is

Greek

the language

of business

basis for the Greek claim to

by foe and

liness

friend alike.

of this region.

Some

striking

found in the work of Dr.

may be

of the Serbian council of ministers.

report that the Albanians had

stories of

wounded

to give aid, and of

of both Ghegs and Tosks has been distorted

character

The

much

in southern Albania, has given

Albanians
women

tails

examples of Balkan neighbor-

Georgevitch,

former president

is given to

the

as late as the ninth century,

to

Here credence

shooting the Serb doctors

who

bend over

drinking the blood of enemies killed in

eluding 250,000 Serbs, 150,000 Greeks, and 50,000 Bulgars. All of

these figures are probably exaggerated, especially that for the
Serbs, since the compiler of the table, M. Petrovich, is himself a
Serb.
For the large colonies of Vlachs centering around Korcha and
Berat see Wace, A.J.B., and Thompson, M.S.; The Nomads of the
Balkans

19f ^?T

1^

Charles;

cll?

^ >

pp.

213-14.
p. 352.
^es Albanais et le s grande s Puissances

London (1914)

fcliot, Sir

op.cit.

Paris

'

the vendetta,

l'Albanie

finally

and

du Nord se

similar writings of

that "les tribus

to the statement

souvient encore

de

de

leur origine slave.

Many

the same tenor by Greeks or Serbs might be cited,

the aim of each of which

is

first

at least a

the Albanian

to prove

cousin to his Satanic majesty, and yet a near relative to themselves.

Collectively
tion

even with many disinterested

were

the scapegoats

Turkey.

Mohammedans,

is

and since,

Under Abdul Hamid they

since most of the Albanians are

to the European traveller,

all

Turk, the Turk has got

individual Albanians

observers.

in practically every atrocity committed in

the other hand,

On

enjoy a very unsavory reputa-

the Albanians

the credit

be found

who may

for

every Mohammedan

the virtues

scattered through the Empire

in offices from the highest to the lowest.

For,

whatever

at home, once the Albanian gets away from the restriction

native mountains,

integrity

shows

executive

ability

sense of honor.

He

has an

violently

which makes the shooting

honorable act, but punishes

flirting

inflexible

and at

will,

may be

of his

code

but

an almost

of ethics

prohibits

from ambush of an enemy

by death. 2

he

coupled with an

chief characteristic of the Albanian is

which permits him to rob

stealing;

an

which can be found in no other Balkan people.

The

ridiculous

he

of the

As a

an

result of this

^Brailsford had occasion to employ a large number of Albanians,

several of whom were former members of brigand bands, in connection
with the distribution of funds for relief purposes in Macedonia
during the years 1903-04.
The favorable results of his experiences
with these men and with representatives of other Balkan peoples are

and their Future . pp. 231-28.

. Its Races
might be said of the interesting Albanian customs regarding
hospitality, marriage, mourning, etc., and about the position of
women in this essentially masculine country.
A vivid and complete
picture of Albanian life and habit is given in Peacock, Wadham;
Albania . the Foundling State of Europe . N.Y. (1914) .

given in Macedonia
2 Much

primitive

code

of honor the Albanian is continually

blood feud or vendetta.

tribe in

single murder

strife.

long and bloody

will

often embroil a whole

Gibert gives

lasted

burning of 1,218 houses.

warfare

50

The

"a propos

a
de

and the

and caused 132 deaths

prevalence of this licensed private

judged from the fact that the number of violent

in northern Albania varies in the different districts from

deaths

to

may be

years,

two

of

an example

feud which began in the diccese of Poulati in 1854,

quatre cartouches,

in the

involved

per cent, of the population.

is usually

vengeance

deprives
possess

Gibert

As

remarks,

taken by a surprise attack

the vendetta of any chivalrous

the fact that

from the rear

it

character

might

otherwise

The

bleak forbidding nature of most of Albania, together

with centuries of foreign domination,

Albanians

one

practically

no

of the
native

most

have

combined to keep the

primitive peoples in Europe.

literature.

Even the

folk

the great majority being Slavic

importations.

language

The

itself

There

or oriental

has been so corrupted by the

introduction of Turkish, Slavonic, Greek, and Latin words that

which

tion there

was

is indubitably Albanian.^

^Gibert;

Until

the present

not even a generally accepted alphabet.

alphabet with modifications was

op.cit.

p. 20.
|lbid.
The absence of

p.

is

songs are but

rarely indigenous,

remains

25

officially

The

little

genera-

Latin

adopted by congresses

23.

literary monuments has prevented any

historical criticism of the language. The results of

close

the researches
made by the numerous German scholars who have studied the language
are given in Dako, C. A.; Albania . the Master Key to the Near East ,
Boston (1919) . pp. 8-14.

held at Monastir in

1908 and

at Elbasan in 1909.

of Albanian literature in Europe,

wishing to prevent the publication

fought for the adoption of the Arabic alphabet,

religious
fanatic,

grounds.
however,

one

is far

this opposition

so

fact that the language

is

Albanian

The

was

ostensibly

from being a

on

religious

largely unsuccessful.

was

until recently

The

almost entirely unwritten

dialects of

of the chief causes of the divergent

different

Turks,

The

the Ghegs

that the inhabitants of one

and Tosks.

So

section

understand those of the other only with the greatest

can

difficulty

are these

During the last half century numerous spasmodic attempts

have

patriotic

been made by

establishment

Albanians to unify the language by the

of native schools.

promptly suppressed by the Ottoman

semi-political

Greek Church,

government,

small school for

temporal thunders.

tions in Albania

girls

Hungary as centers

for

violently

In

1907 but

propaganda.

move

one

The

Italy,

and

likely

to

institution,

spiritual

the other educational

supported by Greece,

and

ably assisted by the

at Korcha, had survived the

Practically all

were

were

both of which feared any

strengthen Albanian national feeling.

a

efforts

These

and

institu-

Austria-

few primary and secondary

schools maintained by the Turkish government were of ridiculously

the Koran being the center of the whole course

low grade,

Most of the wealthy Moslem

children

were

educated

of study.

in foreign

countries.
The

lack of education in Albania is only equalled by the

absence of real
came

religious feeling.

Both Islam and

Christianity

to the Albanians as foreign religions and neither has succeeded

in securing

any

great hold on the people.

large part of the

country became Moslem in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as

a

matter of expediency, but there remain large groups of Catholics

in the north
south.

of members of the Greek Orthodox Church in the

and

little friction

is very

There

between the various

faiths;

at least two are usually represented in every tribe except the

Mirdite,

is entirely Catholic.

which

Virgin or light
and "the

same

his chance
Mohammedans

the

first

on

in

a candle

They preach an

The

priests of this faith

pantheism

in practice,

which

take
The

all

of the

members

of the

into the country

are

of

by

called dervishes.

is very beautiful in

often leads

its

devotees

to the

of opium and alcohol in their effort to arrive at a

state of religious ecstasy.

between

in religion are

which was introduced

idealistic

but which,
use

will

and

that is, followers

In the south practically

three caliphs.

janissaries.

excessive

circumcised,

of the north are largely Sunnites,

heretical Bektashi sect,

theory,

and

entering either paradise as Ali or George." 2

Moslems who take any deep interest

the

swear by the

Christian church to bring good luck,

is both baptised

boy

will

Mohammedans

this sect

and

Although there is no open breach

orthodox Mohammedanism,

the Bektashi

are

accounted heretical.
The

relative states of civilization in northern

and

southern Albania

may be

judged from the fact that in the former

tribal

system

still

primitive

holds sway,

feudalism has been evolved in the south.

the

while a modified form of

The

peculiar geographical

^The use which foreign governments make of the Christian churches

as instruments of propaganda will be brought out later.
See p. 19.
J Brailsf ord, H. N. ; Albanians . Turks . and Russians, Contemporary
Review, vol. 100, p. 322.

'

country
a

in the sixteenth

Moslem

became

seventeenth centuries as

and

matter of expediency, but there remain large groups of Catholics

in the north
south.

members

is very

There

of

and

of the Greek Orthodox Church in the

little friction

faiths;

between the various

at least two are usually represented in every tribe except the

Mirdite,

is entirely Catholic.

which

Virgin or light
and "the

same

his chance

on

a candle

in

is both baptised

boy

first

who

take any deep interest

three caliphs.

janissaries.

and

religious ecstasy.

that

south practically

in religion are

pantheism

which

often leads

use of opium and alcohol in

all

members

good

luck,

will

take

"2

The

is, followers of
of the Moslems
of the heretical

into the country by the

are

called dervishes.

They

is very beautiful in theory,

its

devotees

to the excessive

their effort to arrive at

state of

Although there is no open breach between this

sect and orthodox Mohammedanism,

heretical

circumcised,

priests of this faith

The

in practice,

but which,

The

which was introduced

idealistic

preach an

and

entering either paradise as Ali or George.

the

sect,

swear by the

Christian church to bring

of the north are largely Sunnites,

Mohammedans

Bektashi

will

Mohammedans

the Bektashi

are accounted

The

relative states of civilization in northern

southern Albania

may be

judged

primitive tribal

system

still

from the fact that

holds sway,

feudalism has been evolved in the south.

in the former the

while a modified
The

and

form of

peculiar geographical

^The
use which foreign governments make of the Christian churches
See p.
as instruments of propaganda will be brought out later.
2
Brailsford, H. N.: Albanians , Turks , and Russians . Contemporary
Review, vol. C, p. 323.

conditions of northern Albania

preventing

of

the development

practically isolated

its

from

have

political unity,

was very

tribal council

legal

local representatives of

no

is

system in northern Albania

Dukajini,

who

is

teenth century.

supposed to have
The

tribal

money,

but there were prac-

the Porte.

lived in

the thirteenth

description,"

and

Albania

was

jointly

officials

were

native families, there

The
make

brief

many

in reality

was

summary

In the

in the hands of the great

pretense of really

some

little

place,

will

but since the

sons of the

rich

outside interference.

of Albanian history to

first

as

under them are

cases the younger

clear the situation at that date

important points.

things Albanian

and near the larger towns,

in

perform

administration of southern

The government made

ruling here, especially in

all

inflicted

under the old regime largely

land-owning Beys.

government

The

the hands of

laws are "of a most barbarous

that the punishments

terrible in their severity.

or four-

including the administra-

Even so great a lover of

tribal

of Leka

code

is usually in

government

Miss Durham admits that the

only recognized

The

the unwritten

the ordinary functions of government,

tion of justice.

The

slight in this

the chief and an hereditary council of elders who

all

is

since each tribe

conferred with the Vail at

Scutari concerning levies of troops and

tically

in

neighbors by mountain barriers.

authority of the Turkish government

inaccessible region.

largely instrumental

been

serve

through

1907

10

necessary to

to bring out two

all this

record of

^Durham, M. E. ; Constitution of North Albania . Contemporary Review.

Vol . 94, p. 534.
2 Gaulis,
Georges; La Ruine d'un Empire , Paris (1913) . pp. 3S0-356.

10

conquests by foreign powers,

invasions

and

have

few and

been

brief.

periods

of native rule

This furnishes a strong basis for the fear

that the Albanians do not possess the qualities essential

of a self-governing

maintenance

state.

On

for the

the other hand,

the

observer cannot help being struck by the way in which the ethnic

unity of

with alien peoples.

contact

first

From the

of the

long centuries of intimate

stock has withstood

the Albanian

of Dalmatia

province

Roman

to the fourth centuries Albania formed part

and came under

the influence of

In the third century the great invasions of the

Latin culture.

Balkan peninsula began, and in the succeeding two centuries Albania

was

overrun by the Goths, the native inhabitants taking refuge in

For a short time in the sixth century the oountry

the mountains.

again

seventh

the rule of the Eastern Empire,

under

came

century saw practically

territory in

the whole

the hands of

there to remain almost continuously for seven

the Serbo-Croats,
hundred years.

but the end of the

this

To

day most of the place names

in northern

Albania are of Slavonic origin.

