Proceedings of ACEID-2014!6!7 February, 2014

Proceedings of the
National Conference on
Advances in Civil Engineering

and Infrastructure Development
ACEID-2014
6 - 7 February, 2014
Editors
G. Shravan Kumar, Associate Professor
Dr. B. Sridhar, Head of the Department
Organised by
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VASAVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Sponsored by Vasavi Academy of Education)
Affiliated to Osmania University and Approved by AICTE

9-5-81, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad 500 031, A.P., INDIA
Ph: +91 40 - 2314 6010
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad.

February 2014
No part of the material protected by this Copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Copyright owner.
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090
Vasavi College of Engineering
(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

(Affiliated to Osmania University, Hyderabad and Approved by
A.I.C.T.E.)
9-5-81, Ibrahimbagh, HYDERABAD 500 031 (A.P.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
P.Ramamohan Rao
President
It
gives
me
a two-day National
immense
pleasure
Conference on
to
learn
that
ACEID-2014,
Advances in Civil Engineering and
Infrastructure Development, is being organised by the Department of Civil

Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering during 6-7 February, 2014.
I am happy to note that good quality technical papers are selected for
presentation at the conference.
The outcome of the conference will
particularly benefit the faculty and students in understanding the

importance of research and development so as to foster national growth and
development by making rapid strides in the field of Civil Engineering and
Infrastructure Development.
I hope that the delegates from various colleges of India will have
fruitful deliberations at the conference.
I wish the conference all success.
(P.Ramamohan Rao)
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
23 January, 2014
T.V.Subba Rao
Vice-President
I am happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of Vasavi

College of Engineering is organising a two-day National Conference on
Advances
in
Civil
Engineering
and
Infrastructure
Development
(ACEID-2014) during 6-7 February, 2014.

The Department of Civil Engineering has had the distinction of
organising two International conferences and three National conferences in
the past. Indeed, the Department has always been striving to be at the
forefront
of
rapid
technological
advances
in
diverse
areas
of
Civil
Engineering. The National Conference being organised now aims at bringing

about an awareness of the advances made in various fields of specialization
in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development. The outcome of the
conference, I am sure, will benefit the faculty and students of the
Department
I hope all the delegates from various colleges of India will have fruitful
deliberations at the conference.
I wish the conference all success.
(T.V.Subba Rao)
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
M.Krishna Murthy
Secretary
I am happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of Vasavi

College of Engineering is organising a two-day National Conference on
Advances
in
Civil
Engineering
and
Infrastructure
Development
(ACEID-2014) during 6-7 February, 2014.

Founded in 1981 by the Vasavi Academy of Education, Vasavi College
of Engineering is constantly striving to realise the dreams and aspirations of
its founding fathers to foster national development by promoting technical
education and research. I am sure that the deliberations of the Conference
will benefit the Civil Engineering community at large and help them focus
their efforts towards understanding the importance of Civil Engineering in
fostering national growth and Infrastructure development.
I wish the Civil Engineering Department all success in making the
conference a memorable one.
The conference will provide an excellent
opportunity to the students of our Civil Engineering Department to benefit

by interacting with experts and students from other colleges.
I wish the conference a success.
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
P.V.Ratnam
Treasurer
I am happy to note that ACEID-2014, a two-day National Conference

on Advances in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development, is being
organised by the Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of
Engineering during 6-7 February, 2014.
I am glad that the Conference has received excellent response from all
over India. I hope that the deliberations held at the Conference will be useful
in making further progress in the Infrastructure development of the nation.
I wish the conference a great success.
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
K.V.Rangaiah
Joint Secretary
I am very happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of our

college is organizing a two-day National Conference on Advances in Civil
Engineering
and
Infrastructure
6-7 February, 2014.
Development
(ACEID-2014)
during
The objective of the conference is to bring together
faculty members and researchers from various educational institutions from

all over India onto a common platform to exchange ideas from their
experiences. I am happy to know that the conference has evoked excellent
response from various colleges of India.
I wish Civil Engineering Department all the success in making the
conference a memorable one.
This gives an opportunity to the staff and
students of Civil Engineering Department to get benefited from the

proceedings of the conference.
I wish the conference a success.
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
Prof. I.V. Rao
Director & I/c Principal
I am glad to note that the Department of Civil Engineering is poised to

conduct conference, a two-day National Conference on Advances in Civil
Engineering and Infrastructure Development (ACEID-2014) during 6th-7th
February,
2014.
am
confident
that
the
Department
of
Civil
Engineering will use this opportunity to its advantage and make it a

memorable event.
The enthusiasm and zeal shown by the Civil Engineering fraternity
across the country is heartening and rewarding. I am told that the Technical
Committee has received a good number of quality papers. I am sure that the
deliberations held during the Conference will be purposeful, educative and
useful to the society in general and academic fraternity in particular.
I congratulate the staff and students of Department of Civil
Engineering for their ceaseless efforts and wish the conference a grand
success.
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
Dr. B.Sridhar
H.O.D.(Civil)
Established in the year 1981, Vasavi College of Engineering has

attained fame as one of the top Engineering Colleges in Andhra Pradesh. The
Department of Civil Engineering is one of the oldest departments established
in the College. With dedicated and talented faculty and staff, the department
earned its fame as one of the best in AP College offering Civil Engineering
program at under graduate level for the past three decades.
The present two day National Conference will focus on spreading of
knowledge in the frontier areas of Civil Engineering and Infrastructure
Development. My colleagues have put in their best efforts to make all
arrangements for the Conference.
I am proud that the faculty of Civil Engineering, VCE has been able to
fulfill their desire to hold this two-day National Conference on Advances in
Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development (ACEID-2014). The
contributors have also agreed to participate and present papers. We have
received papers from various parts of India.
I wish the conference a great success.
(Dr. B.Sridhar)
: 040-23146010
Fax : 040-23146090

A.I.C.T.E.)
www.vce.ac.in
21 January, 2014
Prof G.V.Ramana Murty

Coordinator, TEQIP-II
I am very happy to know that ACEID-2014, a two-day National

Conference
on
Advances
in
Civil
Engineering
and
Infrastructure
Development, is being organised by the Department of Civil Engineering,

Vasavi College of Engineering during 6-7 February, 2014. The conference is
being financially supported through TEQIP-II (Technical Education Quality
Improvement Programme- Phase II) funds.
I am happy to note that several good quality technical papers have
been received for presentation at the conference. It is very important to note
that rapid strides made in the field of Civil Engineering and Infrastructure
Development will strengthen the countrys economy and help in creation of
jobs in various sectors of growth. I sincerely believe that the deliberations of
the Conference will benefit the Civil Engineering community at large and
help them focus their efforts towards understanding the importance of
research and development in the progress of the Nation. I appreciate the
efforts of the department Civil Engineering in organising the conference.
I wish the Conference all success.
(Prof. G.V.Ramana Murty)
Preface
The strength, prestige and economic might of a nation depends on the quality of its infrastructure and also on
the scientific temper, the intellectual and creative skills of its citizens. The importance of making rapid
progress in the areas of science and technology has been emphasized time and again. Good infrastructural
facilities promote economic activity and ensure well-being of people. The growth and progress of a nation is
heavily dependent upon the application of science and technology to bring about creation of physical
infrastructure and a knowledge-based society.
Creation of physical infrastructure is no mean task and requires great will and concerted efforts on the part of
the government and people to build roads, buildings, bridges, airports, industries, dams, power plants,
transmission line towers, communication towers, airplanes, missiles, nuclear power reactors, thermal and
hydroelectric power plants etc. The only way, a nation can do this is by having a pool of dedicated engineers
with access to the latest advances in materials, construction, analysis and design of various structures. In this
context, the role of a Civil engineer in the nation-building activity is paramount.
India is a nation, poised to become the superpower of the present century. India has the distinction of having
the third largest pool of engineers in the world and is blessed by Mother Nature with an abundance of natural
resources. In addition, we also have the youngest workforce in the world. India is placed in the top-most
position in the world in the area of information technology. This is the right moment for the civil engineers
to contribute to the nations progress by making rapid strides in various forays of Civil Engineering. This can
be done only when people from various walk of Civil Engineering profession viz academia, industry,
research centers and construction pool their synergies to create a symbiosis of experience and innovation
with advanced technology and continuous research. This will further help in creating a massive
infrastructural base so that the nation can surge ahead along the path of progress and become super power
even.
Since its inception in 1981, Vasavi College of Engineering focused on achieving excellence. The Department
of Civil Engineering, being the oldest department of the college is actively involved in furthering the
frontiers of knowledge by creating a pool of young Civil Engineers for the past three decades. The present
national conference on the ''Advances in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development'' is yet another
step in its saga of continuous success, offering quality education to the students. The present conference
focuses on various aspects of Civil Engineering with a special emphasis on development of infrastructural
facilities which plays a very important part in realizing the dream of making India a super power. The main
objective of the conference is to provide a platform for the meeting of experts from academia, industry and
the field of construction to present their views on the latest advances made in the fields of Civil Engineering
and infrastructure development.
It is sincerely hoped that the two day national conference will provide a platform at the national level for the
exchange of ideas and make the College a fertile ground for minds filled with imagination and innovation to
create cost-effective and eco-friendly technologies that facilitate the creation of infrastructure for this great
nation.
Our humble efforts aimed at aiding national progress will prove to be fruitful only with the active support,
involvement and participation of all delegates. A series of fruitful exchange of ideas during the technical
sessions are bound to make the two day conference a great success and will keep us poised to conduct more
such purposeful conferences in the years to come.
xix
The conference emphasizes the need for growth and development in specific areas of civil engineering,
hence in keeping with the main objective which reads "Advances in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure
Development", the following themes have been suggested for presentations:1. Concrete Structures and Materials, Pre Engineered Structures
2. Construction Techniques and Management
3. Transportation Systems.
4. Water Resource Management
5. Foundation Techniques
6. Environmental Facilities
7. Emerging Technologies in Infrastructure
The response for paper presentations on these themes has been overwhelming and from the 65 papers
received 47 papers were finally shortlisted. The quality of papers will certainly encourage purposeful
discussions further providing topics for research and academic development among students. The papers
came in from experts, research scholars, students and academicians from various parts of the country.
I would like to thank all the members of the management committee of Vasavi Academy of Education and
Vasavi College of Engineering for their support. I thank Prof. I.V. Rao, Director & I/c Principal, Vasavi
College of Engineering for his timely suggestions and encouragement.
I also thank Dr. G.V. Ramana Murthy, Coordinator, TEQIP-II for his motivation and cooperation, as this
conference is being organized under TEQIP-II.
(G. Shravan Kumar)
Convener, ACEID-2014
xx
About the Institute

VASAVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Vision
Striving for a symbiosis of technological excellence and human values.
Mission
To arm young brains with competitive technology, nurturing holistic development of individuals for a better tomorrow.
Vasavi College of Engineering (VCE) was founded in 1981 by the Vasavi Academy of Education. It is located at
Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad, which is 9 km from Mehdipatnam, and in close vicinity to Taramati Baradari, en route to
Gandipet. With the dedicated efforts for over 30 years, Vasavi College of Engineering has emerged as a reputed centre
of learning in engineering education and is currently offering 6 UG and 6 PG programmes. The undergraduate
programmes of Civil, Mechanical, ECE, EEE, CSE, IT are accredited by the National Board of Accreditation in the
year 2013. The college is adequately supported by about 380 staff members which include Professors, Associate
Professors, Assistant Professors and supporting staff. Besides, the College offers consultancy in various fields.
About the Department

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Mission of the Department
To dedicate ourselves to strive and impart in-depth knowledge of Civil Engineering and prepare the students to meet
the challenges of growing construction activity with confidence and competence.
The department has 20 teaching faculty and 15 members as supporting staff. The areas of teaching expertise of the
faculty include various specializations of Civil Engineering i.e. Structural Engineering, Water Resources Engineering,
Transportation Engineering, Geo-technical Engineering, Environmental Engineering and Engineering Geology.
The Department has 9 full-fledged Civil Engineering laboratories in addition to a Centre for Geomatics. The
Department also has in its gamut an exclusive computing facility with the latest software in Design, Planning and
Management, Remote Sensing, GIS, Land & Water Management etc. The Department undertakes consultancy work in
order to promote IndustryInstitute Interaction. The department conducts conferences regularly so as to keep abreast
with the latest technological advancements. It has to its credit two international conferences and many national
conferences that have fostered new ideas and research activities.
xxi
Vasavi Academy of Education (VAE)

VAE GOVERNING BODY MEMBERS
Sri. P. Ramamohan Rao
Prof. T.V. Subba Rao
Sri. M. Krishna Murthy
Sri. K. Vasudeva Gupta
Sri. P.V. Ratnam
Sri. K. Ashok Kumar
Sri. P. Balaji
Sri. P. Gouri Prasad
Smt. P. Indrani
Sri. V.M. Parthasarathi
Sri. K.V. Rangaiah
Sri. L. Subba Gurumurthy
President
Vice President
Secretary
Joint Secretary
Treasurer
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
Member
INSTITUTIONS SPONSORED BY VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION

Name of the Institute
Year of Establishment
1981
Vasavi Public School
1983
Vasavi Polytechnic
1984
Pendekanti Law College
1990
Pendekanti Institute of Management
1991
Vasavi College of Music and Dance
1996
xxiii
Conference Committee
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Dr. I.V.Rao
Director & I/c Principal, VCE
Co-Chairman
Dr. B.Sridhar
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Civil Engg, VCE
Convener
Sri G.Shravan Kumar
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg, VCE
Members
All staff of Civil Engineering Department, VCE
ADVISORY & TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
Dr. Michael Beer
Dr. Michael Hanss
Dr. Andrzej Pownuk
Er. C. Muralidhar
Er. C. Shekar Reddy
Md. Ziauddin
Dr. K. Ravande Kishore
Dr. N. Murali Krishna
Dr. V. Bhikshma
Dr. M. Kumar
Dr.K.V.L. Subramaniam
Dr. R. Pradeep Kumar
Dr. K. Srinivas Raju
Dr. P.N.K. Rao
Dr. P. Jagannadha Rao
Dr. D.S.R. Murthy
Dr. T.V. Praveen
Dr. Ramana Reddy
Dr. D. Ramaseshu
Dr. N. Uma Mahesh
Dr. M. Chandrasekhar
Dr. V.B. Desai
Dr. M.V. Seshagiri Rao
Dr. M. Anji Reddy
Prof., School of Engg, University of Liverpool, UK
Dr. K. Rammohan Rao
Director, BICS, JNTU, Hyderabad
Prof., University of Stuttgart, Germany

Asst. Prof., University of Texas, El Paso, USA
Engineer-in-Chief, Irrigation & CAD Dept.
President, CREDAI & MD, CSR Estates Ltd
Chief Engineer, HMDA
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., OU College of Engg., Hyderabad
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Civil Engg., OU College of Engg., Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., IIIT, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., ACE Engg. College, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., Andhra University
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., Andhra University
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., S V University, Tirupati
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., NIT, Warangal
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., JNTU, Anathapur
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., JNTU, Hyderabad
Professor of Environmental Science & Technology and Director of University
Foreign Relations, JNTU, Hyderabad
xxv
Dr. K.M. Laxmana Rao

Dr. P. Srinivasa Rao
Dr. P. Madhusudhan Reddy
Er. A. Saibaba
Er. K. Veerraju
Dr. K. Balaji Rao
Er. S.P. Anchuri
Er. Yedukondalu
Dr. V. Ramachandra
Col. R.V. Rao (Retd)
Er. Srinivas Bonala
Er. P. Rajasekhar Reddy
Dr. B.L.P. Swami
Dr. M.V. Rama Rao
Dr. N. Mantha
Sri. M. Bhasker
Dr. M. Srinivas
Sri. D. Swamy Gupta
Dr. T. Srinivas
Sri. C. Mohanlal
Sri. S. Vijaya Kumar
Sri. M.V.S.S. Sastri
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Civil Engg., JNTU, Hyderabad

Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., JNTU, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Geology, Dr. B.R.Ambedkar University, Hyderabad
Chief Engineer, Indian Railways
General Manager (Technical), NCC Ltd
SERC, Chennai
Chairman, ICI, AP-Hyd Chapter
Secretary ICI, AP-Hyd Chapter
Zonal Head(Tech),Ultra Tech Cement Ltd
Coordinator Projects, Shapoorji Pallonji Engineer & Construction
Additional CE (Projects), Pune Municipal Corporation
DGM, M/s. Haridwar Infra Ltd, Hyderabad
Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., VCE, Hyderabad
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civil Engg., VCE, Hyderabad
xxvi
Contents
Messages
iii
Preface
xix
About the Institution and About the Department
xxi
Vasavi Academy of Education (VAE) Governing Body Members and Sponsored Institutions
Conference Committees
xxiii
xxv
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS, PRE-ENGINEERED STRUCTURES

1.
A Study on Mechnanical Properties of Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Recycled Aggregate

Concrete (PFRRAC)
M.L.V. Prasad and P. Rathish Kumar
2.
Bacteria Based High Performance Concrete

V. Srinivasa Reddy, M.V. Seshagiri Rao, Ch. Sasikala and N.C. Maulika
3.
An Experimental Investigation on Strength Properties of Artificial Light Weight Aggregate

Concrete using Agricultural by Product such as Ground Nut Shell Ash
V. Bhaskar Desai, K. Mallikarjunappa and A. Sathyam
15
4.
Effect of Shear Wall on Response of Multi-Storied Building Frame

Nilesh Sawakare, Hemant S. Chore, Prasad A. Dode and R.M. Fuke
24
5.
Triple Blended High Strength Concrete Mixes-Studies on Compressive and Impact Strengths
D. Jayasree, M. Bhasker and B.L.P. Swami
28
6.
Study on Effect of MFRC for Flexural Strength and Ductility

Urooj Masood, B.L.P. Swami and A.K. Asthana
33
7.
Effect of Fly Ash Addition on Properties of Concrete with Portland Pozzolana Cement
A. Chandrashekar, P.D. Maneeth, B.S. Mantesh and Nausha
41
8.
Experimental Investigation on the Performance of Concrete with GGBS as Admixture at Complete

Replacement of Fine Aggregate with Steel Slag
Chandana Sukesh, D. Kishore Babu, Polina V.V.S. Sivarama Krishna and C. Ravi Kumar Reddy
49
9.
Fibrous Triple Blended Concrete : Study of Elastic Properties

M. Bhasker, B.L.P. Swami and B. Dean Kumar
56
10.
Influence of Super Plasticizers on High Early Strength Concretes Made with Special Cements
M. Kishore Kumar, P.S. Rao and B.L.P. Swami
63
11.
Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete Admixtured with Fly Ash and Silica Fume
Behaviour and Properties
S. Vijaya Kumar, M. Jaganaiah, P. Sravana and B.L.P. Swami
71
12.
Influence of Fine Aggregate to Total Aggregate Ratio on Mechanical Properties of Self Compacting
Concrete
K.L. Radhika
76
xxvii
13.
Analysis and Design of Steel and PSC Composite Girder for Cost Comparison
D. Annapurna and L. Ajay Kumar
81
14.
Effect of a Member on Global Performance of a Structure A Case Study on 5 Storey RC Frame

Anthugari Vimala and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
89
15.
Damage Based Life of Heritage Structures in Seismic Environment: A Case Study on Golkonda
Fort
Vrushali Kamalakar and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
97
16.
A Review on Seismic Analysis of Vertical Geometric Irregularities of Buildings

Allasab Gudihal and T.H. Sadashiva Murthy
103
17.
Seismic Behavior of Isolated R.C.C Bridges

Rajesh Kodurupaka
107
18.
Use of Pervious Concrete in Increasing Ground Water Table

Sowjanya and J. Jaya Vardhan
113
19.
Durability Studies on Pumice Light Weight Aggregate Concrete with and without Silica Fume
N. Sivalingarao, V. Bhasker Desai and B.L.P. Swami
118
20.
Seismic Behaviour of Fixed and Flexible 2D RC Frame: A Case Study

S. Bhargavi and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
124
21.
Effect of Back Face Shape of Retaining Wall on Earth Pressure

Anant I. Dhatrak and Rushali D. Virulkar
130
22.
Behavior of Buildings Due to Tunneling under Seismic Loading Condition

Anant I. Dhatrak and Sagar D. Dhengle
134
23.
Mechanical Properties of High Strength Concrete Composites with Mineral Admixtures

M.V.S.S. Sastri, K. Jagannadha Rao, B.L.P. Swami and V. Bhikshma
142
24.
Performance of Existing RC Building by Pushover Analysis

S.T. Jadhav, H.S.Chore and S.B. Patil
148
25.
Comparing the Empirical Time Period Formula Given in Seismic Code of Different Countries with
Indian Seismic Code IS 1893:2002
Pulkit D. Velani and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
153
26.
Analysis and Design of Elevated Storage Reservoir

A. Mukherjee and S.B. Patil
160
WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

27.
Geospatial Based Watershed Planning and Impact Assessment of Mahendragarh Watershed in

Bhilwar District of Rajasthan State
T. Phanidra Kumar, P. Kesava Rao, V. Madhava Rao and DSR Murthy
167
28.
Reservoir Sedimentation and Controlling Measures

H. Mahabaleswara and H.M. Nagabhushan
176
29.
Flood Forecasting using Mike 11

P. Raja Sekhar, P. Lakshmi Sruthi and K. Rekha Rani
183
30.
Integration of Remote Sensing & GIS Techniques for Site Suitability Analysis of Rain Water
Harvesting Structures
G. Shravan Kumar
188
xxviii
ENVIRONMENTAL FACILITIES
31.
General Circulation Models: Are They Useful in Projecting Future Climate?

K. Shashikanth and P. Rajasekhar
197
32.
Fuzzy Based Approach of Water Quality Assessment in Hussain Sagar Lake

P. Raja Sekhar, G. Shiva Kumar and M. Aditya
201
33.
Automatic Cleaning of Drainage & Production of Biogas, Electricity, Biomanure

P. Ramu and U. Ramesh
206
34.
Pollution Impact Assessment in Hussain Sagar Lake

P. Raja Sekhar, G. Rakesh Kumar and G. Shiva Kumar
210
35.
Analysis of Water and Assessment of its Quality for Drinking around Rajiv Gandhi International
Air Port A Case Study
M. Rajasekhar and N. Venkat Rao
214
36.
Hydrogeochemistry of Ground Water in Jeedimetla Industrial Area, Greater Hyderabad, Andhra

Pradesh
G. Sharavan Kumar, M. Anji Reddy and P. Madhusudhana Reddy
217
FOUNDATION TECHNIQUES
37.
Performance of Geotextile Reinforced Slopes of Zoned Earth Dam

Sanjay W. Thakare and Rani B. Wath
227
38.
A Study on the Geotechnical Properties of Tannery Effluent on Black Cotton Soil

K.V.N. Laxma Naik, S. Bali Reddy and A.V. Narashima Rao
230
39.
Problematic Soils and Mitigative Measures - A Review

M. Nagalakshmi, D.V. Sivasankara Reddy, E. Anusha and M. Chittaranjan
234
40.
Characterisation and Behavioural Analysis of Granular Pile Anchors in Terms of Heave and
Strength
Aswari Sultana, B.R. Phani Kumar and A. Srirama Rao
240
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
41.
Lane Distribution Factors A Case Study on NH7 &NH9

S. Ramesh Kumar and K.V. Krishna Reddy
249
42.
Use of Trip Generation and Trip Distribution Analysis in Solving Transportation Problems for
Selected Areas of Kurnool City
Sowjanya and Shaheena Parveen
253
43.
Cost Effective Method for Short-Term Aging of Bitumen

M. Rajesh, P. Ramu, I. Hussen and G. Krishna Parandhama
259
44.
Analysis of Flexible Pavement using Kenlayer Software for Bypass in Kurnool City
Sowjanya and P. Manjula
262
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN INFRASTRUCTURE

45.
Review of Sensor Technologies in Infrastructure Construction

K. Madhavi Reddy, K. Jayasree and B. Sridhar
xxix
269
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND MANAGEMENT

46.
Cost Estimation using Fuzzy Logic

M. Venu Gopal and V.S.S. Kumar
277
47.
Comparision of MCDM Methods in Project Selection

S.V.S.N.D.L. Prasanna and C. Nutan Kumar
282
AUTHOR INDEX
289
xxx
Concrete Structures and Materials,

Pre-Engineered Structures
Proceedings of the National Conference on

Advances in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development (ACEID-2014),
Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad, A.P. 6 - 7 February, 2014. pp.3-6.
A Study on Mechnanical Properties of Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Recycled

Aggregate Concrete (PFRRAC)
M.L.V. Prasad1 and P. Rathish Kumar2
1
Assistant Executive Engineer, Irrigation Circle, I&CAD Department, Kurnool, A.P.

2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT,Warangal, A.P.
Email: 1prasadsmlv@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Now the time came to think in the direction of sustainability which is nothing but preservation of the
environment and conservation of the rapidly diminishing natural resources and creating Green Concrete. The
enormous amounts of demolished concrete produced from deteriorated and obsolete structures creates severe
ecological and environmental problem. One of the ways to solve this problem is to use this Building Demolished
Waste (BDW) concrete as aggregates in structural concrete. Concrete is a versatile material with numerous
application, but the only problem with concrete is its brittle behaviour. This brittleness of concrete can be
overcome by spreading fibers discretely in concrete. In the present work, Fiber Reinforced Recycled Aggregate
Concrete (FRRAC) was developed using Polypropylene Fiber which is having good applications. The
mechanical properties of fiber reinforced M40 grade concrete, for different replacements of Recycled Concrete
Aggregate (RCA) in Natural Aggregate (NA) are presented. It was observed that there was 7.32 % increase in
split tensile strength and about 5.29 % improvement in flexural strength with fiber addition in recycled
aggregate concrete.
fibers bridge crack surfaces and delay the onset of the
extension of localized crack [4 & 5].
INTRODUCTION
Crushing concrete to produce coarse aggregate for the
production of new concrete is one common means for
achieving a more environment-friendly concrete [1]. This
reduces the consumption of the natural resources as well
as the consumption of the landfills required for waste
concrete. Recycling is the act of processing the used
material for use in creating new product. The usage of
natural aggregate is getting more and more intense with
the advanced development in infrastructure area. In order
to reduce the usage of natural aggregate, recycled
aggregate can be used as the replacement materials [2].
The technology today has advanced so far that
it is forcing us to think of new concept called
sustainability.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES

An effort has been made in this present work to describe
the salient properties of coarse aggregate when natural
aggregate is replaced with recycled aggregate with 50% &
100% and the Mechanical properties of concrete with
replacement of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Natural
Aggregate with 0%, 50% & 100% replacements for no
fiber and fibrous concrete. The Fly ash available locally
was used as a partial replacement for cement in optimum
dosages for improving the strength and workability
properties of recycled concrete. The present work
provides very useful information for the practical use of
recycled aggregate in new concrete production including
fibrous concretes.
Concrete is brittle under tensile loading and the

mechanical properties of concrete may be improved by
randomly oriented short discrete fibers which prevent or
control initiation and propagation or coalescence of
cracks. The character and performance of Fiber
Reinforced Concrete (FRC) change depending on the
properties of concrete and the fibers. The properties of
fibers that are usually of interest are fiber concentration,
fiber geometry, fiber orientation, and fiber distribution.
Polypropylene fiber have various applications in concrete
like crack control, prevent coalescence of cracks, and to
change the behaviour of the material by bridging of fibers
across the cracks [3]. In other words, ductility is provided
with fiber reinforced cementitious composites because
Properties of Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA)

Aggregates occupy bulk of the volume of concrete. Their
size, grading, shape and surface texture have significant
influence on properties of concrete. Moreover, in the
present study recycled aggregate from building
demolished waste was crushed and classified before use.
For qualifying the utility of recycled aggregate in
concrete, the important parameters like bulk density,
voids ratio, specific gravity, water absorption, crushing
and impact value, angularity and IAPST were determined
based on IS Codal provisions[6&7]. There properties
were determined for different replacement of RCA in NA.
3
Proceedings of the National Conference on Advances in Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development
Table 1: Properties of Natural & Recycled Aggregate Concretes (RCA)
Properties
Bulk Density
% of Voids
Void Ratio
Specific Gravity
Fineness Modulus
Water absorption
Flakiness Index
Elongation Index
Agg.Impact Value(%)
Agg.Crushing Value(%)
IAPST
Angularity Number
100% Natural
Aggregate
1.46
44.26
0.79
2.78
7.100
1.00
3.56
7.13
32.20
22.77
18.10
10.31
50% Recycled
Aggregate
1.39
45.21
0.825
2.68
7.135
3.52
4.06
7.75
33.68
24.21
19.29
12.09
The properties are shown in Table 1. It can be observed

that there is a decrease in bulk density, increase in water
absorption, impact and crushing value. These values are
with in the IS Codal provisions and they have also
satisfied Rilem Specification Rilem TC 121[8]. From this
it can be concluded that the recycled aggregate can be
used for structural concrete.
100 %Recycled
Aggregate
1.28
48.26
0.93
2.55
7.150
5.68
4.6
8.4
34.48
28.16
20.41
13.99
concrete was replaced for natural aggregate and the

second, the influence of replacements of Recycled
concrete Aggregate & Natural Aggregate in case of
without and with Polypropylene fiber on the behavior in
compression, Split tension and Flexure is being
investigated. For all the studies, 150x150mm cubes for
compressive strength, 150mm diameter and 300mm
height cylinders for split tensile strength and
100x100x400mm prism specimens for studying the
modulus of rupture were employed. The designation of
the specimens is indicated in Table 2. The mix was
designed as per ACI method of mix design. All the
specimens were demoulded after 24 hrs and kept in water
for curing for 28days.The specimens were capped using
plaster of paris to ensure plane-testing surface.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
An experimental program was designed to compare the
strength properties of recycled aggregate concrete with
out with and fiber addition. Cubes, cylinders and prisms
of standard dimensions were cast and tested to determine
the compressive strength, Split tensile strength flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity of Fiber Reinforced
Recycled Aggregate Concrete (FRRAC).
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF TEST

RESULTS
Materials
Compressive Strength of Fibrous Recycled Aggregate

Concrete
Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade (compressive

strength not less than 53 N/mm2) was used in the study.
The cement was selected as per IS-12269 [9]. Fine
aggregate was standard river sand procured locally and
was confirming to zone-II as per IS-2386. Crushed granite
was used as coarse aggregate. The recycled aggregate
used was obtained by crushing and processing concrete
cubes, cylinders and the corresponding reinforced
concrete beams. The aggregate was passed through
standard sieves of 20mm and retained on 4.75mm sieve.
For M40 grade the ACI mix design procedure [10] is
adopted. Poly Propylene Fiber (PF) was used and the
Polypropylene fiber with a cut length of 12 mm, melting
point of greater than 250o and the dosage in concrete is
1000 grams per cubic meter is used.
Table 2 shows the details of mechanical properties of 40

grade concrete cast without and with RCA and without
and with Polypropylene Fiber (PF) additions. The dosage
of PF in concrete was found based on experimental
results. Two aspects can be determined here, one is the
effect of different replacement of RCA in NA on no
fibrous concrete and the other one is in fibrous concrete.
The 28 days compressive strength values are shown in
Table 2, column (2) for M40 grade concretes. One notable
observation is that the target compressive strength could
be easily achieved. In control mixes that is without fiber
and natural aggregate and with Polypropylene Fiber and
natural aggregate the compressive strength could be easily
achieved. With replacement of RCA in NA the
compressive strength has decreased but was always above
the target strength. This gives a conclusion that recycled
aggregate concretes are not inferior to normal concretes.
Casting of Specimens
The scheme of casting the specimens was done in two
stages. First, the percentage of recycled aggregate in
A Study on Mechnanical Properties of Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Recycled Aggregate Concrete (PFRRAC)
Table 2: Strength Details of M40 Grade Concretes (Without and with Polypropylene Fiber)
Specimen
Designation
Comp.
Strength
(MPa)
M40
(2)
54.96
51.98
47.87
55.86
52.71
48.34
M40
(1)
B00
B50
B100
BP00
BP50
BP100
Split Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
M40
(3)
4.15
3.94
3.69
4.75
4.32
3.96
Flexural
Strength
(MPa)
M40
(4)
4.32
4.09
3.78
4.61
4.32
3.98
Additions of fibers have definitively increased the

compressive strength, though marginally.
The tensile strength of concrete is relatively much lower

than its compressive strength because it can be developed
more quickly with crack propagation. The decrease is
more so in case of recycled concrete aggregate. Hence, it
is important to improve the tensile strength of such a
Comp. Strength (MPa)
56
54.96
M40
55.86
51.98
52
50
47.87
48
48.34
44
42
50
100
% Replacem ent of RCA
Fig. 1: Comp. Strength vs %Repl. of RCA
3.94
M40-PF
4.32
M40
(7)
0.68
0.65
0.60
0.73
0.68
0.63
3.69 3.96
3
2
M40
4.61
4.32
Flex. Strength (MPa)
Split. Strength (MPa)
4.15
4
M40
4.75
M40
(6)
0.56
0.55
0.53
0.64
0.60
0.57
Tables 2 and Figs 5 and 6 shows the details of flexural

strength for M20 & M40 grade concretes for different
replacement of RCA in NA for no fiber and
Polypropylene Fiber additions. There is an increase in
flexural strength of fibrous concretes at all percentage
replacements of RCA in NA as compared to no fiber
concretes. In case of no fibers and fibrous concretes the
flexural strength is dropping with increase RCA in NA.
Columns 13, 14 of Table 2 show the ratio of flexural
46
Flexure/fck
Effect of Polypropylene Fiber Addition on Flexural