During this period portions of Albania were at
another under Bulgarian, Byzantine,
Serbian power
Stephen Dushan

tains of

more

native rule
defense

was

(1356)

Durazzo

broken

After that

and the most

of the country

The

rule,

the death of the great

period of rule

but the

by

chief-

climax of this epoch of

glorious period of Albanian history

by George

Kastriota

campaigns against

his death in

until

came

or less local origin.

thirteen successful
1444 and

finally

not

and even Norman

time or

one

1466.

and thus completed

In 1499,

(Scanderbeg)

who

was

the

fought

the Turks between the year

however,

the conquest

the Turks took

of the country.

Under the

11

rule of Turkey Albanian civilization practically

still.

There

is nothing for

historian to

the

to a stand-

came

note during

the

succeeding three centuries except a great movement of Albanians

Old Serbia in the seventeenth century,

In the later eighteenth

dynasties

early nineteenth centuries

being established at Scutari and Janina.

overthrown by the Turks, but

were

and

recrudescence of native rule, practically

was

following the migration of

into Hungary.

the Serbian inhabitants

there

strengthen Turkish sovereignty

nineteenth century

into

when

an attempt

independent

Both of these

to

was made

in Albania about the middle of the

series of revolts broke out which soon

became

chronic.
At the Congress

of Berlin parts of Albanian

handed around to her Balkan neighbors

graphical boundaries.

protest

As a

an

Dulcigno for the

were

with scant regard for ethnoAlbanian League

probably with the assistance of the Porte, ansi

as to force Montenegro

territory

was

so

was formed,

far successful

to substitute as her share of the spoils,

districts of

Gusinje and Plava, and to compel the

cancellation of the clauses granting territory in southern Albania

to Greece.
Since the usefulness of the league to the Sultan was now
ended,

and

autonomy

since

its

for Albania,

members

an army was

struggle the league forces

How

far this

is difficult

movement

presently began to agitate in favor of

were

sent

dispersed and

on

its

After

to say, but

it is

leaders deported.

represented a genuine nationalist protest

it

probable that the prospect of real

government under the Montenegrins with

tions

into the country.

all

the inevitable

restric-

time-honored Albanian license was a very real incentive

13

to action.
Within a few years Abdul Hamid discovered

bellicose Albanians

the strongest

in these

same

of his despotism.

defense

The

Albanian had nothing to hope for in the breakup of the Empire.

really valued

already

had

and the

privilege of plundering his neighbors at will.

he was

everything

only too

Macedonia

Bulgar,

which he

willing

in check by

and Greek

alike.

at

anarchy

He

home

In return,

to hold the nationalist movements of western

constant guerilla warfare against

Serb,

ser-

Of more subtle, but no less valuable

vice to the Porte was the threat of Albanian revolt which greeted
every Macedonian reform project of the Powers.

situation

was

anything but reassuring.

north, the Montenegrin frontier

was

still

By 190? the

unsettled in several

places, with the result that the disputed territory served as

perennial battleground.

To the

In Old Serbia the remaining Slavs

were

slowly but surely being exterminated by the Albanian immigrants,

while Serbia looked on in helpless rage.
the Albanians

The marauding

in Macedonia had earned for

the races of that region.

The

them the

tactics of

hatred of

all

struggle of Tosk and Greek for

dominance in southern Albania was going on very unostentatiously

but none the less

bitterly.

spelling-book,

object of deadly hatred to Greek and Turk alike.

"^Woods,

H.

C.

an

The

The Danger Zone

chief

weapon

of Europe

there was the Albanian

London (1811)

pp.

87-130.

II

CHAPTER

IN 1907

INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

THE

Of late years much has been heard about a very elusive

body of

tice

principles called

these

Powers

exactly

"rights"

usually

have

The geography

just

been

about what the Great

In the case of Albania they

chose to make them.

what the Powers

In prac-

the "Rights of Small Nations."

forced to

were

make

been

them.

littoral

of the Adriatic

have

has been the

dominating element in the international aspect of the Albanian

situation.

In

1907

of the peninsula,
a

the heel of

for

on the

was

And

name.

directly across

Adriatic, less

than

dirty Albanian

town with a harbor which with a

fortification

and

Adriatic.

Obviously

position

key

the hands of a

this
an

The

and

Albania

miles from Otranto,

made

power.

extremists

lake,

situation

The

traditional

enemy,

If

the

little

development

the occupation
was

of this

equally delicate

Austria-Hungary.

Valona in

Adriatic

were

more than

ever to become

of the Irredentists hoped,

part of Italy; while Austria had great hopes of

bringing Albania under Habsburg control

Novibazar railway.

the

Valona, a squalid,

in both countries hoped for even

security.

not

would mean a land-locked Austrian

as the more violent

must become

was

was

to dominate the entrance to the

could not tolerate

hostile nation

merely negative

Italian

be

Italy

rival

by a

for Italy's ally

Empire.

could

part

the most vulnerable

east coast of that heel there

single harbor worthy of the

fifty

Italy

by means

of the projected

14

For Serbia also the geographical

insoluble problems.

of primary

railway through

is through

are impassible

them would

in win-

present almost

With the undeveloped Albanian ports in the hands

of Turkey, therefore,

Hungary.

commerce

Montenegrin mountains

The

ter and the building of

with the Montenegrin coast inaccessible,

and

forced to send

was

for Serbian

the natural outlet

northern Albania.

Serbia

was

Despite the fact that the country along the Drin is

importance.
very rough,

problem

of her exports through Austria-

most

of this situation

The ignominy

was

brought

home

to the

Serbians at frequent intervals by Austrian embargoes on the importa-

tion of

swine,

embargoes

the largest export of Serbia.

really

were

set up in order to prevent the spread of hog

cholera the Serbian farmer neither

fully

aware

knew

But he was pain-

nor cared.

of the fact that the prosperity of his country

dependent on the good

a

Whether or not the

second-rate

power,

will of
however,

considered a sufficient

foreign power.

Serbia

and economic necessity

justification for

was

at best

was

is rarely

the land-hunger

of small

For this reason the Serbs to a large extent rested their

states.

claim on historic grounds.

The

rivalry of Italy

and Austria

of Italy.

immediately after the unification

than maintained her position.
firmed in the possession
enormous

Serbia

strategic value

and Montenegro

By the

however,

the

Adriatic

Treaty of Berlin she was cona

strip of

result insured the separation

and as a

and opened a

of

channel for the passage of

and Macedonia.

The

situation

with the creation of the Triple Alliance.

hoped to gain two negative but

began

For a time Austria more

of the Sanjak of Novibazar,

Austrian propaganda into Albania

changed,

in

Austria

important things from this alliance:

15

hostile Italian intervention in

freedom from the danger of

an

Austro-Russian

ganda in

it is

Italy.

war,

and the

beyond the scope of

point to

be

concessions
pressure

this study to determine.

noted here is that

Berlin.

from

Great

Italy

in return, practically
1

The

Britain,

and

demanded

all of

of Balkan

The

Five years later

undertook by an exchange

make

this

agreement was

renewed.

This time

still
Italy

While Austrian participation in

being discussed the Triple Alliance

succeeded

basis of

however,

ought in any

in securing

an agreement between the

was

separate treaty

with Austria providing for the occupation of Balkan

on the

without,

plain, "determining

beforehand the character which the cooperation

particular contingency to take." 3

important

Triple Alliance

the

affairs.

Austria-Hungary,

Lord Salisbury was very careful to

justified

which were granted under

of notes to maintain the status quo in the Balkans,

as

were

greater and greater

original treaty of

(1882) made no direct mention

Italy,

cessation of the Irredentist propa-

extent Austrian expectations

To what

case of

two powers.

territory
3

It is

only
not at

Until very recently it was impossible to trace accurately the

course of Austr o-Italian rivalry in Albania. Much of the obscurity
has been cleared away, however, by the publication of the series of
treaties centering around the Triple Alliance (Pribram, A.F.; ed. ,
The Secret Treaties of Austria - Hungary 1879-1914 . English edition
by A.C.Coolidge, Cambridge, 1920 . )
While this collection contains
only documents found in the Austrian archives, the Adriatic question
was of such vital importance to the Habsburg monarchy that there is
but slight possibility of the existence of further important
material.
Some of the treaties in this work have been published
elsewhere, but for convenience in reference it has seemed best to
use but the one source wherever possible.
1

"... cette
entre les
glbid. p.103.

N
occupation n'aura lieu qu'apres
un accord prealable
deux susdites puissances, base sur le principe d'une
compensation reciproque pour tout avantage territorial ou autre que
chacune d'elles obtiendrait en sus du statu quo actuel, et donnant
faction Ibid,
aux interets et aux pretentions bien fondles des deux
nart lea
n. 108

16

all

that Austrian statesmen were influenced in agreeing

improbable

British-

to this convention by the thought of the already consummated

Italian

rapprochement

Triple Alliance

was

Similarly,

in

made

Italy, therefore,

in an excellent position to secure

was

integral part of

was

incorporated

now

put in the general form which

between

dence
an

at a disadvantage

This time the Austro-Italian Balkan agreement

further concessions.

The

was

the

manifest friendship between France and

because of the increasingly

Russia.

Austria

1891

third treaty of

when the

as an

first direct
Italy

reference

and Austria

interpellation in

of Foreign Affairs,

Italian

the

it

the main treaty,

retained until
in

1914.^

in the correspon-

to Albania
made

was

1900

in connection with

of Deputies.

Chamber

which was

The

Minister

Signor Venosta, answered the question by stating

that Austria and Italy

working for the maintenance

were

this reply to Vienna,

status

quo

sought

confirmation not only of this statement

in Albania.

He

of the

communicated

and

of policy but also

of the oral agreement reached with the Austrian Foreign Minister in

1897

by which

l'Stat

the two powers agreed to use

chose s actuel ne pourrait etre

de

afin

changements s ' imposeraient,

se

ralisent

by Austria,

dans
was

le sens

de

que

all

"au cas ou

conserve, et ou des

les modifications

1' autonomie

maintained through

their efforts,

relatives

This position, accepted

the subsequent

Balkan

dif-

ficulties.
By these

herself

ilbid.

*Ibid.

on an

successive

steps

Italy

had succeeded

in putting

equal basis with Austria in the settlement of Albanian

pp. 150-163.
pp. 196-201.

'

-c-,

>.-r

**j

i s

\i

17

affairs.

Further than this neither could allow the other to go,

official recognition in

stalemate resulted which obtained

and a

Italy in

a speech made

before the

Italian

of Deputies in

Chamber

Foreign Minister Tittoni:

1905 by

"Albania has

no

great importance

in itself,

its littoral and its ports are all-important, as

they would assure to Austria or Italy, if either

but

of the two powers possessed them,

the uncontested
supremacy in the Adriatic.
Now, neither
can Italy allow Austria such supremacy, nor could
ever one of them should
Austria to Italy, and
claim it, the other would have to use every means
to oppose it. This is the logic of the situation.
Therefore, the two states, preferring and sincerely
desiring peace and the maintenance of the alliance,
have both renounced to any eventual occupation of
Albania in case of the perturbation of the status

military

if

quo

" 1

If Italy

In ISO? neither power had any pronounced advantage.

good harbor on the

unfit for naval

was

Strait of Otranto,
use because

Austrias real naval center

Strait

than the

Italian

Pola,

base at Taranto.

somewhat

forts.

further from the

chief opposition to the Austro-Italian policy of

The

for Albania

autonomy

the Austrian port at Cattaro

dominated by Montenegrin

was at

had no

came

from Serbia and her protector,

Russia.

Serbia herself figures only once in the net-work of treaties which

grew up
made

in

after
1881

the Congress

of Berlin.

in which provision

was

An

made

Austrc-Serb alliance

for possible Serbian expan-

sion to the south excepting in the Sanjak of Novibazar

Tommasa; Italy* s Fore ign and Colonial

by San Severino, Baron Bernardo Quaranta

^Tittoni,

edition

p.

18.

Peacock,

p* 362.