Strength of RAC
M40-PF
52.71
54
Split/Comp.
recycled aggregate concrete. The split tensile strength of

recycled aggregate concrete decreases with increase in the
dosage of replacement of RCA in NA, while fibers
improve the behaviour. This is as high as 14.46 % in
normal concrete to 7.32 % in recycled aggregate concrete.
The variation of split tensile strength with recycled
aggregate replacement and with fiber additions for M40
grade concrete is plotted in Fig 2. Columns 6 and 7 shows
the ratio of split to square root of compression for M40
grade for different replacement of RCA in NA without
and with optimum dosage of polypropylene fiber
additions.
Influence of Polypropylene Fiber on Split Tensile

Strength of RAC
58
Modulus of
Elasticity
(MPa)
M40
(5)
33350
31256
26373
33525
32248
29563
M40-PF
4.32
4.09
3.78
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
50
100
50
100
Fig. 3: Flexural Strength vs % Repl. of RCA
Fig. 2: M40 Split. Strength vs %Repl. RCA
3.98
compressive strength for different replacements of

RCA in NA without and with polypropylene fiber is
suggested.
6. The modulus of elasticity increased slightly with
polypropylene fiber addition, while it decreased with
increased recycled aggregate in natural aggregate
concrete. The fibrous specimens failed only by
splitting the fiber but there was no debonding of fibers
noticed in any of the specimens.
strength to square root of fck. It can be noted that there is a

general decrease in the value with increasing in
replacement of RCA in NA. This is true for both M20 and
M40 grade concretes. The values are close to 0.7*sqrt(fck)
as given by standard codes for the relationship between
flexural strength sqrt(fck) for normal concrete. The value
of flexural strength to sqrt(fck) is more for polypropylene
concrete.
Effect of Polypropylene Fiber Addition on Modulus of
Elasticity of RAC
REFERENCES
Table 2 column 5 shows the details of modulus of

elasticity for M40 Grade concrete without and with
Polypropylene fiber respectively. A comparison shows
that an increase in the % of recycled concrete aggregate in
Natural Aggregate, there is a decrease in the value of
Modulus of Elasticity. This trend is similar in the case of
Polypropylene also. A comparison of values shows an
increase in the value of E with the addition of
Polypropylene fiber, in case of 50%, 100% replacement
of RCA also. It may be concluded that the addition of
fiber in general increases the value of E of Recycled
Concrete Aggregate for M40grades of concrete. These
values are close to 5000*fck in case of no fiber concrete
& higher in case of polypropylene fibrous concretes.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
CONCLUSIONS
Based on experimental and analytical results of
Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Recycled Aggregate
Concrete (PFRAC) the following conclusions can be
drawn.
[6]
1. The 28 day Target compressive strength could be

achieved in case of M40 grade even at 100%
replacement of RCA in NA. This means recycled
aggregate concrete is in no way inferior to natural
aggregate concrete.
[7]
2. The split tensile strength in Recycled Aggregate

Concrete could be improved with optimum addition
polypropylene fibers in concrete. The increase is 7.32
% in M40 grade concrete.
[9]
[8]
[10]
3. There is a marginal increase in compressive strength

of recycled aggregate concrete with fiber additions.
The compressive strength however, decreased with
increasing % replacement of RCA in NA. This is true
for both grades of concrete and with polypropylene
fibrous concrete also.
[11]
[12]
4. There is an increase in flexural strength of natural and

recycled aggregate concrete with polypropylene fiber
additions. The increase is about 6.71 % & 5.29 % for
natural and recycled aggregate concrete respectively
for M40 grade concrete.
[13]
[14]
5. The relationship between compressive strength and

split tensile strength and flexural and characteristic
Ilker Bekir Topcu et.al, Properties of concrete produced

with waste concrete aggregate, Cement and Concrete
Research 34(2004) 1307-1312.
Topcu Bekir Ilker, Guncan Fuat Nedim. Using waste
concrete as aggregate, Cement and Concrete Research
1995; 25(7):1385-90.
Kiyoshi Eguchi et.al, Application of recycled coarse
aggregate by mixture to concrete construction,
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 21, Issue 7,
July 2007, Pages 1542-1551.
G. D. Manolis et.al,Dynamic properties of polypropylene
fiber-reinforced concrete slabs,Cement and Concrete
Composites, Vol. 19, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 341-349, P. J.
lker Bekir Topu and Mehmet Canbaz, Effect of
different fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete
containing fly ash Construction and Building Materials,
Volume 21, Issue 7, July 2007, Pages 1486-1491
P.Rathish Kumar and M.L.V.Prasad, Utilisation of
Recycled Aggregate from Demolished waste for Structural
Concrete, Journal of ING-IABSE Vol. 38, No 1, March
2008.
Indian Standard Code IS: 2386, Methods of test for
Aggregates for Concrete, reprinted 1997.
Hansen T.C, Recycling of demolished concrete and
masonry, RILEM Report 6, RILEM TC-37-DRC, E&FN
Spon Publication.
Indian Standard Code IS: 12269, Specifications for 53
Grade Ordinary Portland Cement.
ACI Method of Mix Design. 211.1-91: Standard Practice
for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and
Mass Concrete (Reapproved 2002).
Forster SW, Recycled Concrete as aggregate, Concrete
International 1986; 8(10), pp 34-40.
K.K.Sagoe-Crentsil et.al, Performance of concrete made
with commercially produced coarse recycled concrete
aggregate. Cement & Concrete Research 31(2001) 707712.
Ch.F.Hendriks and G.M.T.Janssen, Use of recycled
materials in construction, Materials and Structures
Constructions, Vol.36, November 2003,pp 604-608.
Khalaf FM, Devenny AlanS,Recycling of demolished
masonry rubble as coarse aggregate in concrete, ASCE
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 2004:331-40.


V. Srinivasa Reddy1, M.V. Seshagiri Rao2, Ch. Sasikala3 and N.C. Maulika4
4
BTech Student,
Departmentof Civil Engineering, GRIET, Hyderabad
2
Department of Civil Engineering, JNTUH College of Engineering, Kukatpally, Hyderbad
3
Centre for Environment, JNTU, Hyderbad
Email: 1vempada@gmail.com
1,4
ABSTRACT
The micro-cracks and porosity of concrete structures are very common problems due to the fact that this
material has a high permeability which allows water and other aggressive media to enter thus leading to
deterioration. The use of traditional organic polymer based crack sealers is a common way of contributing to
concrete durability. However, the most common organic polymers have some degree of toxicity and are not
environmental friendly. Shortcomings of conventional surface treatments have drawn the attention to alternative
techniques for the improvement of the durability of concrete. Recently research done at JNTU Hyderabad has
shown that specific species of bacteria can actually be useful as a tool to repair cracks in already existing
concrete structures. Calcite precipitation due to microbial chemical process by specific alkali resistant
microorganisms can act as a self healing agent when induced into concrete. This mechanism is of great interest
for repair in concrete structures without human intervention. A new type of alkaliphilic aerobic microorganism
belonging to Bacillus species, which when added to concrete enhances the strength and durability
characteristics of concrete structures significantly due to growth of filler material called calcite(CaCO3) within
the pores of the cementsand matrix leading to pore refinement and enhanced concrete microstructure. This
paper reports the effects of bacterial carbonate precipitation (bio-deposition) on the strength and durability of
concrete specimens of ordinary (M20), standard (M40) and High strength (M60) grades..
Keywords Bacterial Concrete, Bacillus Subtilus, Bio-mineralization, self healing concrete, SEM.
enhances corrosion resistance in concrete automatically
(self healing), which could increase and ensure durability
and functionality of structures enormously results in the
conception of Bacterial Concrete[1]. An innovation
based on biomimicry and biotechnology has lead to the
method of sealing up of micro cracks in concrete by itself
using microorganisms as a sustainable alternative to other
available chemical methods of crack repair such as epoxy
treatment etc [2]. Compared with the commonly used
repair method which follows the procedure of detection,
monitoring and repair, the self-healing method is cheaper
over the structures life-cycle since the later maintenance
would be greatly saved. Organic polymer, super absorbent
polymer, expansive agents and so on are being
investigated as self-healing materials for cracks. Another
alternative self-healing material is microbial carbonation
precipitation [3]. Some bacteria can produce or induce
bio-minerals during their growth and metabolism [4].
Under suitable conditions, most bacteria are capable of
inducing carbonate precipitation. The precipitated bioCaCO3 has a good potential to be used to heal concrete
cracks because it is natural, environmentally friendly and
compatible with the concrete matrix [5]. Compared to
natural carbonation of concrete, bio-deposition is a
relatively quick process. Natural carbonation occurs from
INTRODUCTION
Reinforcement corrosion is one of the major durability
problems, mainly when the rebar in the concrete is
exposed to the chlorides either contributed from the
concrete ingredients or penetrated from the surrounding
chloride-bearing environment. From the perspective of
durability the cracks formed should be repaired
conventionally using epoxy injection, latex treatment etc
or by providing extra reinforcement in the structure to
ensure that the crack width stays within a certain limit.
Especially with current steel prices on steep rise,
providing extra steel is not economically viable. Use of
synthetic agents such as epoxies for remediation of cracks
in these structures introduces a different material system
of doubtful long term performance and moreover they
may damage the aesthetic appearance of the structures.
Sometimes repair is carried out in the areas where it is not
possible to shut down the plant or hazardous for human
beings such as nuclear power plants where fuel storages
should be leak proof, repair of waste water sewage pipes
etc. Hence, in treating surfaces of structures with strategic
and historic heritage importance, self healing materials
could be an ideal choice. So, If in some way a reliable
method could be developed that repairs cracks and
the dissolution of atmospheric CO2 in the pore solution

and formation of CaCO3 from CSH or portlandite. In the
bio-deposition treatment however, calcium ions are also
provided by an externally added calcium source, while the
carbonate ions result from the microbiological hydrolysis
of amino acids [6].
understand the crack healing ability of Bacterial concrete

and its characteristics (Strength and Durability).
Effect of Bacterial Cell Concentration on Strength
Effect of cell concentration of Bacillus subtilis JC3 on the
strength is studied by determining the compressive
strength of standard cement mortar cubes incorporated
with various bacterial cell concentrations as per IS: 4031part 6 as shown in Figure 1.
MECHANISM OF BIO-BASED CONCRETE

CRACK REPAIR
In nature, microorganisms can induce calcite mineral
precipitation through nitrogen cycle either by
ammonification of amino acids/ nitrate reduction/
hydrolysis of urea [7]. Bacillus subtilis JC3 is able to
precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in its microenvironment by the ammonification of amino acids into
ammonium (NH4+) and carbonate (CO32-) ions. The
precipitated bio-CaCO3 has a great potential ability to
heal concrete cracks because it is natural, environmentally
friendly and compatible with the concrete matrix [8].
Bacillus subtilis JC3 a non-pathogenic alkalophilic
microorganism commonly found in soil and is known to
deposit the calcite minerals when it is supplied with
nutrients and right conditions to grow. The bacteria
introduced into the concrete during mixing process will
form spores in the highly alkaline environment of
concrete. Once a crack forms, the pH level at the cracked
surface will drop due to the exposure to air. The
combination of the pH drop and a flow of oxygen,
moisture and carbon dioxide at the crack face will activate
the microorganisms and will provide the conditions
favorable for growth [9]. The microorganisms will deposit
calcium carbonate, and as the crack fill up, the supply of
oxygen and carbon dioxide will be interrupted, causing
the microorganisms to hibernate again, ensuring the
continual effectiveness of the microorganisms in filling
up cracks at the same location [10]. Bio-mineralization by
Ammonification (Ammo acid degradation) is mediated by
Bacillus subtilis JC3. Ammonification usually occurs
under aerobic conditions (known as oxidative
deamination) with the liberation of ammonia (NH3) or
ammonium ions (NH4) when dissolved in water. The
ammonia liberated will provide the conditions favorable
for growth and also maintains the pH of concrete.The
chemical equations involved in microbial activity are:
Strength Studies on Bacterial Concrete

To study compressive strength characteristics, standard
cubes (100mm x 100mm x 100mm) were cast with
distilled water and the require amount of microorganisms
(i.e. 105/ml cell concentration were used) with media as
mixing water. The compressive strength of the bacterial
concrete cubes at 28 days is compared with corresponding
controlled specimens. Similarly 28 days split tensile
strength and flexural strength is determined from
cylinders (150 mm x150 mm x 300 mm) and prisms
(100mm x 100mm x 500mm) respectively. Modulus of
Elasticity is computed from the stress- strain curves of
controlled and bacterial concrete.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (USPV)
The test is performed as per IS code 13311 (Part 1) 1992
to find out the homogeneity of bacterial concrete,
presence of cracks, voids & other imperfections and
changes in concrete structure with time. In this method,
velocity is co-related to strength and quality of bacterial
concrete specimens as shown in Table 5.
Table 1: Quality of concrete based on Ultrasonic pulse
velocity
Velocity
> 4.5 km/s
3.5 to 4.5 km/s
3.0 to 3.5 km/s
< 3.0 km/s
Quality of concrete
excellent
Good
medium
doubtful
Rebound Hammer
As per IS 13311, (Part 2): 1992, this test measures the
surface hardness of concrete and is co-related to the
strength and quality of concrete. Harder the surface of the
material tested, greater is the rebound. Table2 shows
Guidelines for qualitative interpretation of rebound
hammer test results as tabulated in Table 6.
Ca2+ + B.subtilis Cell B.subtilis Cell- Ca2+

CH3CH(NH2)COOH (Peptone) + O2
---> C2H2 + H2CO3 + NH3
H2CO3 ----------> H+ + HCO3-
Table 2: Quality of concrete based on Average Rebound

Hammer
NH3 + H2O --------> NH4+ + OH-
Average rebound number

> 40
30 to 40
20 to 30
< 20
B.subtilis Cell- Ca2+ + CO32- B.subtilis Cell- CaCO3

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
The main aim of the present experimental investigations
is to obtain specific experimental data, which helps to
8
Quality of concrete
Very good hard layer
Good layer
Fair
Poor concrete
Chloride Diffusivity Studies
Table 3: RCPT and Resistivity Criteria Ratings
The chloride resistance of concrete is governed primarily

by the pore structure and the concrete diffusivity.
Chloride ion penetration is one of the main parameter
affecting the durability of reinforced cement concrete
structures. The most important concrete characteristic,
apart from permeability, is diffusion. The mode of
transport of chloride ion through concentration gradient is
called Diffusion. The rate at which chloride ions penetrate
into concrete determines the time period after which the
passivity of reinforcing bars begin to break down.
Chloride diffusivity in terms of charge passed of bacterial
concrete using Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT)
as per ASTM C 1202 is investigated. In the AASHTO
T277 (ASTM C1202) test (Electrical indication of
concretes ability to resist chloride ion penetration), a
water-saturated, 50-mm thick, 100-mm diameter concrete
specimen is subjected to a 60 V applied DC voltage for 6
hours. In upstream reservoir is a 3.0% NaCl solution of
2.4N concentration (Cathode) and in the downstream
reservoir is a 0.3 M NaOH solution (chloride free)
(Anode). The total charge passed is determined and this is
used to rate the quality of the concrete according to the
criteria rating mentioned in the code. The total charge
passing through from one reservoir to another reservoir
through centrally placed concrete specimen in 6 hrs was
measured, at an interval of 30 min, indicating the degree
of resistance of the specimen to chloride ion penetration
as shown in Table 7. The following formula, based on the
trapezoidal rule can be used to calculate the average
current flowing through one cell.
Permeability
Class
High
Moderate
Low
Very Low
Negligible
Rapid Chloride Permeability Charge

Passed (Coulombs) as per ASTM
C1202
> 4,000
2,000 - 4,000
1,000 - 2,000
100 - 1,000
< 100
Acid Attack Resistance

To study durability characteristics, the specimens are
subjected to 3% and 5% concentrated solutions of HCL
and H2SO4 using acid immersion test. The response of the
specimens to the solutions was evaluated through change
in appearance, weight, compressive strength, thickness
and solid diagonals. For determining the resistance of
concrete specimens to aggressive environment such as
acid attack, the durability factors are proposed by the
author, with the philosophy of ASTM C 6661997, as the
basis. In the present investigation, the author derived the
Acid Durability Factors directly in terms of relative
strengths. The relative strengths are always with respect
to the 28 days value (i.e. at the start of the test). The
Acid Durability Factors (ADF) can be designed as
follows:
Acid Durability Factor (ADF) = Sr (N / M )
Q = 900(I0+2I30+2I60+2I90+2I120++2I300+2I330+I360)
where, Sr = relative strength at corresponding N days, N

= number of days at which the durability factor is needed
and M = number of days at which the exposure is to be
terminated.
Where, Q = current flowing through one cell (coulombs);

I0 = Current reading in amperes immediately after voltage
is applied, and It = Current reading in amperes at t
minutes (30 min interval) after voltage is applied
The extent of deterioration at each corner of the struck

face and the opposite face is measured in terms of the acid
diagonals (in mm) for each of two cubes and the Acid
Attack Factor (AAF) per face is calculated as follows:
The electric charge passed, Q in coulombs, obtained from

Rapid chloride ion penetrability test was used to calculate
Chloride Migration Diffusion Coefficient in steady state
conditions from Berkes empirical Equation.
AAF = (Loss in mm on eight corners of each of 2 cubes) /

4
Acid Durability Factors (ADF), Acid Attack Factors
(AAF), percentage weight loss and strength loss at
various days of immersion are evaluated.
DC=0.0103 x 10-12 x Q0.84 m2/s
Cost Analysis
The calculated diffusion coefficient values, in Table 8, are

used to classify the concrete in terms of their permeability
as per the recommendations of the Concrete Society, UK:
The cost/benefit analysis of bacterial concrete balances

the increased cost of the concrete against substantial
repair material costs, enhanced durability and aesthetic
benefits. The benefits are apparent at strength and
performance of the finished product. Only expensive
component in the development of bacterial concrete is
nutrients. In this project, one litre of nutrients mixed
bacterial culture costs Rs 60.
High permeability concrete: >5x10-12 m2/s.