^Pribram;

W. ;

op.

Italy and Albania

cit. pp. 50-55.

was

Contemporary

This

Policy , English
di. London (1914).

Review,

vol.

107,

'

IS

last provision effectively barred

For the rest,

of Albania.

great Slav power.

Serbian interests

cared for by the

were

treaty

While the Austro-Serb

in the direction

progress

any Serb

being drafted

was

at Belgrade the short-lived League of the Three Emperors of

Russia,

Germany,
"de

Austria

and

modifications

nouvelles

signed at Berlin, providing that

was

territorial

le statu quo

dans

de

Turquie d'Europe ne pourront s'accomplir qu'en vertu d'un

accord
Russia

until

and Nicholas

conference was held between Francis Joseph

189?

when a

II.

Austria at this time

status quo in the Balkans should

the proposal

by saying that

partition of

Turkey

sur lesquelles
actuellement
content.

il

Albania in case

The

disturbed.

serait

a des

statement

Austria

was

Russia was determined

feared the presence

to secure

of

were

sea-coast

d'avenir

de

statuer

compelled to be

attitude of both powers at this time

clusively that their interests in Albania

of the

questions

difficile

et bien

premature

this

Russia evaded

and the larger problem

in Europe, "touchent

With

this,

be

to secure

an attempt

made

Russian support for the creation of an independent

the

commun

This principle governed the policies of Austria and

n x

la

showed

con-

irreconcilable.

for her protegee; Austria

potentially hostile Slav

power

in

the

southern Adriatic and wished to continue the economic dependence

Serbia

on

Austrian good-will.
Within Albania

steadily

of

in

1907.

Here

itself Italian influence

the

rivalry

between

Italy

was

increasing

and Austria was

p. 38 .
pp. 184-195.
It should be noted that the conversations
between the Austrian and Italian foreign ministers referred to in
the exchange of notes of 1900 took place in 1897. See above, p. 16.

Jlbid.

^Ibid.

L,

19

largely commercial,

religious,

Until

educational.

and

of the century the Austrian Lloyd steamers had held

monopoly on the rather meagre

their
towns.

was the

of Albanian Catholics,

priests

educated

were

and a large number of the native

The

Jesuits

and Franciscans

Italy

Church being under the control of Austria,

secular weapons.

on

run to be more

Albanians.

effective

Catholics and in

many

ways

Italian institutions,
laymen

These proved, however,

the

was perhaps

nationalists existing in

tended to increase

the Greek government,

^Peacock,

W.

floods, H.C.;

in the long

religious discord.

other hand, were usually under the

on the

of the Greeks,
the most

because

obnoxious

and Catholics

it

Italy

in southern Albania.

and

Albania

The Danger Zone

So

Contemporary

of Europe,

was the most

Mention has already been

1907.

alike.

to the few Albanian

educational activity of the Orthodox church, acting

Pa 363.

forced to

essentially non-religious

and were attended by Moslems

The propaganda

successful,

among

was

schools maintained by Austria were open only to

The

control of

had charge

active in spreading Austrian than Catholic propaganda.

more

rely largely

who

schools maintained by the Dual Monarchy in Albania

numerous

far

not easy to supplant.

in Austria and received regular annuities from

the Austrian government.

of the

was

Vatican guaranteed her position

and the

as protector

the opening

By

of trade in both of these

language

In the religious field Austria

Treaties with both the Porte

The

but the Italians

sphere of influence as far north as Durazzo.

of our period Italian

The

practical

already commercially entrenched at Valona and gradually spread

were

were

of Albania,

commerce

the beginning

made

of the

aa the agent

effective

Review.

London (1911).

were the

Vol.107,
pp. 91-93.

of

20

proselytizing

institutions that

methods of these

few

intelligent

Tosks graduated from the Greek gymnasia without a tincture

Greek sympathy.
because

women.

cause must have been

the Greeks had been

facilities for

however,

language,

of the ignorance of the

the Albanian

if

The home

It

of

remained Albanian,

very probable that

seems

entirely lost in Northern Epirus

far-sighted

enough

to provide educational

women.

Largely because of its geographical position, then,

its fifteenth
altogether against the will
Albania, with

of treaty
The

and

century

civilization,

of the Albanians,

intrigue which

makes up

involved in the

and

lished in

inevitable

web

twentieth century politics.

events of the years following are merely so

logical

was by 1907,

many

more or

less

conclusions resulting from premises estab-

the years following

the Congress

of Berlin.

CHAPTER

WINNING

THE

Recent Albanian writers

pression that the Albanians,

were

III

OF AUTONOMY

endeavored

have

or at least a large portion of them,

consciously working in the direction of

preceding the Young Turk Revolution; ^t hat

of the Turkish Constitution,
Young Turks,

the Albanians

to give the im-

and

"

autonomy

in the years

in embracing the cause

in allying themselves

with the

simply abiding by the dictates of

were

finally,

their traditional policy",

and,

1910-12 were the expression

of an almost unanimous national deter-

This is

mination to secure autonomy.

theory from the patriotic

period, far from showing

of

extremely satisfactory

an

point of view, but the history of the

any

cates rather that there was

solidarity

that the revolts

traces of
no

so complete

considerable

a program,

indi-

feeling of national

as late as 1912.
On one

opposition to

any

point, however,
strengthening

all

were

of governmental

corollary to this, foreign intervention

1903, by the Miirzsteg Program,

united in their

was

control.

As a

universally feared. In

Russia and Austria had established

Summing up, the policy of the Albanians had two distinct objects:
1. To preserve the Ottoman Empire as a means to their national
end, so as to gain time for the preparation of Albania.
2. To secure an autonomous administration for Albania which
would serve as a stepping stone to complete independence."
Chekrezi, C. A.; op.cit.
p.63.
1,1

Ibid.

p . 66.

'

22

foreign assessors and

gendarmes

that the taxes would actually

be

and a foreign police power meant the enforcement

of

vision of tax gathering

collected,

meant

Turkish law, both of which results would

infringements

rageous

But foreign super-

in Macedonia.

be

scandalous and out-

traditional Albanian anarchy.

on

of the excellently equipped and comparatively

soldiery,

moreover,

unpaid and decrepit

who

were

preserve order.
however,

fell

Both the Austrian and the

into the old

of their respective countries,

of irritation,

remained a source

game

so

the foreigners

of spreading

that, while they

did but

to collect taxes,

conscription

with chronic unrest as the result.

willing

converts among these discontented

Most of the program of the

revolutionists

was

him

always

that foreign interference

were

foreign control,

precipitant for
3,

1908,

reached

be

will;

at

ended.

with

its

Albania in June of

the accumulated

the revolution

was

elements.

sufficient

The Turk he had

or

task -masters.

promise

1908 and

of extended
acted as a

fears of the mountaineers.

really

iKnight, E. F. ; Turkey , Boston (1910).

^Eliot; op.cit. p . 3 54 .

and

The Young

the "Giaours"

exacting and persistent

of the Reval Program,

News

July

more

to

was

been able to disobey almost

foreigners

to

quite beyond the com-

prehension of the "single-track" mind of the Albanian;

for

little

In the eastern areas of Kossovo and Monastir,

spasmodic attempts were made to enforce

Turks found

among

serving as junior officers in the

Turkish army.

Russian representatives soon

the propaganda

opulent foreign

continual source of disaffection

was a

Albanians

the numerous

The presence

begun by the

pp. 87-89.

flight

On

of

23

Major Niazi Bey, a Mussulman Albanian,

village,

Resna.

Here

to the

the standard of revolt

and the tribesmen summoned

was

short time the country between Resna, Dibra,

1

over to the Young Turk cause.

formally raised

Within

a remarkably

and Monastir

Other revolutionary

had been

leaders,

started similar revolts in various parts of

such as Enver Bey,

western

near his native

to the task of ridding the country of

foreign interference and internal corruption.

won

hills

Macedonia.
The

success of these more or less spasmodic and uncon-

nected movements was practically

assured by a great gathering of

at Ferisovitch, called partly to protest against

Albanians

foreign

intervention in general as contemplated under the Reval Program,

partly to
whose

vicious activities of the Austrian consul, under

end the

protection

it

demoralizing

were

and

was

believed that brothels and gambling houses

the younger men of the

district.

Some

sort of

telegram was sent by this gathering

to the Sultan at the instigation

of the Young Turk representatives.

Inasmuch as the meeting

held under the auspices of

was

this

supporter of Abdul Hamid,

was
message

probably a more or less indefinite petition for reform, but by

the time

it

reached

Constantinople

Young Turk

had changed the form so that the Constitution

demanded.

futility
aware

It

was

this telegram

of resistance;

as Dr.

of the defection of his

telegraph
was

operators

categorically

which convinced Abdul Hamid of the

Dillon says,
most

"When the

loyal defenders,

he

Sultan became
probably

op.cit. p.133.
^Knight;
2
See Woods; op.cit.
p.95, and Pears, op.cit. pp. 287-88 for statements of the purpose and importance of this meeting.

24

uttered the Turkish equivalent

resigned himself to the ine vi table

and

riotously in Albania,

"

headsmen

prisoner at Constantinople

Until

The

Mirdites

had been a

Doda,

The Young

Turks,

the Prenk at once,

joined the supporters of the Constitution.

the chief Albanian

of the Albanian

towns to arrange

for

as

yet unsure

feeling of child-like
who

was

of

and the Mirdites

also

Gatherings were held at

the opening

of native

and a congress was called to devise a national

Miss Durham,

virtual

should return, his subjects would have nothing to

he

their position, released

schools,

mi,'

of the tribes assembling at Scutari

since the suppression

with the new government.

alphabet.

buoyancy and hope was apparent everywhere.

travelling through

districts

the mountain

this time, encountered grotesquely distorted ideas of

regime

fili

Their ruler, Prenk Bib

alone held back.

quoque

the Albanian Peace of God.

to swear a "bessa"

League.

'tu

formal granting of the Constitution was celebrated

The

do

of Caesar's

at

the new

"Every one had a huge

such as railways, roads,

list

of things

factories,

trifles
all,

and above

free schools that were desired of the government,

least idea that he himself had a
duty towards the government.
The 'Constitution' was
a sort of 'magic dicky' that was to create everything out of nothing.
A rumor that they might have
to contribute either work or money in order to attain
these things caused great wrath. "2
and no one had the

Discordant

Officials

elements

at once.

without any knowledge of the country were appointed by the

^Dillon, E.

J.;

Foreign Affairs

^Durham, M. E. ; Constitution~
94, pp. 540-41,

vol.

began to appear almost

Contemporary

in North Albania ,

Review, vol . 94, p. 389 .

Contemporary Review,

25

Young Turks,

and

their blunders

ties.

the

festivities

While

were

arrest of several tribesmen for

tribal

command

forced to flee for his

life

short time before.

still

was

all

the old animosi-

in progress in Scutari the

offense not punishable under

an

in

law again put the mountaineers

Serbia the military

but

soon revived

state of unrest.

given to Djavid Pasha,

same

and

an

expedition against Isa Boletin,

unsuccessful

influential chief

area

Djavid immediately and conclusively

proved himself unregenerate in the eyes of the Albanians

taking

had been

who

this

from the tribesmen of

In Old

like his mediaeval prototype,

who,

by under-

popular
the robber

baron, had long kept his followers prosperous by periodical raids

on the
were

unwarlike peasants of Macedonia.

all

too numerous.

Other sources of

Educated Albanians

felt

friction

that their services

to the cause of the Revolution were ignored when administrative

positions

were

being

filled; enterprising

collect arrears in taxes in addition

current

levies;

the attempt

assessors undertook to

to the comparatively

to destroy

all fortified

houses and to

disarm the mountaineers seemed a blow at the traditional

of the Albanian against governmental

detested of
The

all,

however,

was the

tyranny.

defenses

heartily

order for the taking of a census.

delicate Albanian sense of honor resented questions concerning

the feminine members of the households.

shrewd suspicion that
and

Most

heavy

for conscription.

the hated Yemen,

op.cit.
'Brailsford, H.

gWoods;

Review,

vol.