Average permeability concrete: (1 to 5) x 10-12 m-/s.
Low permeability concrete :< 1 x 10-12 m2/s.
TEST RESULTS
Table 4: Effect of bacteria on Compressive Strength, Split tensile Strength, Flexural strength and Modulus of Elasticity of
concrete
Age of Concrete
(28 days)
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Split tensile Strength (MPa)
Flexural strength (MPa)
Secant Modulus Of Elasticity (GPa)
Ordinary grade
(M20)
Controlled Bacterial
Concrete
Concrete
29.55
33.11
3.26
3.73
4.68
6.11
16.42
27.21
Standard grade
(M40)
Concrete
Concrete
52.01
61.06
4.51
5.13
6.11
7.73
26.52
37.15
High strength grade

(M60)
Concrete
Concrete
72.61
94.21
4.63
5.63
8.64
10.44
36.31
47.11
Table 5: Ultrasonic pulse velocity test results of various grades of normal and bacterial concretes
Type of
Concrete
Age of
Concrete
(in days)
28
60
90
28
60
90
Normal
Concrete
Bacterial
Concrete
M20
Quality of
Velocity
Concrete
3.26
medium
3.36
medium
3.41
medium
4.27
Good
4.33
Good
4.39
Good
M40
Quality of
Velocity
Concrete
4.39
Good
4.43
Good
4.50
Good
4.73
Excellent
4.89
Excellent
4.92
Excellent
M60
Quality of
Velocity
Concrete
4.89
Excellent
4.92
Excellent
4.99
Excellent
5.22
Excellent
5.36
Excellent
5.41
Excellent
Table 6: Rebound hammer test results of various grades of normal and bacterial concrete specimens
Type of
Concrete
Normal
Concrete
Bacterial
Concrete
Age of
Concrete
(in days)
M20
Average
Rebound
Number
28
M40
M60
Quality of
Concrete
Average
Rebound
Number
Quality of
Concrete
Average
Rebound
Number
25
Fair
34
Good Layer
46
60
28
Fair
36
Good Layer
49
90
29
Fair
38
Good Layer
51
28
33
Good Layer
44
60
35
Good Layer
47
90
37
Good Layer
49
10
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
53
55
58
Quality of
Concrete
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer
Very Good
Hard Layer

Table 7: Chloride ion Permeability of Normal and Bacterial Concretes
Charge Passed
(Coulombs)
Age(days)
28
M20
M40
M60
2419
2008
1022
M20
M40
M60
367
238
173
Chloride
Permeability
as per ASTM
C1202
Charge
Passed
(Coulombs)
Chloride
Permeability
as per ASTM
C1202
60
Concrete without Bacteria
Moderate
2213
Moderate
Moderate
1991
Low
Low
997
Low
Concrete with Bacteria
Very Low
351
Very Low
Very Low
222
Very Low
Very Low
159
Very Low
Chloride
Permeability
as per ASTM
C1202
Charge
Passed
(Coulombs)
90
2100
1817
943
Moderate
Low
Low
327
202
96
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Table 8: Chloride Diffusion Coefficients of Normal and Bacterial Concretes
Chloride
Migration
Diffusion
Coefficient
(DC)
Age(days)
Chloride
Permeability
as per
Concrete
Society,UK
28
M20
M40
M60
7.16E-12
6.12E-12
3.47E-12
M20
M40
M60
1.47E-12
1.02E-12
0.78E-12
Chloride
Migration
Diffusion
Coefficient
(DC)
Chloride
Permeability
as per
Concrete
Society,UK
60
Concrete without Bacteria
High
6.64E-12
High
High
6.08E-12
High
Medium
3.40E-12
Medium
Concrete with Bacteria
Medium
1.41E-12
Medium
Medium
0.96E-12
Low
Low
0.73E-12
Low
Chloride
Migration
Diffusion
Coefficient
(DC)
Chloride
Permeability
as per
Concrete
Society,UK
90
6.36E-12
5.63E-12
3.24E-12
High
High
Medium
1.33E-12
0.89E-12
0.66E-12
Medium
Low
Low
Table 9: Weight loss and Strength loss of concrete in Acid Immersion Test
Grade of
Concrete
Weight and Compressive

Strength of cube
M20
M20
M40
M40
M60
M60
% Weight loss
% loss in Compressive Strength
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
M20
M20
M40
M40
M60
M60
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
Period of Immersion in
3% H2SO4
30 days
60 days
90 days
Normal Concrete
0.28
1.06
4.99
2.31
6.70
9.27
0.31
1.58
3.28
1.52
5.62
9.01
0.39
2.54
2.74
0.14
4.35
8.61
Bacterial Concrete
0.28
1.34
5.29
0.36
3.41
5.28
0.25
1.44
3.96
0.19
2.72
4.51
0.12
2.27
2.58
0.03
1.51
3.61
11
3% HCL
30 days 60 days 90 days
0.35
0.30
0.21
0.22
0.08
0.11
1.86
1.92
1.16
0.86
0.43
0.21
2.07
3.38
2.01
2.19
1.61
0.99
0.35
0.14
0.17
0.09
0.16
0.05
1.50
0.99
0.93
0.74
0.87
0.24
2.29
1.93
2.11
1.30
2.00
0.54
Grade of
Concrete
Weight and Compressive

Strength of cube
M20
M20
M40
M40
M60
M60
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
M20
M20
M40
M40
M60
M60
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
% Weight loss
5% H2SO4
30 days
60 days
90 days
Normal Concrete
0.99
2.96
6.33
2.71
7.68
11.20
1.14
5.59
8.87
0.94
7.93
16.45
0.55
3.09
3.99
0.28
4.91
8.95
Bacterial Concrete
0.47
1.69
5.48
0.46
3.59
7.09
0.91
4.66
7.73
0.68
4.92
10.2
0.51
3.05
4.54
0.13
2.18
4.02
5% HCL
30 days 60 days 90 days
0.51
0.47
0.55
0.43
0.28
0.17
2.57
2.33
2.46
1.92
1.22
0.73
4.31
4.63
4.75
3.56
2.28
1.76
0.51
0.39
0.48
0.32
0.32
0.16
1.89
1.99
2.10
1.71
1.29
0.76
3.27
3.32
3.88
3.01
2.32
1.05
Table 10: The Acid Durability Factors and Acid Attack Factors of Controlled concrete and Bacterial concrete
Ordinary Grade (M20) Concrete

3% HCL
5% H2SO4
ADF
AAF
ADF
AAF
Controlled Concrete
0.13
33.23
0.09
32.43
0.16
0.50
64.73
0.28
61.48
0.59
0.84
96.62
0.44
88.80
0.94
Bacterial Concrete
0.06
33.28
0.06
33.18
0.13
0.31
65.35
0.25
63.63
0.41
0.47
98.07
0.41
92.91
0.66
3% H2SO4
ADF
AAF
5% HCL
ADF
AAF
30
60
90 (=M)
32.56
61.58
91.73
32.84
64.46
95.37
0.13
0.34
0.59
30
60
90(=M)
33.18
63.75
94.72
32.87
64.69
96.68
0.09
0.31
0.50
Days of immersion
N
Days of immersion
N
3% H2SO4
ADF
AAF
30
60
90 (=M)
31.92
62.35
92.56
0.13
0.52
0.91
30
60
90(=M)
32.66
62.99
96.01
0.07
0.28
0.549
Days of
immersion N
30
60
90 (=M)
30
60
90(=M)
Standard Grade (M40) Concrete

3% HCL
5% H2SO4
ADF
AAF
ADF
AAF
Controlled Concrete
33.12
0.11
28.30
0.19
63.11
0.33
52.61
0.78
98.56
0.54
71.61
1.28
Bacterial Concrete
33.25
0.07
28.38
0.16
62.77
0.31
54.33
0.47
99.71
0.48
76.97
0.91
High Strength Grade (M60) Concrete

3% H2SO4
3% HCL
5% H2SO4
ADF
AAF
ADF
AAF
ADF
AAF
Controlled Concrete
33.95
0.13
33.96
0.13
32.91
0.19
63.13
0.59
65.86
0.41
62.76
0.72
91.39
0.97
99.01
0.66
91.05
1.09
Bacterial Concrete
33.99
0.09
33.98
0.09
33.29
0.16
65.00
0.31
65.84
0.34
64.56
0.34
96.39
0.53
99.46
0.50
95.92
0.59
5% HCL
ADF
AAF
28.45
56.05
82.66
0.19
0.59
0.97
28.48
56.17
83.13
0.16
0.50
0.84
5% HCL
ADF
AAF
33.27
65.52
98.24
0.16
0.53
0.81
33.28
65.50
98.95
0.13
0.38
0.66
compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural

strength and secant modulus of elasticity of controlled and
bacterial concrete at 28 days were given in Table 4.
The compressive strength of cement mortar specimens are

presented in Figure 1 to optimize the cell concentration of
bacteria to be used in further investigations. The
12
chloride ions decreases with increase in higher grades in

normal concrete but with introduction of bacteria into
concrete further decreased the effective diffusion
coefficient. Reduction in chloride ion permeability values
indicates that bacteria induced concrete has shown
between 85% to 90 % higher resistance against the
chloride ion movements in bacterial concrete as compared
to the chloride movements in normal concrete.
The relationship between stress and strain is important in
understanding the basic elastic behavior of concrete in
hardened state. It is observed that Modulus of
Elasticity(E) is relatively more for all grades of concrete
in which bacteria is induced than the controlled concrete
by about 35-65%. Bacterial Concrete mixes have shown
improved stress values for the same strain levels
compared to that of conventional concrete mixes.
Fig. 1: Effect of bacterial cell concentration on the strength

of concrete
Percentage of loss in weight and compressive strength of

bacterial concrete when compared with conventional
concrete when immersed in acids HCL and H2SO4 were
given in Table 9. The Acid Durability Factor and Acid
Attack Factor of concrete with and without bacteria were
shown in Table 10.
Durability studies carried out in this investigation through

acid attack resistance for all grades of concrete with 3%
and 5% concentrated solutions of H2SO4 and HCL
revealed that Bacterial Concrete is more durable in terms
of Acid Durability Factors and less attacked in terms of
Acid Attack Factors when compared to the controlled
concrete.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
It is observed that the Compressive Strength of cement
mortar showed significant increase by about 17% for cell
concentration of 105 cells per ml of mixing water. So, for
the further investigation bacteria with a optimum cell
concentration of 105 cells per ml of mixing water is used.
It is noted that pores are partially filled up by material
growth with the addition of the bacteria. Reduction in
pore due to such material growth will obviously increase
the material strength.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigation, the
following conclusions are drawn
1. Deposition of a layer of calcite on the surface of the
specimens resulted in a decrease of capillary suction.
2. The addition of Bacillus subtilis JC3 strain improves
the hydrated structure of cement in concrete for a cell
concentration of 105 cells per ml of mixing water. So,
bacteria with a cell concentration of 105 cells per ml of
mixing water was used in the investigation.
With the addition of bacteria the Compressive Strength at

28 days showed significant increase by 16-30 % for all
grades of concrete. The percentage of Compressive
Strength is improved as the age of the concrete increases
due to continues bacterial calcification of Bacillus
Subtilus JC3, which fills up the pores in the concrete
making dense microstructure.Split Tensile and Flexural
strength of concrete at 28 days increased by about 1422% and 21-30% respectively.
3. The addition of Bacillus subtilis JC3 strain increases

the compressive strength, split tensile strength and
flexural strength of concrete when compared to
controlled concrete. Bacteria induced concrete has
substantially high modulus of elasticity.
4. From the durability studies, the percentage weight
losses and percentage strength losses revealed that
Bacterial concrete has less weight and strength losses
than the conventional concrete against any acid
attacks. It is revealed that bacterial concrete is more
durable in terms of Acid Durability Factor than
conventional concrete and less attacked in terms of
Acid Attack Factor than conventional concrete.
In bacterial concrete, as it gains strength, hardness

increases and as a result, the rebound hammer values are
more because of greater elastic rebound. In order to assess
particle continuity inside the concrete specimen, USPV
test is recommended.
Grades of Normal concrete have higher current flow when
compared to Grades of Bacterial concrete. Bacterial
concrete will have dense microstructure due to
precipitation of mineral in pores of concrete. The
impermeability of concrete can be represented by the rate
of flow or diffusion coefficient of chloride ions through
the unit area of concrete. Diffusion Coefficient (DC) of
5. In bacterial concrete, induction of microorganisms

inside the concrete has enormous effect on the
porosity within the cement matrix paste, on the
particle size distribution of the crystalline phases and
on the presence of in-homogeneities within the
hydrated paste due to mineral precipitation. Calcite
13
mineral precipitation results in less capillary porosity

in the hardened paste and hence a greater strength.
This reduced capillary porosity also favours the
formation of fine-textured hydration products with
optimized particle size distribution of the cementitious
materials in order to increase the potential packing
density. So bacteria incorporated concrete has
increased packing density and reduced capillary
porosity. The calcite crystals formed will glue together
the hydrated particles which reduce the interstitial
porosity between them.
6. Furthermore the effect of mineral precipitation
homogenously in bacterial concrete leads to a
reduction in inhomogeneities within the paste and
hence improved paste strength. The strength of the
paste will be limited by the flaws that form the
weakest link, be the inhomogeneities or capillary
pores. In order to improve the strength of the paste as
a whole, all such flaws must be minimized. Therefore
bacterial concrete is a new approach to enhance the
strength and durability of the concrete economically.
7. The incorporation of microorganisms into concrete
confers enhanced durability on the concrete. In
bacterial concrete significant reductions in water
permeability and chloride ingress have been observed
along with its increased resistance to attack by
aggressive chemicals.From the investigation, it has
been revealed that bacterial concrete has better
resistance against strength deterioration for all curing
conditions and curing ages.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Bang SS, Galinat JK, and Ramakrishnan V. Calcite

precipitation induced by polyurethaneimmobilized
Bacillus pasteurii Enzyme and Microbial Technology,
28(2001) 404-09
[3]
De Muynck, W., D. Debrouwer, N. De Belie, and W.

Verstraete. 2008. Bacterial carbonate precipitation
improves the durability of cementitious materials.
Cement Concrete Res. 38: 1005-1014.
[4]
Knorre, H. and W. Krumbein. 2000. Bacterial

calcification, pp. 25-31. In R. E. Riding and S. M
Awramik (eds.). Microbial Sediments. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Germany.
[5]
Ramakrishnan V, Ramesh KP, and Bang SS. South

Dokata School of Mines and Technology, USA, Bacterial
Concrete, Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4234 pp. 168-176,
Smart Materials.
[6]
Ramikrishnan V, Panchalan RK, Bang, SS. Improvement

of concrete durability by bacterial mineral precipitation
Proceedings ICF 11, Torino, Italy, 2005.
[7]
S.K. Ramachandran, V. Ramkrishnan, S.S. Bang,

Remediation of concrete using microorganisms, ACI
Materials Journal 98 (1) (2001) 39.
[8]
Santhosh KR, Ramakrishnan V, Duke EF, and Bang SS,

SEM Investigation of Microbial Calcite Precipitation in
Cement Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference
on Cement Microscopy, pp. 293-305, Montreal, Canada,
2000.
[9]
V.Ramakrishnan, S.S. Bang, K.S. Deo, A novel

technique for repairing cracks in high performance
concrete using bacteria, Proceeding of the International
Conference on High Performance, High Strength
Concrete, Perth, Australia, 1998, pp. 597 617.
[10] Day
JL,
Panchalan
RK,
Ramakrishnan
V.
Microbiologically induced sealant for concrete crack
remediation Proceedings of the 16th Engineering
Mechanics conference, Seattle, WA, 2003.
Bachmeier K, Williams A E, Warminton J and Bang, S.S.