Also, the tribesmen had

the census would form the basis

Already young

men were

for

new

taxes

being drafted into

or Arabian service.^

p.98.
Albanians
;
100, p.335.
N.

Turks . and Russians

Contemporary

26

uneasy state

An

1910.

Then

great meeting

of Albanians

policy of "Ottomanization

Young Turk

and

Porte replied by sending a large army,

troops, to the disaffected area.

was

was

entirely

caused by

chieftains

until

held at Prishtina

all

that went with

including

who

disliked

was proved

by the army.

Katchanik Pass, a vulnerable

until

the

arrival of

was

by the vigorous

the new regime

into

off.

lull,

The

point

"the Albanians

seem

Turkish reinforcements.

until

for

the Young

merely meant that the tribesmen were out

says,

incapable of the long years of preparation

Bulgarian revolt.

brief

They

adventures,

each man has shot away his

enjoy their triumph

until

and

collect

no war

the Montenegrin

if

the following

^Pears, Sir Edwin; Developments

vo 1 . 97, p. 701.
2
Brailsford; Macedonia , p.267.

and

the Turks can survive

beltful of cartridges,

frontier.

chest,

Their risings, accordingly,

spring."

During the revolt of 1910 great numbers

fled across

The

scattering guerilla struggle which

they amass no magazines of ammunition.

are alarming but

error

on the Uskub-

Brailsford, speaking of earlier uprisings,

of ammunition.

which precede

however,

The

opposition encountered

only succeeded in keeping alive Albanian animosity

Turk.

occupied by the Albanians and defended

overwhelming

revolt then degenerated

Kurdish

unrest, the Turks claimed,

of this statement

Mitrovitsa railway line,

many

it.

The

because the subsidies of Abdul Hamid were now cut

The

the spring of

protesting against the

to Constantinople

and an ultimatum sent

The

of peace continued

These,

they

may

of Albanians had

in the course of the

in Turkey , Contemporary Review,

2?

winter, gradually drifted back to their

homes,

bringing with

confused rumors of promised Montenegrin aid against

Circulars purporting

to have been written by

in

promising the aid of his Red Shirts"

men,

tribes,

the Christian

for Albanian inde-

to arouse once more to

already incensed by the terrible

of Scutari,

of the governor

who

and by the barbarous methods used by the

of northern Albania was in arms.

larist spirit

was now

clearly

first revolt,

inactive in the

blunder

had proclaimed a Holy War against

Kurdish troops in "pacifying" disaffected areas.

all

shown.

The

strength

The

Mirdites,

again refused to

practically

Soon

of the particuhad remained

who

join

with the moun-

little

tain

men.

some

of the tribes refusing either to give help to their fellow

Even among the

latter there

insurgents or to receive aid from

was

very

them.

the Albanians,

which had attracted the attention

this corner of

Europe before Montenegro

quantities

especially

^Miller,

p. 495.
3_

action of

of the Powers to

for action.

was ready

Large

of arms and ammunition were sent more or less openly

across the frontier,

^Durham,

cooperation,

Montenegrins were furious at the premature

The

and

These extremely vague

promises of foreign help were sufficient

action the mountain

the Turks.

Riciotti Garibaldi

a war

3"

distributed.*

pendence were mysteriously

them

when

E.;

but the Montenegrin army could do nothing, 4

Russia declined to back the Black Mountain

The Struggle
William; The Ottoman
M.

in

for Scutari
Empire

p.19.
London (1914).
.
1801-1913 , Cambridge (191b).

op.cit. p.45.
orailsford, H. N.; Albanians . Turks . and Russians
Durham,

pp. 329-30.

28

proposed Balkan War.

little

There could be

doubt as to the result

of the revolt now that Montenegro was barred from active participa-

tion.

The

lowlands of eastern Albania were occupied by the Turks

early in June,

and the

Sultan himself

brate the return of peace.

for

the rebels was proclaimed

eleventh of June in connection with a great military review,

on the

and

amnesty

An

to Old Serbia to cele-

came

five

later, before

days

the tomb of Murad

financial aid

announced that

I,

for

would be given

the Sultan
the rebuilding

of

devastated areas, and that the Albanian nationality would henceforth

recognition.

receive

accompanied by a threat of

month,

refused.

The

Malissori,

continued their struggle.

children of the tribesmen

well had

been

still
By

however,

great

forced into Montenegro.

the whole month.

By the

annihilation

many

An

most

armistice

reconstruction of the burned villages,

were

Montenegrin

was

given the privilege of carrying arms outside

op.cit. pp. 30-21.

E.; op.cit. pp. 58-59.

The

men

and

as

concluded
through

of the

forced to

make

territory.

The

to aid in the

to suspend

and to construct roads and schools.

M.

women

beginning of August the patience

Turks agreed to grant an amnesty to the rebels,

Durham,

of the

despite numerous violations,

peace as best they could and to leave

^ears, Sir Edwin;

they were

of the fighting

Montenegrins was exhausted, and the Albanians

if

blindly hoping for foreign help,

July,

and a

early in July and continued,

years,

later

terms were communicated to the mountaineers

These

in the

all

taxes for two

Albanians were to

of the towns

and were

be

'

29

not to be forced to serve in the Yemen.- 1

All

omission in the agreement.

Albanians

insisted

significant

through the negotiations the

the necessity

on

There was one

for

a European

of the

guarantee

in the hope that by this expedient the benefits of foreign

terms

interference might

secured without the drawbacks.

be

The Young

Turks absolutely refused to accede to this suggestion,

and in the end the Albanians

Albania.

were

however,

forced to yield.

The

winter of 1911-12 sealed the fate of the Turk in

The

Malissori returned to their ruined

only temporarily subdued.

The

tragically ineffectual effort

defeated but

homes

but

government made a determined

to

fulfill

the terms of peace,

for at

every turn the hopeless inefficiency of the administrative machinery

was

glaringly apparent.

was

diverted

made

on the way by

officials

sent

unpaid

to Scutari for

officials.

difficult.

As

usual,

complicated the situation.

He

harvest,

The

only knew that his house

restore the "maisons"

The

Review,

op.cit.
C.

Italy

little

was

of the Turkish
with which

to the Albanian,

burned,

that there
as usual,

was

no

not

Turks claimed that they had promised to

only of the insurgents; the Albanian copy of

the agreement read "immeubles"

H.

purposes

violent dispute arose also over the interpretation

of the terms of peace.

^Miller;

with

difficulties

and that the promises of the Turk were,

being kept.

woods,

The war

the incompetence

the government was forced to cope meant

however.

relief

of house-building materials and clothing

the importation

exceedingly

Money

The

i.e., all

permanent improvements . s

p.496.

Situation in Albania

vol. 91, pp. 913-14.

and Macedonia

Fortnightly

'

30

of the Vali, the tribes which had not

to complete the worries

Then,

rebelled poured into Scutari demanding the

rebels, insisting,

logically

penalize those

had remained

who

loyal.

the outraged non-combatants,

against

it

that

enough,

indemnities

same

not

was

fair

to

of

no

Arguments were

left

who

as the

avail

that next

vowing

year their turn would come.

In the spring

all

northern Albania prepared for the

annual revolt. Even the Mirdites were now showing signs of dis-

loyalty, since

this inauspicious

the Young Turks had chosen

deprive Prenk Beb Doda of his suzerainty over neighboring

A

perfunctory request for administrative

Albanians,

and

quite as mechanically

was

to

be

denied by the government.

time the Turkish soldiery

situation,
as the

as in 1908.

Italian

war went

new

of Union

made

and

tent the Committee

al ministry
the furthest

demands

administrative

in arranging

of the insurgents

autonomy

growing steadily
The

for

the formation

all

of a

In the latter part

actually

and many

Largely because of this discon-

government was replaced

which succeeded

of the

the Turks.

soldiers.

of June several large detachments revolted,

joined forces with the Albanians.

But

Progress was blamed for

and demands

by the

appearances

the usual

command

been

against

more and more

of the Empire,

cabinet were openly

in Albania took

Their discontent had

government of the Committee

the misfortunes

all

The

never carried out.

concessions which would be, again as usual,

this

To

typical Albanian revolt, ending with

tribes.

was made by the

autonomy

usual spasmodic unorganized warfare then began.

this

time to

to the vilayets

an

were

in July by
armistice.
met

a more

liber-

In August

by the granting of

of Scutari,

Kossovo, Janina,

'

and

the four to comprise

Monastir,

the province

of Albania.

In the short space of four years, therefore, the

Albanians had changed from the staunchest supporters

bitterest

enemies of Turkish dominion

policy of

"

Ot t oraani

zat ion"

was

in Europe.

skilful

officials

exploitation

appointed by the

by Russia,

this favorable opportunity to

independence,
Even

in

the

Albanians

little

was a

last

did not present

interest

^Chekrezi,

op.cit.

government,

effiand the

of

as a force

working for

if it

existed at

all.

successful rebellion of these years the

a

united front.

part in the revolt, and even

the almost

lack of

the Turkish power were also

weaken

negligible consideration,

and most

despite

new

and

in the

acting through Montenegro,

Albanian nationalism,

active forces.

The Young Turk

the most potent factor

creation of discontent, but the inexperience

ciency of the

to the

some

The Tosks

of the northern tribes,

unbearable maladministration,

pp. 68-69.

took but

showed

but slight

CHAPTER

THE

TRIPLE ALLIANCE

IV

AND ALBANIAN

INDEPENDENCE

Balkan history is rarely pleasant

the years 1912 and 1913

history.

is

of the

one

disgusting in

most

civilization loses

Twentieth century

classical ancestor,

is

and there

nothing to

be

all

human

of its glamor

much

record of the modern Greek is compared

when the

the story of

reading;

with that of his

in

found

all

the

chronicles of the great Slavic invasions of mediaeval times which

does not seem temperate
the

and humane

starkly horrible tale of

impartial

investigators.

motives.

Upon almost

question had

itself,

Albania

rival
so

some

groups

that but

however,

of Powers,

little

in

the conduct

as

told

of the Great Powers

direct or indirect.
by the

Triple Alliance

attention need

be devoted

The

fate of

attitude of the

and the

lem

allies after

will

be

either to the actions

Albanian

^Dotation

Balkans

really

under

way.

The main

to show clearly the balancing and adjusting of

which resulted,

ambitions
an

the war was

in the

two

Triple Entente,

of the Albanians themselves, or to the military operations

Balkan

by

of this period the Albanian

was determined

the

liberation

of any but unscrupulously selfish

every event

influence,

read in conjunction with

the "wars of

Even

there is but slight evidence

when

first place, in

of the
prob-

rival

the setting up of

state of any kind, then in the fixing of admittedly

Carnegie pour la Paix Internationale;

Rapport

Paris

(1914)

E?nquete

dans

les

33

unjust boundaries for the

The

creation of

new

state.

sole cause of the Balkan Wars,

and hastened

Bulgaria,

the opening

Serbia,

Albania, while not the

an autonomous

of

practically inevitable,

war

made

hostilities.

and Greece were made

alliances

The

early in

the uprising had a very decided

allies,

however.

Sofia, Belgrade,

qu'ils
The

Guechoff,

As M.

"tous ces evenements

remarks,

Athenes

all

success of

The

policies of

on the

eurent un echo si puissant

et Cettigne

qu'il etait facile

four of the western vilayets

Albanian control was especially

states hoped to secure

the

then premier of Bulgaria,

de

pas de provoquer des consequences

ne manqueraient

fact that

effect

before the

1912,

Albanian revolt had assumed serious proportions.

between

distasteful,

were

prevoir

graves."^

put under

since each of the

portion of this territory.

Montenegro,

which had been advocating the creation of an autonomous

Malissori

province in northern Albania under Montenegrin protection,

now

abandoned

all

war.

Serbian plan for the division of European Turkey into

The

spheres

pretense of pacific intent and openly prepared for

of influence for the four neighboring states

frustrated

by the creation of
The seeds

this

"grande

of the Second Balkan

Albanie

War,

found in the failure of Serbia and Bulgaria to

was

also

7
.

moreover,
make

any

may be

provision

against possible successful opposition to Serbian expansion in

Albania.

In view of previous Austrian declarations on the subject

p.82.
^Guechoff, Iv.-E.; L* alliance Balkanique , Paris (1915).
^Evans, Sir Arthur; The Drama of the Balkans, Contemporary Review,

vol.

p.775.
^Dotation Carnegie,
102,

op.cit.

p. 29.

34

it is

highly improbable

that the

Rather,

should have been overlooked.

relied

and Russian support.

Montenegrin military
was

The
men

ability

hostilities,

opposition would
of

the care

the Serbians

would seem,

declarations of both Serbian and

before the war indicate that

expected on the Albanian front.

boasted of their
opening of

it

such interference

combination of two factors suddenness of attack,

on a

opposition

possibility of

be

wounded

met

The

little

Montenegrins

to take Scutari within two weeks of the

and were

so

confident that but slight

that practically

soldiers.

It

provision

no

was hoped,

for

was made

therefore, that the

rapid completion of the conquest of northern Albania would permit

the

Allies

latter

to confront Austria with a

power should have time to protest;

then shown,

accompli before the

if

any

justified

Unfortunately for Serbia,

by the event.

To be

sure, the Malissori did join

but the Mirdites, bribed by the Young Turks with

and with promises of concessions,

cooperate with their Christian

gifts of

1911,

arms

passively resisted the invasion,

while the Moslems showed the strength

and

were

neither calculation

in spite of the "betrayal" of

forces with the Montenegrins,

Turkish

opposition

Russia could be relied upon to back up the claims of

the Slav powers.

was

fait

of Islam by refusing to

"liberators."

Delayed

partly

by

Albanian opposition, but even more by the appalling

lack of efficiency in their

own

invest Scutari until late in

E.;

Struggle

army,

November.

the Montenegrins did not

The

importance

of this

for Scutari , pp.67, 182-83.

Victory
Nevinson, W. ; The Causes of
and the Spoils , Contemporary
Review, vol. 103, p.9.
^Durham,
2

M.

The

35

resistance of Scutari

delay and of the subsequent

overestimated.
only to
home,

stir

During these precious

up a

respectable

amount

Austria

weeks

scarcely

can

was

be

able, not

of anti-Serb sentiment at

it also to line up the other members of the Triple Alliance

solidly for

Albania.

an autonomous

sentiment of the Triple

The

Allies

with regard to the

Albanian question was crystallized early in November by the note

which M. Poincare, then premier of France,

asking for expressions

territorial

questions

addressed to the Powers

in regard to the

of "disinterestedness

in the Balkan struggle.

involved

by even the Entente press within a few days of

its publication,

received with a storm of disapproval by the Triple Alliance.

Public agitation

began

immediately in the Viennese press in favor

of Albanian independence,

and Germany

porting her ally in this policy. 2

the

This

which was euphemistically referred to as "unfortunate

request,

was

storm in

his Guildhall

pleaded against
which,

if

"the

Premier Asquith sought to calm

speech of November

raising

a more

S.

In this

and pressing of isolated

handled separately and at once,

irreconcilable divergences,
perhaps

every sign of sup-

showed

seem

likely

but which might assume a

tractable aspect

if

he

questions,
to lead to

different

and

they are reserved to be dealt

The resistance of the garrison of Yanina to the Greeks and the

resistance of the garrison of Scutari to the Serbs, had more direct
effect on the political results of the war than all the bloody
battles and combats in the field. For it was the resistance of
these garrisons that made it possible for Europe to establish an
autonomous Albania. Courtney of Penwith, ed.;
Nationalism

and War

in

the Near East

The London Times , 1912,

^Ibid. Nov. 4, p.S,

Oxford (1915)

Nov.

col.l;

2,

p.201.

p.5,col.

Nov. 6,

p.7,

1.

col.l.

36

with from the wider point of view of a general settlement."^

sensible suggestion had

noticeably sobering effect, but the

inclined to look

Austrian press

was

portion of the

same

the general

opinion

Mr.

of Europe to

editorial

be

fruits

are not to be robbed of the

Viennese

askance at another

amid wild applause,

where,

speech,

somewhat

Asquith proclaimed that "upon

to the Times

this

comment on

Provisional

had received
would be

feeling

Government

thing I believe

one

victors

which cost them so dear."

might be condensed into

of Albania,

who

was

and the

semi-

later

Bey,

head of

then in Vienna,

assurances from the Austrian government that Albania

set up as an independent
as shown in the

similar to

according

unanimous that the

Priscillas demure "Speak for yourself, John,"

official press openly stated that Ismail Kemal
the

This

those

Italian

governmental

ministerial press reflected

of Austria,

Austrian demonstrations,

state.

and Germany,

views very

despite Socialist

anti-

to the length of securing assurances

went

from the Russian foreign minister to the

effect that Russia

would

not go to war over the question of an Adriatic port for Serbia.

Deserted by her traditional
the united opposition of the
recede

from her extreme

supporter,

and

Triple Alliance, Serbia

position.

On November

confronted by
began to

21, the Serbian

Foreign Office intimated that the Balkan Allies might consent to

the creation of an independent

Albania.

Pashitch, the Serbian prime minister,

Jlbid.
-Ibid.
|lbid.
Ibid.
"Ibid.

Nov.

Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.

11,
11,
11,
15,

32,

p.7, col. 1
p.9, col. 9.
p.7, col.l.
p.5, col. 2.
p . 5, col . 1 .

few days

later

M.

confirmed this report, but

37

"it is essential

added that

This coastline would

kilometers from Alessio to Durazzo.

to what

fifty

that Serbia should possess about

joined

be

formerly Old Serbia approximately by the territory

was

between a line
from Alessio

from Durazzo

in the north." 1

to Djakova

of independence

issued

to Ochrida Lake in the south, and one

on November

28

The

Albanian declaration

by a council of chiefs meet-

ing at Valona under the leadership of Ismail Kemal Bey might almost
be

considered the Austro-Italian

answer to the Serbian statement,

since the action of Ismail was taken only after assurances of sup-

port had

been

received from the Triple Alliance.

Early in

at the suggestion

December,

Powers decided that

the larger

of England, the

international questions created

by

their

the Balkan War should be settled by an informal conference of

ambassadors
tance

stationed at

of this plan

was

some

European

capital.

Austrian accept-

hastened by unmistakable indications

contemplating a modification of her Adriatic policy.

Russia

was

Rumors

of extensive mobilization

of Russian troops persisted

despite repeated denials of any military

activity

by Russia.

before the meeting of the ambassadors the situation was

more tense

that

by the

Nov.

announcement

25, p.8,

^Ibid.
^Chekrezi, op.cit.

It is interesting,

col.

p.78.

made

Just
even

that orders preliminary to mobiliza-

2.

in view of the statements made by Chekrezi and

other Albanian writers concerning the universal desire of the
Albanians for independence, to note that Ismail Kemal Bey, in
informing the Turkish government of the action of the Valona
assembly, emphasized strongly the continued affection of the
Albanians for the Ottoman Empire and for the Caliphate and sought
to excuse the declaration of independence on the ground of strategic necessity, v. London Times, 1912, Dec. 6, p.7, col. 3.

38

tion

had been sent to

the Austrian Minister

officers of

by

all reservists of
of

avowedly

War and

sympathies.

went

on

activities

were

of

without regard to the

immediately after the opening of the peace congress.

the

that

The meetings

wrangling which broke out between Turkey and the Balkan

sittings of

and

Chief of Staff had been replaced

militaristic

held at London,

the ambassadors,

the German army,

Allies

All

the

Council were secret; even rumors concerning their

surprisingly

few.

On December

20 the

first

important results were announced in the following communique:

"The Ambassadors have recommended to their
governments, and the latter have accepted, the
principle of Albanian autonomy, together with a
provision guaranteeing to Serbia commercial
access to the Adriatic.
The six governments
have agreed in principle on these two points." 2

This declaration marks the end of the

Albanian question.

In this the Triple Alliance

victory, largely through

and

Russia,

and the even

the

faulty

Out- manoeuvred on

in, like

the Turks at Scutari,

^
2

Ibid.

Dec.

had won a signal

diplomatic tactics of France

this point,

however,

1912, Dec. 11,

11, p.8, col. 1.

Russia dug herself

and prepared to reduce

results of her defeat.

London Times,

phase of the

greater military blunders of the Balkan

Allies.
the

first

p.8,

col.l.

to a minimum

CHAPTER V

THE

Albania.

the Powers

in hinting that

THE

STATE

the

"some at

of an independent

establishment

farther than Miss Newbigin

go even

least of the Powers foresaw that

Albania might lead to quarrelling

independent

Powers,"

for

reputable writers

Many

OF

ink has been wasted in hysterical damning or

Much good

praising of

ESTABLISHMENT

and

that "their motive

wholly uninfluenced
millennium,

by

among

the Balkan

in supporting its erection

this possibility."

Apostles

It is

for all peoples.

terested philanthropists, or that there

of the decision of December 20.

Italy

Adriatic littoral
hostile

power.

dangerous

schemes

shown above,

But behind Serbia

in

and

of the

disin-

become

back

the primary

and Austria was to prevent the eastern

Greece and Serbia were not then,

base for any maritime

Other factors,

As

from coming into the hands of a

neighbors.

Russian menace,

of the

diabolical plot

was a

not

not necessary to

believe, however, either that the Powers had suddenly

both

was

other hand, hailed this as the beginning

on the

era of self-determination

interest of

an

a Greek

power in

loomed

potentially
in themselves,

the omnipresent

Strait of Corfu Italy

alliance with

notably Austrian resentment

saw

naval

Greece against

Italy.

at the collapse of her

to secure an outlet on the Aegean, were doubtless present,

I.

Geographical Aspects of Balkan Problems

N .

Y.

40

strengthened a policy long since determined upon.

but they merely

Selfish this policy certainly

was,

and

there is every

reason to believe with Professor Hazen that the Albanian

was

directly responsible for

go so

far

the Second Balkan War.'

would not necessarily follow,

circumstances,

these

as Mr.

Dominian

partition of

might even

of

But even then

it

further implies, that

the country between Greece

and Serbia might not have been incompatible

tions."

We

Dominian that "the inhabitants

as to say with Mr.

Albania are totally devoid of national feeling.^

"under

1'

fiasco' 1

with national aspira-

Balkan history for centuries has centered around the

attempts of subject peoples to secure

their emancipation.

To

divide. Albania between her neighbors would be merely to start

another chapter in the bloody story.

solidarity,

Despite the lack of national

strength of the Albanian hatred for Greek and Serb

the

strikingly manifest at least since

had been

realized this is

That the Serbs and Greeks themselves

measures taken to exterminate the Albanian

secured in 1913.

lull in

January

1913,

the

elements

of Berlin.

shown by the

in the areas

After the

slight

the Congress

announcement;

of December 30,

the discussion of the Albanian

however,

Serbia began

the face of

territory

was

all reliable

ethno graphically

question.

there was a

Early in

systematic agitation against

inclusion of Old Serbia in Albania.

flying in

1913,

Some

testimony,

Serbian;

of the propagandists,
claimed that the

others dwelt on the fact

pp.674, 677.
pHazen, C. D. ; Modern Europe , N.Y. (1930)
^Dominian, Leon; Frontiers of Language and Nationalitv in Europe,
N.Y. (1917).
p.194.

~Ibid.

p.195.
Carnegie,

^Dotation

op.cit.

41

that the wishes of the Serb majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina

in

had not been consulted by Austria-Hungary

of the idea that the Albanians

were

"intruders"

since this

district

also

to show signs of uneasiness

began

was

Much was made

in Old Serbia,

part of the old Serbian empire.

reported rumors of an extensive

Montenegro

the Powers showed a

when

disposition to include Scutari in Albania.