Urease activity in Microbiologically-induced calcite
precipitation Journal of Biotechnology,93(2002)171-181.
14

An Experimental Investigation on Strength Properties of Artificial Light Weight

Aggregate Concrete using Agricultural by Product
such as Ground Nut Shell Ash
V. Bhaskar Desai1, K. Mallikarjunappa2 and A. Sathyam3
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 2,3Research Scholar

JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuramu, A.P.
2
Dy. Executive Engineer, Dharmavaram Municipality, Dharmavaram
3
Conservation Assistant Gr-I, Archaeological Survey of India, Anantapuramu Sub Circle, Anantapuramu
ABSTRACT
Light weight aggregate concrete has become more popular in recent advancements owing to the tremendous
advantages it offers over the conventional concrete but at the same time strong enough to be used for structural
purpose. The most important characteristic of light weight concrete is its low thermal conductivity, lower
density, internal curing property etc. Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) is a waste material obtained from oil mills as
an agricultural waste. Pelletized Groundnut Shell Ash aggregate can be used as one type of coarse aggregate in
the production of stronger, more durable and more ductile concrete used in certain places where natural
aggregate is not available or costly or recycling of the agricultural wastes is aimed at or where the dead weight
of the structure is to be reduced. But a limited work on the study of strength property has been carried out on
replacement of conventional granite aggregate in different percentages (0, 25, 50,75,100) with light weight
aggregates such as pelletized Groundnut Shell Ash(GSA), cinder, pumice, perlite etc. So true need of wide range
of investigation in this direction is needed to explain the exact behaviour of the light weight aggregate in partial
and full replacement of conventional granite aggregate by light weight aggregate. In the present experimental
investigation an attempt has been made to study the compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength
properties etc., are to be studied to have a comprehensive understanding by replacing natural aggregate with
pelletized GSA aggregate in different percentages (0,25,50,75 and 100) by volume of concrete.
Keywords light weight aggregate, ground shell ash, pellets.
INTRODUCTION
prepared by mixing 47% GSA, 47% lime and 6% cement

as binding material with 12.50% water by overall weight,
and by rotation of this mixture in a drum type pelletizer
machine. This machine is designed especially for making
artificial aggregate in pellets form.
Groundnut Shell is agricultural waste product produced

from oil mills and by burning this Ground nut shell (GS)
it gets converted in to Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) which
is the material with fully fused particles. After burning of
1 kg of ground nut shell, the ash quantity obtained is 145
gm. This ground nut shell ash powder is crushed by
machine. It is then sieved through 90 micron sieve. Due to
continuous usage of naturally available aggregate, within
a short length of time natural resources get depleted and it
will be left nothing for future generations. Hence there is
a necessity for artificially preparing both the normal and
artificial aggregate making use of waste materials from
agricultural products and industries. From the earlier
studies it appears that much less attention has been paid
towards the study using artificial coarse aggregates.
The GSA aggregate can be really brought under light

weight aggregate because the concrete made with this
aggregate will come under the category of light weight
aggregate concrete. Since the weight of such concrete will
be less than the weight of normal concrete.
Pelletizing Process The Pelletization process is used to
manufacture light weight Coarse aggregate. Some of the
parameters that need to be considered for the efficiency of
the production of pellets such as speed of revolution of
pelletizer disc, moisture content, angle of pelletizer disc
and duration of Pelletization (HariKrishnan and
RamaMurthy, 2006). Usually the different types of
pelletizer machines are used in practice to make the
pellets such as disc or pan type, drum type, cone type and
mixer type. With mixer type pelletizer small grains are
formed initially and are subsequently increased. In the
cold bonded method, increase of strength of pellets
In this investigation an attempt has been made to make

light weight concrete with light weight GSA aggregate as
coarse aggregate which is available as an agricultural
waste material. The loose densities of GSA aggregate
vary from 810 to 1013 kg/m3 and the compacted densities
are varying between 940 to 1075 kg/m3. GSA pellets are
15
depends on the increase of the lime and cement ratio by

weight. Moisture content and angle of drum parameter
influence the size growth of pellets. The dosage of
binding agent is more important for making the GSA
aggregate balls. Initially some percentage of water is
added in the binder and remaining water is sprayed during
the rotation Period because while rotating without water
in the drum the GSA aggregate and binders (Lime &
Cement) tends to form lumps and does not increase the
distribution of particle size. The pellets are formed
approximately in duration of 6 to 7 minutes. The cold
bonded pellets are hardened by normal water
cooling/curing method for 28 days. Plate 2 shows a view
of drum pelletizer used for pelletization.
% of the 28 day strength within 7 days. The strength

growth from 28 to 90 days is generally low and decreases
with increasing concrete strength level. This is assumed to
be a consequence of the strength limiting effect of the
light weight aggregate.
Curcio, F., Galeota, D., Gallo, A., Giammatteo, M. (8)
had shown that the Norwegian design code, NS 3473
(1998) reduces the tensile strength of Light weight
aggregate concrete compared with normal weight
concrete of the same compressive strength multiplying
with a factor (0.3 + 0.7 D/2400) if the tensile strength is
not determined by testing, where D is the density of the
concrete in kg/m. For the ratio between flexural and
splitting tensile strength of high performance Light
weight aggregate concrete, values of 1.5 to 1.6 have been
found.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
H.Bomhard (1) had reported that Structural light weight
aggregate concretes are considered as alternatives to
concretes made with dense natural aggregates because of
the relatively high strength to unit weight ratio that can be
achieved.
Alduaij et al. (9) studied light weight concrete using

different unit weight aggregate including light weight
crushed bricks, light weight expanded clay and normal
weight gravel without the use of natural fine aggregate
(no-fines concrete). They obtained a light weight concrete
with 22 MPa cylinder compressive strength and 1520
kg/m dry unit weight at 28 days.
F.W.Lydon (2) stated that for light weight aggregate

concrete, it is more relevant for mix design purpose to
relate strength to cement content.
Expermental Investigation An experimental study has

been conducted on concrete with partial replacement of
conventional coarse aggregate i.e., granite by light weight
aggregate i.e., GSA aggregate. The test program consists
of carrying out compressive tests on cubes, split tensile
tests on cylinders, modulus of elasticity tests on cylinders,
flexural strength on beam elements. Analysis of the
results has been done to investigate effect of GSA
aggregate on the compressive strength, split tensile
strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity
properties. Variations of various combinations have been
studied.
In Japan JASS (3) reported that, light weight concretes do

not specify any density values, and properties are only
provided for concrete made with light weight coarse and
fine aggregates.
FIP, 1983 (4) stated that in general the effect of using
super plasticizer in light weight aggregate concrete is
similar to that of using them in normal weight concrete. It
is possible that part of the fluid admixtures may be
absorbed by light weight aggregate, thus reducing their
action if the light weight aggregate is unsoaked. The
absorption of a part of the free water with the dissolved
additives will decrease the effectiveness of the latter.
DESCRIPTION OF CONSTITUENT MATERIALS

AND PROPERTIES USED IN THE
INVESTIGATION
According to Clarke, J.L (5) Tensile strength of concrete

is important when considering cracking. Light weight
aggregate concrete presents a flexural and tensile splitting
strength slightly inferior to that of normal weight concrete
of the same compressive strength.
The constituent materials are presented in plate 1.

Mix Design of Concrete The concrete mix has been
designed for M20 grade concrete using ISI method. The
mix proportion obtained is 1:1.55:3.04 with constant
water cement ratio 0.50.
Owens, P.L. (6) had stated that Light weight aggregate

concrete has been used for structural purposes since the
20th century. The Light weight aggregate concrete is a
material with low unit weight and often made with
spherical aggregates. The density of structural Light
weight aggregate concrete typically ranges from 1400 to
2000 kg/m compared with that of about 2400 kg/m for
normal weight aggregate concrete.
Mixing, Casting and Curing In this present

investigation it is aimed to study the different strength
variations by modifying the conventional concrete with
GSA aggregate. It is added to concrete in percentages of
0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100% by volume of concrete and
designated as mixes GSA-0, GSA-25, GSA-50, GSA-75
& GSA-100 respectively. Hence cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate, i.e., Granite and GSA aggregate in
required percentages are calculated and then mixed.
Thorenfeldt, E reported that (7) Light Weight Aggregate

Concrete has a faster hardening factor in the initial setting
phase than conventional concrete, normally reaching 80
16
An Experimental Investigation on Strength Properties of Artificial Light Weight Aggregate Concrete using Agricultural
Required quantity of water is added to this and mixed

thoroughly by hand mixing.
casted specimens are shown in plate 3. For all test

specimens, moulds were kept on the vibrating table and
the concrete was poured into the moulds in three layers
each layer being compacted thoroughly with tamping rod
to avoid honey combing. Finally all specimens were
vibrated on the table vibrator after filling up the moulds
up to the brim. The vibration was effected for 7 seconds
and it was maintained constant for all specimens and all
other castings.
Table 1: Properties of Materials
Sl.
No
1
Name of the
material
OPC 53 Grade
Fine Aggregate
passing 4.75mm
sieve
GSA Aggregate
passing
20 10 mm
Natural
Aggregate
passing
20 10 mm
Water
Properties of
Result
material
Specific Gravity
3.07
Initial setting
60 min
time
Final Setting
489
time
min
Fineness
4%
Normal
33.50
consistency
%
Specific Gravity
2.60
Fineness
3.24
modulus
Specific Gravity
1.43
Fineness
4.47
modulus
Bulk density
1075
compacted
Kg/m3
Specific Gravity
2.68
Fineness
3.37
modulus
Bulk density
1620
compacted
Kg/m3
Locally available potable
water which is free from
concentration of acids and
organic substances has
been used in this work.
Table 2: Details of Specimens
Replacement of
conventional coarse
aggregate by GSA
Aggregate
GSA-0
100
0
GSA-25
75
25
GSA-50
50
50
GSA-75
25
75
GSA-100
0
100
Total specimens
Name of
the Mix
No of specimens
cast
24
24
24
24
24
120
However the specimens were demolded after 24 hours of

casting and were kept immersed in a clean water tank for
curing. Curing pond as shown in plate 4. After 28 and 90
days of curing the specimens were taken out of water and
were allowed to dry under shade for few hours. For each
age of curing at least 3-specimens were cast for each
variable.
TESTING OF SPECIMENS
Plain Cube Specimens
The compression test on the plain cubes was conducted
on 3000 KN digital compression testing machine. This
test set up presented in plate 5 & 6. The specimens after
being removed from water were allowed to dry under
shade for 24 hours and white washed for easy
identification of minute cracks, while testing.
GSA aggregate is added to concrete in 5 different

volumetric fractions to prepare five different mixes which
are designated as follows: Super plasticizer was not used
due to use of pre wetted GSA aggregate.
To proceed with the experimental programmed initially
all the moulds of size 150x150x150 mm and cylinders of
size 150mm diameters and 300mm height were taken and
these moulds were cleaned and were brushed with
machine oil on all inner faces to facilitate easy removal of
specimens afterwards.
The plain cube specimens were placed in the compression

testing machine such that load was applied centrally. The
top plate of the testing machine was brought into contact
with the surface of the plain cube specimen to enable
loading. The cube test results are presented in table 3.
To start with, all the materials were weighed in the ratio

1:1.55:3.04. First fine aggregate and cement were added
and mixed thoroughly and then granite coarse aggregate
and partially replaced pre wetted GSA aggregate was
mixed in required volume and proportion. All of these
were mixed thoroughly by hand mixing.
Split Tensile Strength Test on Cylinders

The cylindrical specimen was kept horizontally between
the compressive plates of the testing machine. The load
was applied uniformly until the cylinder fails, the loads
related to ultimate load are recorded. This test was
conducted for cylinders with different GSA aggregate
additions. This setup is presented in plate 7 & 8.
The split tensile strength was calculated by the standard
formula.
Each time 3 plain cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150mm, 3

flexure beams of size 500 x 100 x 100mm and 6 cylinders
of size 150mm diameter, 300mm height were cast. The
17
Split tensile strength ( ft) =
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
Where P = Maximum load in Newton
Influence of GSA Aggregate on Cube Compressive

Strength
D = Diameter of the cylinder in mm
In the present study, GSA aggregate has been added in the

volumetric percentages of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%
replacing the natural conventional granite aggregate. The
corresponding cube compressive strengths at 28 days and
90 days are presented in table 3. The variation of
compressive strengths and percentage of increase or
decrease verses percentage of GSA aggregate addition are
shown in fig 1 for 28 days and 90 days. From the above
figs, it may be observed that with the addition of GSA
aggregate the cube compressive strength decreases
continuously up to 100% replacement of Granite by GSA
aggregate, but more than the target mean strength of M20
concrete has been achieved even when the natural granite
aggregate is replaced with 50% of GSA aggregate as
tabulated in table 3 for 90 days curing period and the
design strength of M20 concrete is achieved when replaced
with 25% of GSA aggregate as tabulated in table 3 for 28
days. In addition for GSA-100 mix, the design strength of
M20 concrete is achieved at 90 days. At 28 days up to
GSA 75 mix for all mixes design strength is achieved.
L = Length of the cylinder in mm

The results are presented in table 4.
Compression Test on Cylinder Specimens to Find E
Value
An attempt was made to find out the modulus of elasticity
has been done in this investigation for this, various GSA
concrete mixes studied.
The compression was effected by the 3000 KN automatic
compression testing machine with 0.5KN/sec rate of
loading. An automatic digital compressive testing
machine gives the compression test results of the cylinder
while loading. The results of modulus of elasticity are
furnished in table 6. The test setup is shown in plate
11 & 12.
Testing of Beams for Flexural Strength
Influence of GSA Aggregate on Split Tensile Strength

on Cylinder Specimens
The loading arrangement to test the specimens for flexure

is as follows. The element was simply supported over the
span of 500mm. The specimen is checked for its
alignment longitudinally and adjusted if necessary.
Required packing is given using rubber packing. Care is
taken to ensure that two loading points at the same level.
The loading is applied on the specimen using 15 ton
precalibrated proving ring at regular intervals. The load is
transmitted to the element through the I- section and two
16mm diameter rods are placed at 166.67mm from each
support. For each increment of loading the deflection at
the centre and at 1/3rd points of beam are recorded using
dial gauge. Continuous observations are made. Before the
ultimate stage the deflection meters are removed and the
process of load application is continued. As the load was
increased the cracks are widened and extended to top and
finally the specimen collapsed in flexure. At this stage the
load is recorded as the ultimate load. Making use of the
above data flexural strength has been calculated using the
following formula.
With increase in percentage of replacement of granite by

GSA aggregate, the percentage of decrease of split tensile
strength is found to increase continuously up to 100% as
shown in fig 2 for 28 days and for 90 days. These are
presented in table 4 for 28 days and for 90 days.
Influence of GSA Aggregate on Density
The variation of density and percentage of increase or
decrease in density verses percentage of GSA aggregate
added in fig 3 for 28 days and for 90 days. The results are
presented in table 5. From the above figs and tables, it
may be observed that with the addition of GSA Aggregate
the density of the specimens decreases continuously up to
100% replacement of Granite by GSA Aggregate. Also
the density increases with the increase of the age.
Influence of GSA Aggregate on Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity results with various percentages
replacements of natural aggregate by GSA Aggregate are
presented in table 6 for 28 days and 90 days respectively.
From the results it is observed that modulus of elasticity
has been decreasing with an increase in replacement of
natural granite aggregate by GSA Aggregate. It is also
observed that the modulus of elasticity are in satisfactory
agreement with those calculated using as per IS code,
Empirical formula. Fig 4 shows the variation of E value
versus percentage of GSA for 28 days and 90 days. It also
shows that E value increases with the age i.e. from 28 to
90 days
Flexural strength (f) = in N/mm2

Where M = Bending moment in N.mm
Z = = Section modulus in mm3
The results have been tabulated and graphical variations
have been studied. The test set up is shown in plate 9 &
10 and the results are tabulated in table 9.
18
Table 3: Comparision of Cube Compressive Strength Results for 28 Days and 90 Days Curing Periods
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Compressive strength
(N/mm2)
Percentage replacement of
coarse aggregate
Name of
the mix
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
Natural
aggregate
100
75
50
25
0
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
0
25
50
75
100
Percentage of increase or
decrease in compressive
strength w.r.t GSA-0
28 Days
90 Days
28 Days
90 Days
41.08
25.53
24.80
21.62
18.43
47.39
35.02
26.93
23.85
20.76
0.00
-37.85
-39.63
-47.37
-55.14
0.00
-26.10
-43.17
-49.67
-56.19
Table 4: Comparision of Split Tensile Strength Results for 28 Days and 90 Days Curing Periods
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Split tensile strength