Cettigne

1908.^

Press dispatches

anti-monarchist

from

movement.

Using these reports as an excuse King Nicholas announced that the

Montenegrins would never abandon Scutari unless ejected by force
of arms.

surrender Montenegros claim to that city,

To

would inevitably

the overthrow of the Montenegrin royal house?

mean

question of the boundaries for the newly created

The

state

insisted

he

international

soon raised the

fever heat of

temperature

above

Austria fought valiantly for

1912.

even the

line to the

north and east which corresponded roughly with the ethnographical

situation.

trol.

The

This would put

disposition of

one

hundred and seventy Albanians

Serbia's claim to this area, obviously,

sentimental

was

on the

the

which, according to the best available figures,

contained approximately

on

of Old Serbia under Albanian con-

discussion finally focused

town of Djakova,

Serb.'

most

grounds.

In March feeling in

to every

rest largely

must

Germany

and

Austria

further aroused by well-authenticated reports of the wholesale

of Albanians by Serb troops.

massacre

The

Austrian government

lodged a formal protest at Belgrade and even the more conservative

London Times

-Ibid.

Dillon,

Review,

Jan.
E.

vol.

6,

J.

Jan. 2, p.7, col. 2.

p.5, col. 2.
Alleged Plan to Extirpate Albanians

1913,

103,

pp. 577-81.

Contemporary

42

German newspapers

After

came

the customary

Austria

violently against

out

rumors of extensive

mobilization

dispute was settled on March

the boundary

announcement that Scutari was to be Albanian,

go

Russia,

to Serbia.

this

under

arrangement,

Djakova and the other regions

ceded to Serbia.

this

compromise

was

"if

all

evoke

to provide

the interested powers for

even from the sedate Times

comment

should

distasteful to both parties, then in this

be

frontiers of Albania
Montenegro

stubbornly

the

essence

in

almost univer-

The

the terse

that

to

was

treatment of the Albanians

press of

sufficient to

by the

22

was

fair

by the

Russia and

by

while Djakova

guarantees for the safety and

sal disgust expressed

"blood baths." 1

these

is that it

of a compromise

sense the new

may be

considered an unqualified

showed

her opinion of the arrangement

success."^
by

continuing the siege of Scutari despite the verbal

thunders of the Powers and the more material but no more effective

international blockade of

the Montenegrin coast.

On

April

Prince Danilo of Montenegro entered Scutari in triumph.

26

Austrian

troops were immediately and openly massed on the Montenegrin

frontier.

Again

the

situation turned

again that power yielded.

no

aid could

be

of revolution,
Scutari,

on the

action of Russia,

King Nicholas, definitely

expected from Russia,

decided to

risk

notified that
the bugbear

and on May 14 the Montenegrin army evacuated

international

troops taking

and

its place. 4

llbid.

pp. 577-80.
London
Times . 1913, March 24,
p.6, col.l.
^
ibid. March 28, p.8, col. 3.
^Martens, G. Fr. de ; Nouveau Re cue i 1 General de Traites
Troisieme Srie, Tome IX, Leipzig, (1919) . pp. 648-49.

-'

43

northern

The

frontier being fixed,

Ambassadors was transferred

at
her

first
own

Italy

not so keen.

interests

were

busy consolidating her

fight yet.

to the south.

willing

was

vitally

not

position in

In August

to compromise

involved,
Thrace

to lay

was

while Greece

long as
too

was

fixed by the

was

An

international

definite lines after investigation

down

the wrangling

the less explosive

settled (July

13)

"neutralises"

subject

was

for ten years.

the presence

ruler of

Powers.

By the terms

constituted

was
4

frontiers

on

an autonomous

of the Powers.

Internal security

Until

be

des

to

be

insured by

under Dutch

officers.

prince appointed by the

autorit^s indigenes existantes"

p.7,

col.l.

Arts.
1-3.
Arts. 4-6.
^Swedish, in the original document.
Slbid.
Art. 1.
Ibid. Art. 7.

Ibid.

JIbid.

jflbid.

and

international

London Times , 1913, Aug. 12,

pp. 650-51.
^Martens, op.cit.
^

was

civil

The

the organization of the new government should be

effected the "f onotionnement

should continue.

to

was

principality

to be in the hands of an

was

going

of this "statut

of an international gendarmerie
the new state

still

was

of internal administration

under the guarantee

financial administration
commission

over the

at London.

Albania

organique ,

The

so

spot.^
While

on,

here was

to put up much of a

of Ochrida, Korcha being left to Albania.

the

of the

running from a point south of Cape Stylos to the Lake

Ambassadors,

commission

conflict

The

tentative boundary

the attention

Arts.

8-11.

44

Just
one

what

seemed to know.

friction

to prevent

frontier.

Further

"provisional

these

indigenes existantes"

"autorites

At Scutari Colonel

Philips

was

-were,

no

doing his best

along the very hazily defined Montenegrin

south, at Durazzo, Essad Pasha had set up a
operating

government"

in opposition to the

one

at

Valona," 5 which Ismail Kemal Bey was struggling to keep from abso-

lute dissolution.

went

the Turks,

governing themselves

on
30

could report

in

Now

been passed,

more peace and

weaker.

order in Albania than anywhere else

that the most acute phase of the Albanian

the Powers

showed

little interest

valuable

While

search for an "available"

tically

about as they had under

state.

new

just

prince,

the

The

E.J.;

^Dillon,
106, p . 116.

Albania*

lost in

Valona government,

tribesmen began to murmur,

Tribulations .

as

was

in

crisis

had

in the organization

time was being

financial or military resources,

no

the

that Mr. Nevinson, traveling through the country,

the Balkans.

of the

occupied by

In the midst of these conflicting jurisdictions

the Greeks.

tribes

Most of southern Albania had been

rapidly

1908,

Contemporary

the

with pracgrowing

at the slowness

Review,

vol.

^Mention should be made here of the early career of Essad Pasha,

of the most fascinating and puzzling figures in the whole
Albanian story.
An enthusiastic supporter of the Old Regime in
Turkey until 1908, he immediately changed his position when the
success of the Revolution seemed assured.
He was in command of the
defense of Scutari in 1913 and was accused by many Albanians of betraying the city into the hands of the Montenegrins.
See for conone

flicting

opinions

concerning his integrity and character, Chekrezi,

op. cit., pp. 101, 143-46; Current History . New York Times .
1920, pp. 622-31;
Current Opinion , vol. 55, p.94.
%
Nevinson, W. ; Land of the Eagle , Contemporary Review, vol.
pp. 312-21.

July

104,

45

of action,

and the

spread that Ismail Kemal

was

rumor

the country to foreign business men.

Valona government had repeatedly

In

declared

with the internal situation, William of Wied

Prince of Albania."

So

little

the prince.

Roumania,

had been persona

because

In Germany Prince William

practical solutions for all

and

Dr.

Dillon,

who

described him as whole-hearted,

prevented a possible conflict by

January, forcing Essad to

and

The new

chivalruler
Bey

patriotically resigning in

likewise.

do

Ismail Kemal

The

International

until

arrival of

the

the

iChekrezi: op.cit.

Ibid.
'-

p.

of
vol.

^Dillon, E.
15.

oods,
101,

H.

pp. 120-31.

14.

Champion

Opinion,

to know the prince

generous,

arose.

now

Commission then took over the government

vol.

the

of the status of the rival "provisional

the question

at Valona and Durazzo

governments"

came

lacking in initiative and will-power.

but

being chosen,

Other estimates

grata with both his father and the emperor

non

of the universe. 3

very well,

combined the

of his "anarchist" friends chiefly fellow doctrinaire

problems

prince

new

issued a pamphlet

with the virtue of Galahad.

philosophers with simple

rous,

to cope

the new subjects of

among

not quite so fla.ttering, however.

the

chosen "Hereditary

According to this encomium the prince

bravery of Lancelot
were

was

unable

selling

in Albania about the

was known

ruler that his aunt. Carmen Sylva of

entitled "Who is He" for distribution

after

December,

itself

was

Human

56,

J.;

Freedom

pp. 22-22.

The

Who

Rule Albania

Current

Albanian Tangle, Fortnightlv Review,

C.; The Situation

pp. 460-72.

is to

vol.

in Albania , Fortnightlv Review,

102.

46

In determining the causes for the failure

Albanian

state account must

between October,

beginnings

1912,

be

the Turkish power lapsed,

when

problem

so

decentralizing

had greatly strengthened

that the

of building

an

This task, formidable

ficult

and the

of a really national administration in January

ist influences

new

new

taken of the practical interregnum

During this period the ever-present

Albanians,

of the

their

and

power

government was confronted

of 1914.

particular -

on the

with the

entire system of administrative machinery.

enough

in itself,

by the mistakes of the new

was

rulers.

made

vastly

more

dif-

CHAPTER

THE

GOVERNMENT

outlook

The

OF

the

when

VI

WILLIAM OF WIED

International

the government of Albania in January

inauspicious.
boundary
attempt

The

situation in

decidedly

1914 was

the south was so strained that the

appointed by the Powers had abandoned

commission

its

to gather first-hand information and had repaired to

Florence,

the members were

where

not from propaganda.

Ambassadors,
more

of

Commission took over

radical

was

The Greek army,

preparing

of the

command

Northern Epirus, but the

trouble for

Greek sympathizers were already promising

rest of Albania
1908, to see

at the

to evacuate

the Albanian government when

if

in

was

state

the new

it

if

safe from physical violence,

district.

should take over the

The

of uneasy peace, waiting, as in

ruler could provide

a panacea

for

ills

the

of the country.
The

first

acts of Prince William did not show any great

political foresight.

Before accepting his new position he had

exacted an international loan from the Powers,

to obtain

what

was

far

more

important,

tion of order within

the boundaries

blunder was probably

made

on the

head of the delegation which

but he had neglected

guarantees for the preserva-

of his realm.

The

advice of Essad Pasha,

officially offered

the

second
who,

crown of

Albania to the prince, had obtained great influence over the

ruler.

as

new

Instead of making his headquarters at Valona where the

support and advice of the International

Commission would have been

48

readily available,

the prince

Durazzo, the seat of Essad's

as the

civil

"provisional

financial administration

and

government from the beginning.

all

soon showed

The

Philip

1913 M.

the

Inasmuch

vested in

efficiency of

the

the royal govern-

too clearly that Prince William's mind

a German

at

1914)

officially

was

policies of

hopelessly "swathed in the red tape of

in

government."

this action greatly impaired

the Commission,

ment

set up his capital (March,

was

bureaucrat."' 1' Early

Nogga, who was regarded by Dr.

Dillon

"the

as

soul of such stable progress as has already begun to manifest

itself,"*

had sent a note

to the prince urging the necessity for a

paternal policy similar to that of King Nicholas of Montenegro,

desirability of identifying

and emphasizing the

with the people

gestions

on

all

possible occasions.

ignored by the prince,

were

who

the royal family

These excellent
proceeded

court after the most approved European model.

The

to set

liking in

the ceremony and

Within the government

isolation of

itself conflict

up a

Albanians,

to the democratic and easily accessible Turkish beys,

to their

sug-

found

used

little

the new regime.

soon arose between the

ambitious Essad,

now

minister of war, and the Dutch officers of

the

who

refused to obey the orders of any one save

gendarmerie,

. ,

the prince.

As the
ment became more

^Peacock.

p. 365.

W.;

J.
106, p. 120.
JDillon, E. J.
2

Dillon,E.

^Peacock,

disorganization and unpopularity of the governand more

Italy

and

evident, the attention of Europe

Albania, Contemporary Review, vol.

Albania's Tribulations , Contemporary Review,

was once

107,

vol.

Albanian Tangle , Fortnightly Review, vol. 102, p. 11.

^Dillon, E.J.; op.cit. p.l?\
op.cit. p.366.
;

The_

49

more

this

turned towards

of statesmen,

however,

storm center of the Balkans.

were

entirely

devoted to the task of keep-

ing the Albanian question from again menacing the peace

while the press seemed inclined to take the

Prince William
the

referred to as

of Europe,

kingdom as a joke.

new

"candidate

"Lohengrin of the German court,"

sobriquet
way

was

efforts

The

for suicide"

and as

while Albania was given the

This satiric tone

of the "comic opera kingdom.

gave

to one of frank uneasiness as the situation in Northern Epirus

March

the Greek army had

became more and more

ominous.

officially

Albania, but almost at the

evacuated

"Provisional

Government

Albanian

control.

had some

slight

Even the most

doubts

was

taking

was made

"Autonomous Epirus" was an ex-premier

was a member

same

time a

was formed

to

oppose

ardent Phil-Hellene must have

as to M. Venizelos'

when the announcement

of foreign affairs

of Northern Epirus"

ing that the Greek government

rebellion

On

"sincerity" in declar-

no

part in the Epirote

that the premier of

of Greece,

of the Greek

and that the secretary of war was a colonel

that the minister

Chamber

in

of Deputies,

the Greek army.

^Literary Digest, vol. 48, p.894.

^Little can be said with certainty concerning the real causes of
the disturbances in Epirus, nor is the part taken by the Greek
government entirely clear.
Chekrezi (op.cit., pp. 130-34, 139-43),
who was then secretary to the International
Commission of Control,
puts the entire responsibility upon the government at Athens. This

statement is undoubtedly an exaggeration, but there is every reason

to believe that Greek soldiers and Cretan bands were permitted to
take a very active part in the horrible excesses which accompanied
the revolt . The testimony of the supporters of the Greek cause is
also unreliable. Ren Puaux's work, La Malheureuse Eplre (Paris,
1914), usually given as an authority, does not survive the most
elementary historical tests for accuracy and unbiased judgment.
3
Chekrezi, op.cit.
n.131.

50

In

April

the standard of revolt

sympathizers in Korcha.

Albania

was

in arms.

Within a few days

all

practically power-

Commission of Control,

less since the International

Greek

of southern

government was

Durazzo

The

raised by

was

acting

on the

theory that the lack of trained officers would lead to excesses,

refused to sanction expenditures

northern

tribes,

moreover,

for troops.^

refused to give aid to this ''Christian

prince and his renegade Mussulman minister.

fore,

was

chiefs of the

The

The

struggle, there

largely between the rival factions in Epirus

itself.

The

Greek cause was aided by occasional raids across the border by

regular troops of the Greek

but these unneutral acts were

army,

In

promptly disavowed by the government at Athens.

frightful

excesses

had been committed by both sides,

national Commission arranged

at Corfu.

It is

practical

impossible

the extent of the desire

in

1914.

Some

Inter-

the

conference with the rebel leaders

finally

An agreement was

which Epirus was given

after

May,

patched up, by the terms of

autonomy.^

to determine

for union with

from the evidence

Greece among

writers maintain that there

Greeks, ethnically speaking, in the

was a

district.

available

the Epirotes

majority of

Dominian,

for

official Turkish statistics,

instance, says:

"according

lished in

the region was peopled by 340,000 Greeks and some

1908,

149,000 Mohammedans."

to

These

E. J. ; Albania: to
p. 884.
^Dillon; Albanian Tangle ,

"''Dillon,

vol.

105,

^Chekrezi;
Dominian;

op.cit.
op.cit.

p.143.
p.197.

be_

figures, of course,

or_

not to be

Fortnightly

mean

nothing,

Contemporary

Review,

vol.

pub-

102,

Review,

p.7.

so

'

51

far

nationality is

as

of the Greek Orthodox Church.

members

are also

Dominian

like

are,

most

far

authorities

such as

100,000.

totals given

Turkish statements of population, based

Professor Lord is

Greek Orthodox

The

as here used refers to

much more

Brailsford

Christians at 120,000 and of

the number of

at

Mohammedans

About the sentiments of the Mohammedans

Living in the rural districts, they

doubt.

on rough

nearly in accord with

Dillon in putting

and

by

for, although official, they

from accurate,

estimates.

much

"Greeks"

concerned.

to

80

there was not

were

not exposed

to the influence of Greek culture and consequently clung tenacious-

ly to their Albanian nationality.

towns,

however,

there

was

the Christians

unanimity.

no such

was

business and of religion

Among

Greek,

and Greek

Here

the language

cultural ideas

spread very assiduously by priest and merchant alike.

however,

the language

reliable estimate
Epirotes

who

of the

can be formed as

one

is

case

Since no

retained their loyalty to Albania, the exact sentiment

thing which

can be

be

not nearly so strong as Mr. Dominian,

Professor Schurman,

In spite of the fact that the Corfu settlement

sovereignty

^Haskins,
Conference

flbidL.
"At

Cambridge,

p.278.

confirmed

of Albania over Northern Epirus, the Epirote revolt

C.H., and Lord, R.H.;

.

known.

said with certainty is that the Greek

and other lovers of Greece believe.

the

were

to the number of Orthodox

of the majority of the people in the district cannot

The

of

Even here,

remained Albanian.^

home

of the

1920.

Some

p.278.

Problems

of the Peace

moment the Greeks of Epirus . . .are resisting to the

incorporation in a state which outrages their deepest and
holiest sentiments of religion, race, nationality, and humane civilization." Schurman, J.G.; The Balkan Wars , Princeton (1914). p. 153.

death

this

52
may

be

said to

have

William of Wied.

given the coup

grace

de

While the revolt was

to the government of

still

in progress the

popular opposition to Essad Pasha had been unmistakably

The

"nationalists felt that

by Essad,

mismanaged

who

of the disputed area,

follov/ed by his

own

the war in Epirus was being purposely

feared that the incorporating into Albania

where

he

downfall.

was

cordially detested,

The

lower classes,

that the coming of the prince would

great feudal estates

among

mean

the tenants,

troubles at the door of Essad, himself

advantage
from the

attack

also
a

partition of

of the minister of

Essad was taken prisoner,

laid all their

great landowner.

war

other cabinet members,

which had

during the night of

was

exiled to Italy.

this high-handed behavior of

the

immediately presented their resignations,

which

refused by the prince.^

As soon as the

treatment meted out to Essad became

known, his fellow tribesmen sent a protest to Durazzo.

answer to

either

this

the Dutch

the prince

officers,

pChekrezi;

^Dillon,

or the International

op.cit.

E.J.;

19-23.
p. 23.

Ibld.

The

Commission,

the disaffected

pp. 143-154.

Albanian Tangle

As an

without any instructions from

Malissori troops to proceed against

The

disgusted by the failure of the prince to

take decisive action against

pp.

Taking

although no charges were

lodged against him, and a few days later

Dutch soldiery,

the

resented the imperious manner of Essad, led an

on the house

May 19th.

were

the

would be

expected

who

of this discontent, the Dutch gendarmerie,

first

growing.

Fortnightly

ordered the

tribe.

Review,

vol.

At

102,

. -
:

.
'

!
.[

1
.

53

Shiak the mountain

took

men

joined forces with the malcontents

the royal force prisoner.

panic at Durazzo,

in the course

The news

conference

was

as the

of the abdication of

the

an

latter

Austrian battle-ship for

prince,

who,

it

was

deadlock followed, the insurgents

of the territory around Durazzo.

Mr.

G.

States Minister to Greece and Montenegro,

follows,

after

claimed, had violated

against Tirana, no settlement

of central Albania, the government retaining

as

of no terms short

would hear

the sacred bessa by sending troops

effected.

visit

arranged by the International Commission

with the rebels, but

was

of this action caused

of which the prince committed the

irreparable blunder of fleeing to

safety.

and

holding

most

precarious control

F. Williams, then United

summed up

the

situation

to Durazzo:

"Five ostensible governments were in sight:

the six Great Powers with all the power;
second, the commission with control of the civil
administration and finance; third, the Holland
gendarmerie with control of the military; fourth,
the prince with any power remaining; fifth, the
ministry with no powers.
Each of these governments was fighting every other, save the first,
which apparently is so discordant within itself
that it has abandoned all the rest to their fate.

first,

All

are cursing the powers for their discord and

helplessness, and are expecting at any moment to
be driven out of Durazzo. . . I found a prince
calling himself a king with no powers, no
territory, and no subjects, except his wife and
children . . . The Wied government has shown
skill and success in one respect only: it has
been able to prevail upon the various racial
and religious forces of Albania to set upon
each other with murderous purpose.
Hundreds
of Albanian lives have thus been sacrificed at
the hands of Albanians. "2

pChekrezi;

op.cit.

''Williams, G.F.;

pp. 147-48.

An Open Statement

Literary Digest,

vol.49,p.55.

54
The news
come

almost

Albania.
anarchy

as a

of the outbreak of the Great

relief

The concern

in the

new

to the representatives of the Powers in

of European diplomats with the growing

state was actuated largely by the fear that the

disorders might precipitate

political situation.

lost its larger significance,

shift for himself.

Without external support,

1514,

the prince also departed,

itself.

The government was taken

prince by Burhan Eddin Effendi,

after promising,

over

a son

after

his

he had

of Abdul

Hamid.

The

embraced the cause of the new government and

himself secured the presidency,

government under

abandoning

in

the departure of the

received the posts of grand vizier and commander-in-chief

a month

On

temporary.

irrepressible Essad

the

to his "beloved people" that his absence

grandiose proclamation

would be merely

and one by one

however,

of maintaining

government proved incapable

September 3,

the European

their representatives, leaving Prince William

the Powers withdrew

Durazzo

crisis in

another

that the long-dreaded conflict had come,

Now

the Albanian problem

to

War must have

the protection

of Italy.

four successive governments,

and

Within

immediately put

After supporting

and

Essad had at last realized

^The message of the prince is delightfully

ironic in view of the
character of his reign: "I have therefore decided, in order not

to leave unattained

I shall

have

no

that

it will

A.

be

my

But be assured that, afar just as when near,

other thought but to labor for the prosperity of

our chivalrous fatherland,

p. 470.

Harriot, J.

I desire to consecrate
best for me to go to the

the work to which

powers and my life,

west for some time.

R.

The

Albania."

Literary Digest, vol.

Eastern Question.

50,

Oxford (1918). p.472.

55

his highest ambitions.

The

northern tribes, to

His triumph was short-lived, however.

whom

the name of Essad was anathema,

immediately marched on Durazzo,

city only

until

by the guns of the

was

the

prevented from taking the

Italian war-ships.

territory within

Italian

range of the

state created. by the Powers,

when

this

time

guns.

Beyond

anarchy.
Within the space of a year, therefore,

life, in

From

of 1915 the power of Essad was

the great Serbian retreat

limited to
this

and were

nothing,

beginning,

had likewise

like Plato's circle of

ended in nothing.

Prince William took control

was almost

The

hopeless;

blunders, the interference of outside powers,

and the

situation
his

own

lack of any

real unity
inevitable

the Albanian

among the
.

Albanian people themselves, had

made

failure

CHAPTER

ITALY

AND

VII
ALBANIA

During the four years of war from 1914 to 1918 Albanian

nationalism had opportunity for that steady and natural development

which the interference

helped.

With the war

despite

the fact that

of the Powers had retarded rather than

itself

their territory

almost from the opening of

of the Powers
possession
(October
coast,

was

the Albanians

hostilities.

1914)

was under
As

military occupation

soon as the attention

attracted elsewhere, the Greeks openly took

of Northern Epirus.

SO,

slight concern,

had

The

Italians,

had already

who

occupied the island of Saseno

off

the Albanian

immediately occupied Valona, under the pretense of defend-

ing Albanian integrity from the

1915 began

the great

menace

of Greece.