(N/mm2)
coarse aggregate
Name of
the mix
Natural
aggregate
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
100
75
50
25
0
Pelletized
GSA
aggregate
0
25
50
75
100
decrease in Split tensile
strength w.r.t GSA-0
28 Days
90 Days
28 Days
90 Days
3.58
2.81
2.42
2.26
1.37
4.00
2.89
2.62
2.37
1.94
0.00
-21.51
-32.40
-36.87
-61.73
0.00
-27.75
-34.50
-40.75
-51.50
Table 5: Comparision of Density Results for 28 Days and 90 Days Curing Periods
Sl.
No
Name of
the mix
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
Density
(Kg/m3)
coarse aggregate
Natural
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
aggregate
100
0
75
25
50
50
25
75
0
100
decrease in density w.r.t GSA-0
28 Days
90 Days
28 Days
90 Days
2279
2103
2012
1932
1808
2452
2303
2202
2050
1881
0.00
-7.73
-11.71
-15.26
-20.64
0.00
-6.08
-10.20
-16.39
-23.29
Table 6: Comparision of Youngs Modulus Results for 28 Days and 90 Days Curing Periods
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of
the mix
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
Youngs modulus
(N/mm2)
coarse aggregate
Natural
aggregate
100
75
50
25
0
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
0
25
50
75
100
19
decrease in youngs modulus
w.r.t GSA-0
28 Days
90 Days
28 Days
90 Days
3.20*104
2.53*104
2.49*104
2.32*104
2.15*104
3.44*104
2.96*104
2.60*104
2.44*104
2.28*104
0.00
-20.94
-22.19
-27.50
-32.81
0.00
-13.95
-24.41
-29.06
-33.72
Table 7: Ratio of Cilinder Compressive Strength to Cube Compressive Strength Results for 28 Days Curing Period
Sl.
No
Name of the
mix
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
(N/mm2)
Percentage replacement of coarse

aggregate
Natural
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
aggregate
100
0
75
25
50
50
25
75
0
100
Cube
Cylinder
Ratio of cylinder
to cube
compressive
strength
41.08
25.53
24.80
21.62
18.43
28.01
12.60
12.34
11.45
9.53
0.68
0.49
0.50
0.53
0.52
Table 8: Ratio of Cilinder Compressive Strength to Cube Compressive Strength Results for 90 Days Curing Period
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of the
mix
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
(N/mm2)
Percentage replacement of coarse

aggregate
Natural
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
aggregate
100
0
75
25
50
50
25
75
0
100
Cube
Cylinder
Ratio of cylinder
to cube
compressive
strength
47.39
35.02
26.93
23.85
20.76
28.04
18.73
17.07
16.81
12.77
0.59
0.53
0.63
0.70
0.62
Table 9: Comparision of Flexural Strength Results for 28 Days and 90 Days Curing Periods
Sl.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of
the mix
GSA-0
GSA-25
GSA-50
GSA-75
GSA-100
Flexural strength
(N/mm2)
coarse aggregate
Natural
aggregate
100
75
50
25
0
Pelletized GSA
aggregate
0
25
50
75
100
decrease in flexural strength
w.r.t GSA-0
28 Days
90 Days
28 Days
90 Days
4.49
3.54
3.48
3.25
3.01
4.81
4.14
3.63
3.63
3.41
0.00
-21.16
-22.49
-27.62
-32.96
0.00
-13.93
-24.53
-24.53
-29.11
formula 0.70
. These values are presented in the
table 9 and the graphical representation is shown in fig 5.
Both results are found to be in satisfactory agreement
with each other.
Influence of GSA Aggregate on Flexural Strength on

Beams
Concrete as we know is relatively strong in compression
and weak in tension. In reinforced concrete members,
little dependence is placed on the tensile strength of
concrete since steel reinforcing bars are provided to resist
all tensile forces. However; tensile stresses are likely to
develop in concrete due to drying shrinkage, rusting of
steel reinforcement, temperature gradients and many other
reasons. Therefore, the knowledge of tensile strength of
concrete is of importance. Flexural strength of beams of
size 500 x 100 x 100mm with various percentage
replacements of natural aggregate by GSA aggregate are
presented in the table 9 for 28 days and 90 days. From the
results it is observed that flexural strength of beams has
been decreasing with an increase in replacement of
natural granite aggregate with GSA aggregate. In addition
flexural strength of beams is calculated based on the
Plate 1: Constituent materials
20
Plate 6: Test set up of cube compressive strength

(After Testing)
Plate 2: Drum pelletizer
Plate 7: Test set up of split tensile strength (before testing)

Plate 3: Specimens after moulding in green state
Plate 8: Test set up of split tensile strength (after testing)
Plate 4: Spcimens curing pond
Plate 9: Test set up of flexural strength (before testing)
Plate 5: Test set up of cube compressive strength

(before testing)
21
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
2
y-axis 1 Unit = 1 N/mm
Split tensile strength in N/mm
Plate 10: Test set up of flexural strength (after testing)
25
50
75
100
Percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate replacing natural aggregate
Fig. 2: Superimposed variation between split tensile strength

and percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate replacing
natural aggregate
2500
Density Kg/m
2000
Plate 11: Test set up of cylinder compressive strength

(before testing)
1500
1000
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
3
y-axis 1 Unit = 100 Kg/m
500
0
0
25
50
75
100
Fig. 3: Superimposed variation between density and

percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate replacing natural
aggregate
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
4
2
y-axis 1 Unit = 0.50x10 N/mm
4.0
Young's Modulus in N/mm
3.5
Plate 12: Test set up of cylinder compressive strength

(after testing)
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
2
y-axis 1 Unit = 5 N/mm
50
Cube compressive strength in N/mm
45
40
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
35
30
0.0
25
25
50
75
100
20
15
10
Fig. 4: Superimposed variation between youngs modulus

and percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate replacing
natural aggregate
5
0
0
25
50
75
100
Fig. 1: Superimposed variation between cube compressive

strength and percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate
replacing natural aggregate
22
3) From the study it may be concluded that the youngs

modulus has been observed to decrease continuously
with the increase in percentage of GSA Aggregate i.e.,
from 0 to 100% replacement of Granite aggregate by
GSA Aggregate.
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
2
y-axis 1 Unit = 0.5 N/mm
5.0
4.5
Flexural strength in N/mm
4.0
3.5
4) From the study it may be concluded that the density

has been observed to decrease continuously with the
increase in percentage of GSA Aggregate i.e., from 0
to 100% replacement of Granite aggregate by GSA
Aggregate.
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
5) The modulus of elasticity values calculated from

experimentation and theoretical formulae are found to
be more or less in satisfactory agreement.
0.0
0
25
50
75
100
6) The flexural strength is found to decrease

continuously with the percentage increase in GSA
aggregate content. The flexural strength values
calculated through experimentation and calculated
through empherical formula are more or less in
satisfactory agreement.
Fig. 5: Superimposed variation between flexural and

percentage of pelletized GSA aggregate replacing natural
aggregate
Ratio of Cylinder strength to Cube strength
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
REFERENCES
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
28 Days
90 Days
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
y-axis 1 Unit = 0.05
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
[1]
H. Bombard, Light weight concrete structures,

potentialities, limits and realities, The Concrete Society,
The Construction Press, Lancaster, UK, 1980, pp. 227
290.
[2]
F.W. Lydon, Concrete Mix Design, 2nd ed., Applied

Science, London, 1982.
[3]
JASS 5 (Revised 1979): Japanese Architectural Standard

for Reinforced Concrete, Architectural Institute of Japan,
Tokyo, 1982 (March).
[4]
FIP. Manual of Light Weight Aggregate Concrete, 2nd.

Edition, 1983.
[5]
Clarke, J.L. Design Requirements. Structural Light weight

Aggregate Concrete, Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 45-74,
1993.
[6]
Owens, P.L. (1993). Light weight aggregates for

structural concrete, Structural Light weight Aggregate
Concrete, Chapman & Hall, London, pp.1-18.
[7]
Thorenfeldt, E., Design Criteria of Light weight Aggregate

Concrete. CEB/FIP International Symposium on Structural
Light weight Aggregate Concrete, Sand fjord, Norway, pp.
720- 732, 1995.
[8]
Curcio, F., Galeota, D., Gallo, A., Giammatteo, M. Highperformance Light weight concrete for the Precast
Prestressed Concrete Industry. Proc.4th. Int.CANMET/
ACI/JCI Symposium, Japan, pp. 389-406, 1998
[9]
Alduaij, K. Alshaleh, M.N. Haque, K. Ellaithy,

Lightweight concrete in hot coastal areas, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 21 (5 6) (1999) 453458.
0.00
0
25
50
75
100
Fig. 6: Superimposed Variation Between Ratio of Cylinder

Strength to Cube Strength and Percentage of Pelletized GSA
Aggregate Replacing Natural Aggregate
CONCLUSIONS
From the limited experimental study carried out in this
investigation the following conclusions are seem to be
valid.
1) From the study it may be concluded that the cube
compressive strength has been observed to decrease
continuously with the increase in percentage of GSA
Aggregate i.e., from 0 to 100% replacement of Granite
aggregate by GSA Aggregate.
2) From the study it may be concluded that the split
strength has been observed to decrease continuously
with the increase in percent age of GSA Aggregate
i.e., from 0 to 100% replacement of Granite aggregate
by GSA Aggregate.
23


Nilesh Sawakare1, Hemant S. Chore2, Prasad A. Dode3 and R.M. Fuke4
1
P.G. Student, 2Prof. and Head, 3Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering/Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Airoli, Navimumbai
Email: 1sawinls@gmail.com, 2chorehs@gmail.com, 3padode@rediffmail.com
4
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Akola (Maharashtra).
ABSTRACT
Shear wall is one of the most commonly used lateral load resisting in high rise building. Shear wall has high in
plane stiffness and strength which can be used to simultaneously resist large horizontal load and support gravity
load. In the seismic design of buildings, reinforced concrete structural walls, or shear walls, act as major
earthquake resisting members. Structural walls provide an efficient bracing system and offer great potential for
lateral load resistance. In this present study, main focus is to determine the solution for shear wall location in
multi-storey building.
The residential medium rise building is analyzed for earthquake force by considering two type of structural
system. i.e. Frame system and Dual system. Effectiveness of shear wall has been studied with the help of Four
different models. Four different types of Model is used one is bare frame structural system and other three
models are dual type structural system. Analysis is carried out by using standard package ETABS. The
comparison of these models for different parameters like Story Shear, Story Displacement and Storey Drift has
been presented by replacing column with shear wall.
Keywords Lateral displacement, Shear force, Storey drift, Storey shear, Shear wall, Time period.
these place and displacement is quite heavy. Shear walls
are usually used in tall building to avoid collapse of
buildings. When shear wall are situated in advantageous
positions in the building, they can form an efficient lateral
force resisting system. In this present paper one model for
bare frame type residential building and six models for
dual type structural system are generated with the help of
ETABS and effectiveness has been check.
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete shear walls are used in building to
resist lateral force due to wind and earthquakes. They are
usually provided between column lines, in stair wells, lift
wells, in shafts that house other utilities. Shear wall
provide lateral load resisting by transferring the wind or
earthquake load to foundation. Besides, they impart
lateral stiffness to the system and also carry gravity loads.
Shear wall are one of the excellent means of providing
earthquake resistance to multi storied reinforced concrete
building. The structure is still damaged due to some or the
other reason during earthquakes. Behavior of structure
during earthquake motion depends on distribution of
weight, stiffness and strength in both horizontal and
planes of building. To reduce the effect of earthquake
reinforced concrete shear walls are used in the building.
These can be used for improving seismic response of
buildings. Structural design of buildings for seismic
loading is primarily concerned with structural safety
during major Earthquakes, in tall buildings, it is very
important to ensure adequate lateral stiffness to resist
lateral load.
BUILDING DESCRIPTION
A building is assumed for seismic analysis that consists of
a G+12 R.C.C. Residential building. The plan of the
building is regular in nature as it has all columns at equal
spacing. The building is located in Seismic Zone III and is
assume on hard type soil. The building is 39.0 m in height
30.0 m in length and 20m in width. The important
features of this building are shown in Table 1.
MODEL & ANALYSIS
Building is modeled using stander package ETAB. Beams
and columns are modeled as two noded beam elements
with six DOF at each node. Shear wall are modeled using
shell element. Equivalent static analysis or linear static
analysis is performed on models. Based on analysis result
parameters such as storey shear, story displacement
for each model. Following the model have been
considered.
The provision of shear wall in building to achieve rigidity

has been found effective and economical. When buildings
are tall, beam, column sizes are quite heavy and steel
required is large. So there is lot of congestion at these
joint and it is difficult to place and vibrate concrete at
24

Table 1: Salient features of the building
1.
Type of Structure
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
Zone
Layout
Number of stories
Ground storey
height
Floor-to-floor
height
External walls
8.
Internal walls
9.
10.
11.
12.
Live load
Materials
Seismic analysis
Design Philosophy
6.
13.
Size of exterior
column
Size of interior
column
Size of beams in
longitudinal and
transverse direction
Total thickness of
slab
14.
15.
16.
Multi-storey pin jointed

frame
III
As shown in Figure no 1
13 (G + 12)
3.0m
Fig. 2: MODEL 2 (Frame supported by 2Bay shear wall).
3.0 m
250 mm thick including
plaster
plaster
3.0 kN/m2
M 30 and Fe 500
Equivalent static method
Limit state method
conforming to IS 456 :
2000
400 x 400 mm
Fig. 3: MODEL 3
(Frame supported by L-Type shear wall at all corner side.)
400 x 400 mm
230 x 600 mm
125 mm
Fig. 4: MODEL 4
(Frame supported on central core shear wall.)
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Storey Shear
The variations of base shear in X and Y direction with
different models considered in the study is illustrated in
Figure 8 and Figure 9. From the afore-mentioned figures,
it is found that the base shear is on higher side in respect
of model 2 as compared to the other cases.
Fig. 1: MODEL 1 (Bare frame without shear wall).
: Bare frame without shear wall.
BASE SHEAR (KN)
Model I
BASE SHEAR IN X DIRECTION

6100
Model II : Frame supported by 2Bay shear wall.

Model III : Frame supported by L-Type shear wall at all
corner side.
Model IV : Frame supported on central core shear wall.
6000
5900
BASE SHEAR IN
X DIRECTION
5800
5700
5600
5500
5400
0
MODEL NUMBER
Fig. 8: Base shear in X- direction
25
increase in number of storeys. However, such trend is not

acceptable. Further, in respect of other models, the storey
drift is found to increase with number of storeys. The
storey drift as found in other models is well within the
limit as imposed by IS.
BASE SHEAR IN Y DIRECTION
BASE SHEAR (KN)
4950
4900
4850
4800
4750
4700
4650
4600
4550
4500
BASE SHEAR IN
Y DIRECTION
STOREY DRIFT IN X DIRECTION

0
0.014
MODEL NUMBER
0.012
MODEL 1
0.01
DRIFT
Fig. 9: Base shear in Y- direction.
Storey Displacement
MODEL 2
0.008
MODEL 3
0.006
MODEL 4
0.004
The displacement in X and Y direction, graphical

representation is shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11
0.002
0
0
200
DISPLACEMENT IN MM
180
10
11
12
13
NO. OF FLOOR
MODEL 1
MODEL 2
MODEL 3
MODEL 4
LATERAL DISPLACEMENT IN X DIRECTION
Fig. 12: Storey Drift in X direction
160
140
STOREY DRIFT IN Y DIRECTION
120
100
0.012
80
60
MODEL 1
0.01
40
MODEL 2
DRIFT
20
0
0
10
11
12
13
NO. OF FLOOR
0.008
MODEL 3
0.006
MODEL 4
0.004
0.002
Fig. 10: Lateral displacement in X- direction
0
0
LATERAL DISPLACEMENT IN Y DIRECTION
MODEL 1
10
11
12
13
NO. OF FLOOR
MODEL 2
DISPLACEMENT IN MM
MODEL 3
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 11: Storey Drift in Y direction
MODEL 4
CONCLUSION
10
11
12
The behaviors of multistoried building with & without

shear wall have been studied in present paper. In this
present paper we got the results from analysis of model
for case1 (model 1) its shows the more lateral
displacement also base shear this case does not governs
the case as per IS code 1893(part1) 2002. From fig. 8 & 9
shows base shear is more in X & Y direction as compared
other cases. Graphical representation shown the exact
result of analysis from we conclude that case 2 (Model 2)
governs the as per codal requirement.
13
NO. OF FLOOR
Fig. 11: Lateral displacement in Y direction
From the graphical representation thereof as shown in

Fig. 10-11, it is found that the building model 2 is stiffer
than the other models. Limit of lateral storey
displacement as per IS code 1893(part 1) 2002 is H/500.
From above results it is clear that shear wall frame

interaction systems are very effective in resisting lateral
forces induced by earthquake. Placing shear wall away
from center of gravity resulted in increase in the most of
the members forces. It follows that shear walls should be
coinciding with the centroid of the building. For
residential building shear walls can be used as a primary
vertical load carrying element, thus serving the load and
dividing space. Also observed that Changing the position
of shear wall will affect the attraction of forces, so that
Storey Displacement
The storey drift in X and Y direction, the graphical
representation is shown in Fig. 12 and 13.
From the storey drift in X and Y direction for seven
different cases, it is seen that the model 1 is shows the
higher storey drift [more than 1/250 as stipulated in IS:
1893-2002(Part-I)] at bottom and further, decreases with
26
wall must be in proper position, If the dimensions of shear

wall are large then major amount of horizontal forces are
taken by shear wall & Providing shear walls at adequate
locations substantially reduces the displacements due to
earthquake.
[9]
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[10]
IS 1893,2002,Indian standard Criteria for Earthquake

Resistant design of structures(Fifth Revision),Indian
Standard Institute, New Delhi.
Aoyama, H., Design of Modern High Rise Reinforced
Concrete Structures, Imperial College Press, London, UK,
2001.
Agarwal P., and Shrikhande, M., Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures, Prentice hall of India Private
Limited., September-2006.
Ashraf, M., Siddiqi, Z.A. and Javed M.A., Configuration
Of A Multistorey Building Subjected to Lateral Forces,
Asian Journal Of Civil Engineering (Building And
Housing) Vol. 9, No. 5, Pages 525-537, 2008.
Cruz, E. F., and Cominetti, S., Three-Dimensional
Buildings Subjected to Bi-Directional Earthquakes.
Validity Of Analysis Considering Unidirectional
Earthquakes, Proceedings of 12 WCEE, 12th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering., 2000.
Dowrick, D.J., Earthquake Resistant Design for Engineers
and Architects, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY,USA, 1987.
Elnashai, A. S., and Sarno, L. D., Structural
Configurations and Systems for Effective Earthquake
Resistance, Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering,
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
27
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-02483-6, 2008.