In the

southern push of the Central Powers.

fall
The

of
road

eacock, W. ; Italy and Albania , Contemporary Review, vol. 107,

pp. 361-67.
o
"By this peaceful occupation a military position was secured that
later became an important naval station for the Allies, as well as
a strategical and tactical base of such importance that had it
fallen into the hands of the enemy, the great military romance
of the Ealkans,
played at all, would have occupied a far more
narrow stage, and the whole of western Albania would have been
Brig. Gen. G. P. Scriven, United
thrown open to the Germans."
States military observer with the Italian army, in New York Times ,
1919, May 25.
Shortly after the Italian occupation of Valona most of northern
Albania, including Scutari, was occupied for a short time by the
Serbs and Montenegrins, but the attack of Austria on Serbia in
1915 compelled the Slav states to withdraw their troops.
V. Chekrezi; op.cit.
p.158.

if

5?

to Salonika being closed by the Bulgarians, the Serbs were forced

to retreat through Albania, closely followed by the Austrians

spring of

By the

all of

1916

for

of the Central Powers,

there to

over two years.

During the period of deadlock an almost

continuous

struggle for control of the area under Allied occupation

Italy

between

quarters
(1916),

and Greece

aided by France.

they reached Korcha.

when

the French commander agreed to recognize

posed largely

"province"

of Albanians

were

felt

extended

to the Greeks.

The

of Korcha."

Italians

despite

Greek protests,

Albania by the

government com-

As

however,

new

soon as the

the Albanian

district practically

turned over

had started a movement to the south

end

of

had taken possession

the

1*

vivid description of this terrible

Armee Serbe

en

Retraite

Chekrezi;

Durham,

p.389.

op.cit.

p.160.

M.E.; Albania

interests.

march,

see

No

the
sooner

Labry, Raoul;

Paris (1916) . Shorter accounts

Serbia , London (1913). pp. 232-248,

found in Waring, L. F. ;
and in Devine, Alex.; Montenegro,
may be

of southern

conflicting aspirations of

Powers proved the best safeguard of Albanian

^For a

all

of

and,

1916.

Again, as in 1913,

the same time that the French began to push northward,

about

control of

the independence

as the French advanced.^

firmly established,

themselves

on

December

set up, and the limits of the

was

government was dissolved and the

Avec

until

In order to secure

of the "Autonomous Albanian Province

went

French, with head-

The

at Salonika, gradually moved northward

this city

French

Albania north of a line from Valona

to Lake Ochrida was in the hands

remain

London (1918).

and the Powers,

Living

pp, 74-83.

Age,

vol.

302,

Italians occupied Northern Epirus

had the

circulate concerning

Italy, fearing

the contents

than rumors began

to

of the infamous Treaty of London.

that her good faith might

be

in

some

degree com-

promised in the eyes of the Albanians by the knowledge that she had

secretly agreed to the partition of Albania while her statesmen

were

proclaiming that the preservation of the integrity of the

Albanian state

was

one

Italian

of the

in advance of the publication

of the treaty.

General Ferrero solemnly proclaimed,

orders of His Majesty,
independence

tion of

effort

the

area,

On

June 3, 1917,

accordance

King Victor Emmanuel,

Italian

Military

Kingdom.

During the following year every

Italians to strengthen their hold in

roads were

constructed

and aid was given to farmers.

\ioderwell,

pp. 399-400.
'"Chekrezi;

with the

the unity and

all

through the occupied

schools were opened, public improvements were

cities,

"in

decided to act

of the whole of Albania, under the shield and protec-

was made by the

Albania.

war aims,

H.

K.:

op.cit.

Two

Wavs

made

in the

with Albania, Nation,

vol.

111.

pp. 161-63.

Chekrezi believes this action to have been taken merely as a fulfillment of the war aims of the Italians. The coincidence between
the announcement of June 3 and the publication of the Treaty of
London, and the subsequent actions of the Italians would both seem
to preclude any such lofty motives.
3

Scriven; op.cit.

N. J. Cassavetes, director of the Pan-Epirotic Union of

America, an organization favoring the union of Northern Epirus with
Greece, replied to this interview with a vitriolic diatribe against
the Italian rule in Albania: "Italian occupation assumed the form
of persecution of Greek nationalism.
It first attacked the Greek
schools, which were native institutions, reared and supported
solidly by native Christian Northern Epirotes . . .The gendarmerie
was recruited from Mohammedans
and commanded by leaders of Albanian
bands who ground down the Greek peasants and committed crimes and
outrages without name.
New York Times , 1919, June 24.

Mr.

59

The

Allied drive in

great

of October practically

By the middle

1918.

Italians,

the hands of the

country pending

the Balkans began in June of

who

all

of Albania was in

in possession of the

remained

the action of the Peace Conference.

In order to understand the history of Albania after the

it is

armistice

necessary to

back to the negotiations which

Italy into

preceded the entrance of

1915

go

the Great War.

In

the representatives of the Central Powers and the

April

Italian
for

government drew up a treaty which was to serve as the basis

Italian participation
Italy

agreement

on the

side of the Teutonic Powers.

full

to secure Valona in

was

At the

last

minute Austria

hostilities.

to the Italians,

articles

6:

"Art.

7:

^Current

^Ibid.

This arrangement
came

while

in

was

until after
not acceptable

to terms with the Entente.

Two

of the resulting Treaty of London referred to Albania:

"Art.

"Ibid.

at once

who

this

refused to accept the terms

of the proposal unless their execution were deferred

the conclusion of

By

sovereignty,

Austria agreed to "cease completely to take any interest

Albania."

of

Italy will

secure in absolute property

the Island of Saseno, and as much
territory as would be required to secure

Valona,

case of the creation

small autonomous state in Albania, to
resist the possible desire of France, Great
Britain, and Russia to distribute among
Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece the northern
and southern parts of Albania . . . "3

of

History,

Nov. 1919.
Nov.

...

their military safety . .

Italy
is not, in the

1919.

New

York Times,

p.250.
p.353.

Aug., 1919.

p,211.

This is the text as published by the Bolshevist government.

Its
accuracy, therefore, is not assured, but inasmuch as the subsequent
action of the Powers indicates the use of similar ideas as a basis
for action, there is every reason to believe that the terms as here
given are substantially correct.

60

By 1918 the

ally

known

in Albania.

General Ferrero

in 1917

1915 agreement,

ominous silence,
December

After the armistice

Italy

Albanian policy of

the

contents of the Treaty of London were gener-

eagerly awaited.

was
was

at

first

but when the

the Albanians

Italian

government maintained an

Late in

of Albanian notables

Italian opposition.

January this body was recognized by the

the Peace Conference, however,

action of

The

began to take alarm.

at Durazzo despite

formed a cabinet

of the

regarded as a modification of

or less informal gathering

a more

a statement

Italy

Italian

In

government.

At

declared herself the

representative of Albanian interests and refused to grant passports to the delegates appointed

Friction gradually
and

dragged on through the summer.

its

In

December

rights

railways in northern Albania.

and the

continued occupation of Albania by

Albania profited

by the

York Times,

1919.

^Woods,

May

1.

H.C.;

pp. 641-42.

Some

began which

the Supreme Council

providing for

The

This arrangement

determined opposition of the Serbs,

"Ibid.

revolt

who

and an

Jugo-Slavs were

privilege of building

inevitable objections of the Albanians,

^New

themselves.

the south in favor of Greece,

for the rest of the country.

mandate

to be allowed commercial

the

In April

dictum on the Albanian question,

frontier rectification to

Italian

Albanians

developed within Albania between the natives

their Italian "protectors.

handed down

by the

not only

met

with

but also provoked the

refused to tolerate the

Italy.

Again, as in 1913,

jealousies of her neighbors.

second

January 25.

Adriatic

Problems

Contemporary

Review,

vol.

61

attempt

at partition was

made

in January

following the lines of the Treaty of London.

willing participation of

The

But the Slavs again

Italy for

objected to the prospect of having

approximately

(1920),

neighbor.

Italians in this

the

bargaining destroyed the good feeling towards Italy which had

grown up in Albania during the war.

Italy, Jugo-Slavia,

proposed agreement between

Durazzo

'was

pledged to work against

being held by the Italians,

Tirana its capital.

trajectory

Essad Pasha,

which the proverbial

his followers against Tirana,

All

other native

of Albanians

who

over practically

Albanians

who

cat was to

where

the

misjudged the

in jumping, sent

make

they were decisively defeated.

Aided by a large force

Italy

By

was so

June the
on by the

C. A.

p.584.

Italy

^Chicago _ Daily News,

On

successful that by the middle of

Italian

hands.

now began

to

June 26 a battalion of troops which

and Albania at Loggerheads

1920.

interior

series of carefully planned

Italian rule in Albania

to

quarter.

a new

during

its control

compelled the Italians to withdraw from the

Opposition

"Ibid,

once

interior of Albania.

June Valona alone remained in

^Chekrezi,

for

had been trained in the service of

uprisings in these towns

in

had

opposition then subsided.

all

the new government made

of the country to the coast towns.

appear

foreign domination.

effective guerrilla warfare carried

and
had

and Greece became

the Tirana government gradually extended

the Great War,

irritating

terms of the

assembly met at Lusknja and elected a new

known, the Albanian

cabinet, which-

As soon as the

July

2,

p.5.

Current History,

- :

'

62

at Ancona for Valona mutinied.

was embarking

rioting

began

precipitate
Socialists

crisis in

Italian

the

took up the cause of the

was

of Deputies.

Chamber

recalcitrant

the Albanian

that

Giolitti

and

that peace would be

made

commission was sent

late in June to negotiate

however,

between the two states.

By

an agreement.

and on August

this

agreement

integrity of Albania,

independence

and

Valona.

island of Saseno at the

retained by Italy
Now

as a

and

mouth

naval base.

that the Italian

menace

protocol

Italy

gave

signed

up her

surrendered the city of

of the

definite gains.

trouble

fact that the government

the Tirana ministry succeeded

was

Bay

of Valona

in the south had been

but without

head,

second

from the north,

and the

with the

recognized the

removed, the Jugo-Slavs began to encroach on Albanian

any

govern-

claims in Albania under the Treaty of London,

The

and

troops would be sent to

no more

Tirana government, but failed to effect

was

soldiers

1
"dragging the country into fresh slaughter.""

forced to promise

succeeded,

The

"adventure" which,

In view of the delicate industrial situation, the

effort

was

measures,

such serious proportions as to

they asserted,

Albania

effort

which assumed

began a general campaign against

ment was

an

military authorities to enforce disciplinary

by the

made

When

was

territory

Despite this

technically without

in completing the organization

documents in Contemporary Review, vol. 118, pp. 276-80.

Chicago Daily News , 1920.
August 7.
''According to the latest reports (April, 1921) there is
friction along the northern frontier. Chicago Daily News, 1921.
March 30.
pV.
^

still

63

of Albania into

national state during the

December

the new Albania was

into the

League

future

The

is technically

recognized by admission

of Albania is

and southern

a guarantee

frontiers

are

as

uncertain as its past is

of

territorial integrity,

still

are that

political maturity.
purpose

the Albanians

The

of Nations

the northern

contested by Serbia and Greece.

question of a ruler is beginning to promise

probabilities

In

1930.

Despite the fact that membership in the League

chaotic.

The

of Nations.

officially

of

summer

trouble.

The

themselves have not reached

strength of character and tenacity of

of the Albanians,

however,

have

been

clearly

demonstrated

by the heroic and successful struggle which they have made for the

protection of their liberties against Turk, Slav, Greek,

Italian alike,

while the success of the attempt

government to unite the whole country against

cates that the traditional

If

overcome.

by the

made

the

and

Italians,

forces working against union

this spirit of national unity endures,

and

Tirana

indibeen

have

if

the

country is given an opportunity to develop naturally and peacefully,

the ultimate prosperity

of the Albanian

state

assured.

seems

The committee (on admissions) also decided against the admission

of Albania, but the efforts of Lord Robert Cecil, who pointed out
that the situation in Albania differed from that in Armenia in
that Albania was not surrounded by hostile states
led the
Assembly to set aside the report of the committee and Albania was
Fenwick, C. G.; Am. Pol . Sci
admitted by a unanimous vote.
vo

Rev

.
,

(.

15,

p. 106.

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