Guney, D., and Kuru u, A. O., Optimization of the
configuration of infill walls in order to increase seismic
resistance of building structures, International Journal of
the Physical Sciences Vol. 6(4), pp. 698-706, 18 February,
2011.
Haque, S., Amanat, K.M., Seismic Vulnerability of
Columns of RC Framed Buildings with Soft Ground
Floor, International Journal of Mathematical Models and
Methods in Applied Sciences, Issue 3, Volume 2, 2008.
Haque, S., Amanat, K.M., Strength and drift demand of
columns of RC framed buildings with soft ground story,
Journal of Civil Engineering (IEB), 37 (2), 2009, pp 99110
Lucchini, A., Monti, G., and Kunnath, S.,Nonlinear
Response of Two-Way asymmetric Single-Story Building
under Biaxial Excitation, Journal Of Structural
Engineering, Asc, January 2011.
Laogan, B.T. and Elnashai, A.S., Structural performance
and economics of tall high strength RC buildings in
seismic regions. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings,
8 (3), 1999, pp. 171 204.
Piazza, M., and Baldessari, C., and Tomasi, R., The Role
Of In-Plane Floor Stiffness In The Seismic Behaviour Of
Traditional Buildings, The 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China, October12-17,
2008,
Stefano, M.D., and Pintucchi, B., A Model for Analyzing
Inelastic Seismic Response of Plan-Irregular Building
Structures, 15th ASCE engineering mechanics
conference, Columbia university, New York, NY, June 25, 2002.

Triple Blended High Strength Concrete Mixes-Studies on Compressive

and Impact Strengths
D. Jayasree1, M. Bhasker2 and B.L.P. Swami3
1
Assistant Professor, 2Associate Professor, 3Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
The requirement of cement has increased due to more development in the infrastructure and hence, there is a
need to use other materials than cement without changing the properties of concrete. Thus blending the concrete
with other material is called supplementary material. The blended cement will produce stronger and more
durable concrete than ordinary Portland cement concrete. Silica fume is also referred to as micro silica or
condensed silica fume (CSF). Silica fume is a by-produce from electric arc furnaces used in the manufacture of
silicon metal of silicon alloys. The addition of ultra fine particles in concrete improves strength of concrete. The
optimum proportion of silica fume is found in between 4% to 15% by weight of cement. Fly ash is very useful in
the preparation of blended cements. It is abundantly available as a waste by-product from various Thermal
Power Stations. The project aims at finding the optimum replacement of cement by fly ash and condensed silica
fume from which maximum benefits in various strengths and workability of mix can be obtained.
Keywords Pozzolonas, Triple Blending, Impact, Drop Hammer, Correlation.
INTRODUCTION
Admixtures
Concrete Making
Admixture is defined as a material, other than cement,

water and aggregates that is used as an ingredient of
concrete and is added to the batch immediately before or
during mixing. These days concrete is being used for wide
varieties of purposes to make it suitable in different
conditions. In such cases, admixture is used to modify the
properties of ordinary concrete so as to make it suitable
for any situation.
Cement concrete is one of the seemingly simple but

actually complex materials. The properties of concrete
mainly depend on the constituents used in concrete
making. The main important materials used in making
concrete are cement, sand, crushed stone and water.
Eventhough the manufacturer guarantees the quality of
cement, it is difficult to produce a fault proof concrete. It
is because of the fact that the building material is concrete
and not only cement. The properties of sand, crushed
stone and water, if not used as specified, cause
considerable trouble in concrete. In addition to these,
workmanship, quality control and methods of placing also
play leading role on the properties of concrete.
Pozzolonas are either naturally occurring or available as

waste materials. In developing countries like India,
pozzolonic materials are mainly available as industrial
waste by-products. Fly ash, silica fume, stone dust, blast
furnace slag, rice husk ash, etc., are some of the industrial
wastes which possess pozzolonaic properties. The
reactivity varies depending upon the type of pozzolona,
its chemical composition and its fineness.
High Strength Concrete

The primary difference between high strength concrete
and normal strength concrete relates to the compressive
strength that refers to the maximum resistance of concrete
sample to applied pressure. Although there is no precise
point of separation between high strength concrete and
normal strength concrete, the American Concrete Institute
(ACI) defines high strength concrete as concrete with a
compressive strength greater than 40 MPa. Concrete of
very high strength entered the field of construction of
high rise buildings and long span bridges. In India, there
are cases of using high strength concrete for prestressed
concrete bridges.
Extensive research work has been carried on the use of

pozzolonas in constructions materials. Out of the above
pozzolona admixtures fly ash and condensed silica fume
are used to derive certain desirable and enhanced
properties compared to ordinary concrete. Several
researchers have worked on the use of the above
pozzolonic admixtures as replacement or addition to
cement in preparing concrete mixes. The beneficial
properties which result in concrete by the use of
pozzolonas were highlighted by them.
28
Details of the Present Experimental Study
Mixing, Casting and Curing
In the present experimental investigation, OPC is blended

with fly ash and CSF in various percentages as
replacement. The triple blended concrete mixes of M60
and M80 grades are tested for compressive and impact
strengths. A correlation between the two is attempted.
All the mixes were prepared by using a pan mixer.

Required number of cube specimens were cast using the
cube moulds of size 100mm x 100mm x 100mm. For
impact test, cylinder specimens of size 152mm diameter
and 63.5mm thickness were cast (Fig.1). Sufficient
compaction was given by vibration. The specimens cast
were allowed 24 hrs air dying after which demoulding
was carried out and the specimens were transferred and
immersed in water in a curing tank. After the age of 28
days, the specimens were taken out dried and tested.
Required number of specimens were prepared for all
combinations considered in the investigation. Mixing,
casting and curing were carried out as per the standard
specifications.
EXPERIMENTATION
The following are the details of the experimental
investigation carried out.
Materials
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 53 grade (M/s.
Ultratech Ltd.), locally available river sand and crushed
granite metal (20mm nominal size) are selected as the
basic materials of concrete. All the materials were tested
and found to satisfy the relevant I.S. specifications.
Testing
Workability Test
Workability of all the mixes of different combinations
was determined using compacting factor apparatus. The
workability of all the mixes was maintained at almost
medium level (C.F=0.85 to 0.90) by adding the
superplasticizer in required amongst not exceeding 2
percent.
Fly Ash and Condensed Silica Fume (CSF)

The mineral admixture fly ash was obtained from
Ramagundam Power Station of A.P. and CSF was
obtained from M/s. V.B. Ferro Alloys Ltd., Rudraram
near Hyderabad.
Compressive Strength
Cube specimens were tested at the age of 28 days for
compressive
strength,
following
the
standard
specifications and using a standard compression testing
machine. The compressive strength of the respective
specimens was determined.
Superplasticizer
Complast 430of M/s. Fosrock (India) Ltd., is employed as
the chemical admixture to maintain the workability level.
Water
Potable water was used for concrete mixing.
Impact Strength by the Drop Hammer Test

The impact strength of the specimens at the age of 28
days for different combinations was determined by
conducting the drop hammer test (Fig.2) as per ACI 5442R-89 specifications.
High Strength Concrete Mixes

In the present investigation high strength concrete mixes
of M60 and M80 were designed by the D.O.E. method.
The British code has adopted this method for concrete
mix design. The proportions obtained are given in table-1.
Repeated impact, drop-weight test (Fig.2), yields the

number of blows necessary to cause prescribed levels of
distress in the test specimen. This number serves as a
qualitative estimate of the energy absorbed by the
specimen at the levels of distress specified. It can be
adopted to show the relative impact resistance of different
material thicknesses.
Table 1: Concrete Mix Proportions by Weight
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
Mix
Grade
M60
M80
Fine
Course
Water/
Aggregate Aggregate Cement
1.00
1.07
1.75
0.33
1.00
0.98
1.60
0.38
OPC
In the case of high strength concrete mixes, specimens do

not break even after giving 50 or 100 blows with drop
hammer. It requires several blows (few hundreds) to
break the specimens which is too laborious and time
consuming. Hence, the cylinder specimens were given
limited number of blows like 50 and 100 after which they
were again tested for compression in the compression
testing machine. This gives an idea about the influence of
impact on the compressive strength of concrete and this
results in a kind of rough correlation.
Triple Blended Cement Concrete Mixes

Fly ash and CSF were simultaneously used as
replacements to OPC. Four percentages of fly ash 0, 20,
30, 40 and four percentages of CSF 0, 5, 10 and 15 were
tried as replacements to OPC in various combinations of
triple blended concrete mixes. In all 16 combinations of
triple blended concrete mixes are tried in the present
investigation.
29
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
strength but this does not come under triple blending.

When both the admixtures are present it can be seen that
20% fly ash with 15% CSF gives the optimum and
marginally higher compressive strength is generated.
Even 30% fly ash and 10% to 15% CSF are good enough
to give marginally higher compressive strengths. The
optimum percentages of the mineral admixtures are 30%
to 40% of fly ash and 10% to 15% of CSF for impact
strength.
Tables and Graphs

Cube compression results are shown in tables 2 and 3 for
different combinations of M60 and M80 mixes at the age
of 28 days. Compressive strength results of cylinder
specimens after conducting the impact are shown in
table.4 for typical M60 mix at the age of 28 days. Figs. 3
and 4 show the variation of compressive strength for
various combinations of typical M60 mix after giving
impact blows of 50 and 100 respectively.
Advantages of Triple Blended Concrete Mixes

In the present experimental investigation, high strength
concrete mixes like M60 and M80 have been studied with
triple blending of cement using mineral admixtures CSF
and fly ash. It has been discussed and stated that triple
blending is contributing toward strength increase in
compression as well as impact. Triple blending also helps
in enhancing the durability properties which include acid
resistance, water tightness etc. Economical concrete
mixes can be produced because the mineral admixtures
are available as industrial waste products.
The results are discussed herein.

Influence of Flyash on the Strength Properties
It is found that as fly ash% is increased the strength is
getting decreased. Hence, it is clear that cement
replacement by flyash should be limited to certain
percentage which is not more than 40%. To compensate
the loss of strength CSF is also employed in the triple
blended mixes. However it can be stated that fly ash does
not affect the impact strength.
Applications of Concrete Mixes with Triple Blending
Influence of CSF on the Strength Properties
Triple blended high concrete mixes could serve as high

performance concrete in applications like rigid pavements
heavy floors, bridge decks etc. Triple blended concrete
mixes are very useful because of their higher compressive
and impact strengths.
CSF contributes in increasing the strength of concrete

upto an optimum percentage of replacement of 15%. This
increase occurs under both compressive and impact
strengths. In triple blending along with CSF other mineral
admixture like fly ash is also used. At higher fly ash %
the strength gets reduced. This is compensated by the
presence of CSF to a certain extent.
Table 2: Cube Compressive Strength Results for M60

at 28 days
Correlation between Compression and Impact

From the table.4 for M60 mix the strength of reference
mix at 28 days is 63.21 N/mm2. With 15% of CSF and 0%
fly ash the highest compressive strength reached is 66.24
N/mm2. This value becomes 51.65 N/mm2 and 47.80
N/mm2 after 50 and 100 blows respectively, correlating
the compressive and impact strength, it can be seen that
for the reference mix, there is a reduction of nearly 40%
in compressive strength after 50 blows. After 100 blows
this reduction is nearly 50%. For the mix with 5% CSF
and 0% fly ash the reductions are 20% and 25% after 50
and 100 blows respectively. Other mixes, with 40% fly
ash and 15% CSF the reduction in compressive strength is
least. The reductions are 5% and 20% nearly after 50 and
100 blows respectively. It can be seen that the presence of
mineral admixtures like fly ash and CSF even at higher
percentages contribute towards more impact strength in
the long run.
Optimum Dosage of Mineral Admixtures in Triple
Blending
From the results of compressive strength, it can be seen
that 15% CSF with 0% fly ash gives max. compressive
30
Mix
Notation
% of
fly
ash
% of
CSF
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
P16
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
Avg.
Compressive
Strength
N/mm2
63.21
63.86
64.93
66.24
61.80
63.45
64.12
65.68
60.81
62.65
63.94
64.53
54.13
57.31
58.24
58.61
% Increase in
compressive
strength over
0%
1.02
2.72
4.79
-2.23
0.37
1.43
3.90
-3.79
-0.88
1.15
2.08
-14.36
-9.33
-7.86
-7.27
Table 3: Cube Compressive Strength Results for M80
at 28 days
Mix
Notation
% of
fly
ash
% of
CSF
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M11
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
0
0
0
0
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
Avg.
Compressive
Strength
N/mm
71.06
71.72
73.07
75.90
64.64
66.71
67.02
68.14
58.54
59.65
61.66
62.50
53.21
54.40
55.16
56.40
% Increase in
compressive
strength over
0%
0.93
2.82
6.81
-9.03
-6.21
-5.68
-4.10
-17.61
-16.05
-13.22
-12.04
-25.11
-23.44
-22.37
-20.63
Fig. 1: Specimens for Impact Strength
Table 4: Results of Compressive Strength of Cylinder

Specimens after Impact at the age of 28 days
Fig. 2: Impact Strength Test by Drop Hammer
Compressive % Increase in
Strength after
Impact
Strength over
Mix
% of % of Impact with
initial
0%
Notation fly ash CSF
50
100
50
100
blows blows blows blows
P1
0
0
37.28
34.0
P2
0
5
39.80 38.30
6.75 12.64
P3
0
10
47.42 40.22 27.19 18.29
P4
0
15
51.65 47.80 38.54 40.58
P5
20
0
49.50 48.75 32.77 43.38
P6
20
5
52.57 44.84 41.00 31.88
P7
20
10
54.01 49.21 44.87 44.73
P8
20
15
55.21 52.21 48.09 53.55
P9
30
0
48.65 38.65 30.49 13.65
P10
30
5
53.64 46.28 43.88 36.11
P11
30
10
53.82 46.55 44.36 36.91
P12
30
15
53.93 44.96 44.66 32.23
P13
40
0
51.85 44.25 39.08 30.14
P14
40
5
54.15 45.39 45.25 33.50
P15
40
10
54.39 50.59 45.89 48.79
P16
40
15
60.50 51.35 62.28 51.02
Fig. 3: Graph showing Impact-Cum-Compressive Strength

with Initial 50 Blows for M60 Grade at 28 days
Fig. 4: Graph showing Impact-Cum-Compressive Strength

31
7. 30% to 40% of fly ash with 10% to 15% of CSF can

be used to give optimum impact strength.
8. Triple blended concrete mixes can be advantageously
used for higher compressive and impact strength.
9. Triple blended concrete mixes can be preferred for the
construction of rigid pavements, runways, bridge
decks, heavy floors etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the authorities of Vasavi
College of Engineering, Hyderabad, for extending the
laboratory facilities in conducting the present
experimental investigation.
Fig. 5: Graph showing Impact-cum-Compressive Strength

REFERENCES
[1]
Krishna Raju. N11 Design of concrete mix CBS

Publishers-1985.
[2]
Malhotra, V.M., 1980, Strength and durability

characteristics of concrete incorporating a pelletized blast
furnace slag fly ash, silica fume, slag and other mineral
by-products in concrete, SP-79, V.2 American Concrete
Institute, Detroit pp.891-922.
[3]
Meusel J.W., and Rose J.H., 1983, Production of

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag at Sparrows Point, and the
workability and strength potential of concrete
incorporating, the slag fly ash, silica fume and other
mineral by-products in concrete, SP-79, V.2.
CONCLUSIONS
[4]
Neville, A.M11 Properties of Concrete English Language

Book Society-1998.
Based on the experimental investigation carried out, the

following conclusions are drawn:
[5]
Shetty, M.S., - Concrete Technology-S.Chand and

Company Limited-2006.
1. Condensed silica fume (CSF) contribute towards

strength increase of concrete upto an optimum of 15%
replacement. This is true, in the cases of compressive
and impact strengths.
[6]
IS
10262:2009-Indian
Proportioning.
[7]
IS 516:1959-Methods of Test for Strength of Concrete.
[8]
IS 456:2000-Plane and Reinforced Concrete Indian

Standard Specification.
[9]
ACI 544-2R-89-Measurement of Properties of Fibre

Reinforced Concrete.
Fig. 6: Graph showing Impact-cum-Compressive Strength

2. As the percentage of fly ash is increased in the mix,

strength gets reduced particularly after 20% and
above.
Standard
Concrete
Mix
[10] IS 2386:1963-Indian Standard Methods for aggregates of

Concrete.
3. In triple blending, when both CSF and fly ash are used
as replacement to OPC, the combination of 20% fly
ash with 10% or 15% CSF gives agreeable strengths
which are marginally more that the reference mix.
[11] IS 383:1970-Indian Standard Specification on for coarse

and fine aggregate for natural sources of concrete -2
revision bureau of Indian Standards NEW DELHI.
[12] IS 7869 (Part 2) : Indian Standard specifications for
Admixtures for concrete 1981.
4. The presence of both CSF and flyash contribute

towards increase in the compressive strength after
given certain number of blows of impact.
[13] IS 1344:1968 Indian Standard specifications for

Pozzolanas-Bureau of Indian Standards.
5. In the case of reference mix without CSF and fly ash,

the compressive strength is reduced by 40% and
nearly 50% after 50 and 100 blows respectively.
[14] IS 1344-1968, Indian Standard specifications for

pozzolonas-Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[15] IS 7869-Part II-1980, Indian Standard Specifications for
Admixtures in Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
6. The presence of CSF and fly ash contribute towards

more impact strength.
32


Urooj Masood1, B.L.P. Swami2 and A.K. Asthana3
1
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, Deccan College of Engineering and Technology, Darussalam, Hyderabad.
Professor, Coordinator, Research and Consultancy, Vasavi College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad.
3
Professor, Principal, Keshav Memorial College of Engineering and Technology, Narayanguda, Hyderabad.
Email: 1uroojmasood@gmail.com, 2blpswami@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The Effect of mixed Fibers is studied in MFRC. The investigation is conducted by using mixed fibers of AR-HD
glass fiber and mild steel fiber with an aspect ratio (l/d) of 857 and 55 respectively. The total fiber percentages
of 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 were taken with five varying mixed fiber percentage proportions of glass and steel fibers
as 0-100, 25-75, 50-50, 75-25 and 100-0. The design mix of M25 concrete with W/C ratio of 0.5 is taken and the
workability is considered between low to medium. At the age of 28 days the specimens were tested for flexure
strength and ductility characteristics. It is found that the addition of mixed fiber in certain percentage to
concrete is resulting in optimum strengths in flexure. The study of deflections has indicated that the presence of
fibers not only has increased the flexural strength but also the deflections are controlled. The ultimate
deflections recorded with various percentages are more compared to the reference specimens. The specimens
with the fibers have more reserved strength even after the first crack showing the ductile behavior where as
specimens without fiber have undergone a brittle failure at the instant of crack formation. The studies showed
mixed fibers provide better properties in controlling cracks and higher flexure strengths than reference specimen
without fiber.
Keywords Alkali Resistant, Glass Fiber, Steel Fiber, Micro Silica, Strength, Deflection, Cracking.
results. The addition of steel fibers significantly improves
strength properties like impact strength, toughness, tensile
strength, flexural strength, fatigue strength and reduces
spalling (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). The glass fiber provides higher
resistance to propagation and occurrences of early cracks
sustaining higher stresses (6, 7, 8, 10 and 15).
INTRODUCTION
The role of fibers are essentially to arrest any advancing
cracks by applying punching forces at the rack tips, thus
delaying their propagation across the matrix. The ultimate
cracking strain of the composite is thus increased to many
times greater than that of un-reinforced matrix.
Admixtures like fly ash, silica fume, granulated blast
furnace slag and metakaolin can be used for such
purposes. However addition of fibers and mineral
admixtures posses certain problems regarding mixing, as
fibers tends to form balls and workability tends to
decrease during mixing.
The present studies are aimed at investigating the

mechanical properties of dual mild steel and Cem-Fil AR
HD fiber concrete for different total fiber percentages
with five varying mixing proportions in each total fiber
percent. The study is expected to provide an optimized
mixed fiber reinforced concrete for structural application.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Experimental studies have shown that fibers improve the

mechanical properties of concrete such as flexural
strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, creep
behavior, impact resistance and toughness. Moreover, the
addition of fibers makes the concrete more homogeneous,
isotropic and a more ductile material (9, 10, 11, 12, 13
and 14). The concrete-reinforcing fibers include metallic
and non metallic like steel, polypropylene and various
other types. With time and stress the cracks are developed
exposing internal microstructure to moisture and to
various other harmful effects leading to deterioration of
concrete and corrosion of reinforcement. The use of fibers
in concrete leads to minimization of these cracks (16, 18).
Majumdar et al. have studied the influence of glass fiber
on cement matrix and have come out with encouraging
The details of materials used in the present experimental

investigation are as follows.
Cement
OPC of 53 grade having specific gravity of 3.15.
Coarse Aggregate
Machine crushed well graded angular granite aggregate of
nominal size 20 mm from local source are used. The
specific gravity is 2.84. It is free from impurities such as
dust, clay and organic matter.
33
Table 1: Properties of Glass Fiber CEM Fil ARC14 306 HD
Fibers
AR- Glass
Density
t/m3
2.6
Elastic modulus
GPa
73
Tensile strength
MPa
1700
Fine Aggregate
Micro Silica of M/s. Elcom Metallurgical Industries is

used as partial replacement of OPC. Micro Silica is a
reactive pozzolonic mineral admixture.
Glass Fiber
Cem Fil ARC14 306 HD glass fiber is used. The
properties are shown in Table 1.
Steel Fiber
Monofilament Steel fiber of 1 mm diameter & aspect ratio
55 is used.
Water
Locally available potable water is used.
The compressive strength of MFRC specimens with 100

percent steel fibers at 28 days age in total fiber percent of
1.5 and with no microsilica is found to be maximum and
is 46.21 percent more over the strength of base reference
concrete. It is observed that the compressive strength of
the MFRC specimens with 1.5 percent total fibers and100
percent steel fibers and 5 percent microsilica added as
partial replacement by weight of cement is 41.49 percent
more over the strength of reference specimens with no
fibers and is 46.93 percent more over the strength of base
reference specimens without any fibers and without any
microsilica.
Concrete Mix
The M25 grade of concrete and quantities used per cubic
meter are shown in Table 2. The water cement ratio has
been fixed depending upon the compaction factor test,
keeping medium workability.
Table 2: Materials Required for 1cu.m. Of Concrete
M-25
Kg
400
Fine
aggre
gate
Kg
640
Coarse
aggregate
Water cement
ratio
Kg
1200
0.5
No. of fibers
million/kg
212
The Compressive Strength of MFRC specimens with no

microsilica is found to be maximum in total fiber
percentage of 1.5, when compared to specimens with
other total fiber percentages of 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. It is
observed in the MFRC specimens that with increase in
glass fiber percentage in a total fiber percent, the
compressive strength is decreasing and it is found to be
59.15 N/mm2 at 1.5 percent total fiber with 100 glass fiber
when compared to 66.85 N/mm2 in specimens with 100
percent steel fibers in the same total fiber percent of 1.5.
There is an increase of 29.37 percent compressive
strength in specimens at 1.5 total fiber percent with 100
percent glass fiber over the base reference specimens with
no fibers. The same trend is observed in the MFRC
specimens with 5 percent and 15 percent microsilica
added as partial replacement by weight of cement.
Micro Silica
Cement
Length
mm
12
age. At the age of 28days with 1.5 percentage fiber the

compressive strength is 46.21 percent in excess over the
strength of reference mix.
River sand locally available is used. The specific gravity

is 2.47
Grade
Density
micron
14
The compressive strength of the MFRC specimens with

15 percent microsilica added as partial replacement of
cement by weight is 32.83 percent more over the
reference specimens with 15 percent microsilica and no
fibers. It is observed that the compressive strength of
MFRC specimens with 15 percent microsilica and 1.5
percent total fiber content with 100 percent steel fiber is
51.36 percent more over the base reference specimens
with no fiber and no microsilica.
Mixing Casting Testing

As per I.S. specifications, the concrete is carefully mixed
by uniformly sprinkling dual fiber in a pan mixer. The
mix was cast in moulds. For each percentage of fiber
sufficient number of cubes, cylinders and flexural beams
were cast as per I.S. specifications for testing at the curing
age of 28days. The tests were conducted for compression,
flexure and deflection on the specimens using standard
procedures.
The compressive strength of MFRC specimens with

mixed fibers of 25 percent glass fiber and 75 percent steel
fiber at 28 days age in total fiber percent of 1.5 and with
no microsilica is found to be maximum and is 41.78
percent more over the strength of base reference concrete.
It is observed that the compressive strength of the MFRC
specimens with 5 percent microsilica added as partial
replacement by weight of cement and 1.5 percent total
fiber content with 100 percent steel fiber is 39.33 percent
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From Tables 3, 4, it is observed that with increase in fiber
percentage, the compressive strength also increases with
34
more over the strength of reference specimens with 5

percent microsilica and no fibers and is 44.69 percent
more over the strength of base reference specimens
without any fibers and without any microsilica.
specimens without any fibers and without any microsilica.

The ultimate flexural strength is found to have an increase
of 24.14 percent over the first crack strength.
It is observed that the flexural strength of the MFRC
specimens with 15 percent microsilica added as partial
replacement by weight of cement and 1.5 percent total
fiber content with 100 percent steel fiber is 70.48 percent
more over the strength of reference specimens with no
fibers and is 128.29 percent more over the strength of
base reference specimens without any fibers and without
any microsilica. Over the first crack the maximum
ultimate flexural strength is found to have an increase of
13.29 percent over the first crack strength of the reference
specimens and 47.39 percent more over the first crack
strength of base reference specimens. It is observed that
the percentage increase in the ultimate flexural strength
over the first crack in the specimens with 100 percent
steel fiber is maximum when compared to specimens with
various mixed fiber proportions in all the total fiber
percentages.
The compressive strength of the MFRC specimens with

15 percent microsilica added as partial replacement of
cement by weight and 1.5 percent total fiber content with
100 percent steel fiber is 32.20 percent more over the
reference specimens with 15 percent microsilica and no
fibers. It is observed that the compressive strength of
MFRC specimens with 15 percent microsilica is 50.65
percent more over the base reference specimens with no
fiber and no microsilica.
Flexural Strength
From Table.5 with 1.5 percentage fiber the flexural
strength is 77.7 percent in excess over the strength of
reference mix. The variation of flexural strength at 28
days with various percentages of glass fiber of 0, 25, 50,
100 percentages by volume used as replacement for steel
fiber in total fiber content of 0, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5
percentages were studied and results are presented in
Table 5, 6. It is observed that as the percentage of total
fiber content is increased, the flexural strength also
increases and it is seen as maximum at mixed fiber
proportion of 25 75 percentage in all the total fiber
percentages. As the percentage replacement of steel fiber
by glass fiber is increased and steel fiber percentage is
decreased, the flexural strength goes on decreasing. The
same trend is observed in all the total fiber percentages.
The flexural strength of MFRC specimens with mixed

fibers of 25 percent glass fiber and 75 percent steel fiber
at 28 days age in total fiber percent of 1.5 and with no
microsilica is found to be maximum and is 77.75 percent
more over the strength of base reference concrete and an
increase in ultimate flexural strength of 24.69 percent in
strength over the first crack. It is observed that the
maximum flexural strength of the MFRC specimens with
5 percent microsilica added as partial replacement by
weight of cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content with
25 percent glass fiber and 75 percent steel fiber is 91.08
percent more over the strength of reference specimens and
117.49 percent more over the strength of base reference
specimens with no fibers and no microsilica. The ultimate
flexural strength is found to have an increase of 23.86
percent over the first crack strength.
The flexural strength at first crack and ultimate failure of

MFRC specimens is found to be maximum in total fiber
percentage of 1.5 when compared to specimens with other
total fiber percentages of 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. It is observed
in the MFRC specimens that the mixed percentage of
fibers of 25 percent glass and 75 percent steel in a total
fiber percent showed higher flexural strength when
compared to various other mixed fiber proportions of
glass fiber and steel fiber in a total fiber percent and the
same is true in all the other total fiber percentages. The
same trend is observed in the MFRC specimens with 5
percent and 15 percent microsilica added as partial
replacement by weight of cement.
The maximum flexural strength of the MFRC specimens

with 15 percent microsilica added as partial replacement
by weight of cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content
with 25 percent glass fiber and 75 percent steel fiber is
74.68 percent more over the strength of reference
specimens and 133.91 percent more over the strength of
base reference specimens with no fibers and no
microsilica. Over the first crack the ultimate flexural
strength is found to have an increase of 11.99 percent
over the first crack strength of the reference specimens
and 46.51 percent more over the first crack strength of
base reference specimens.
The flexural strength of MFRC specimens with 100

percent steel fibers at 28 days age in total fiber percent of
1.5 is found to have an increase in ultimate strength of
72.14 percent over the strength of base reference concrete
and an ultimate maximum increase of 25.91 percent in
strength over the first crack. It is observed that the
flexural strength of the MFRC specimens with 5 percent
microsilica added as partial replacement by weight of
cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content with 100
percent steel fiber is 84.44 percent more over the strength
of reference specimens with no fibers and is 109.94
percent more over the strength of base reference
The flexural strength of MFRC specimens with 100

percent glass fibers at 28 days age in total fiber percent of
1.5 is found to have an increase in ultimate strength of
36.07 percent over the strength of base reference concrete
and an ultimate maximum increase of 2.44 percent in
strength over the first crack.
35
Variation of Deflections
with 5 percent microsilica added as partial replacement by

weight of cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content with
100 percent steel fiber is 121.35 percent more over the
deflection of reference specimens with no fibers and is
159.21 percent more over the deflection of base reference
specimens without any fibers and without any microsilica.
Standard prisms of MFRC with various percentages of

mixed fibers of glass and steel in total fiber percentages of
0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 with 0, 5 and 15 percent microsilica
added as partial replacement to cement has been tested for
load deflection behaviour under two point loading as per
the standard specifications. The procedure followed was
discussed the results are presented in table.6. The
variation of deflections are plotted in figs. 1 and 2. The
deflections at ultimate load in MFRC specimens with no
microsilica are found to be maximum in total fiber
percent of 1.5 when compared to specimens with other
total fiber percentages of 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. It is observed
that in the MFRC specimens with increase in glass fiber
percentage in various mixed fiber percentages in a total
fiber percent, the ultimate deflections are decreasing. The
same trend is observed in the MFRC specimens with 5
percent and 15 percent microsilica added as partial
replacement by weight of cement.
The deflection of the MFRC specimens with 15 percent

cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content with 100
percent steel fiber is 88.54 percent more over the
reference specimens with no fibers. It is observed that the
deflection of the MFRC specimens with 15 percent
microsilica is 138.16 percent more over the base reference
specimens with no fiber and no microsilica.
The deflection of MFRC specimens at ultimate load with
mixed fibers of 25 percent glass fiber and 75 percent steel
fiber at 28 days age in total fiber percent of 1.5 and with
no microsilica is found to be maximum and is 160.52
percent more over the deflection of base reference
concrete prisms. It is observed that the deflections at
ultimate load of the MFRC specimens with 5 percent
cement and 1.5 percent total fiber content with 25 percent
glass fiber and 75 percent steel fiber is 100 percent more
over the strength of reference specimens with 5 percent
The deflections in MFRC specimens at ultimate load with

100 percent steel fibers at 28 days age in total fiber
percent of 1.5 and with no microsilica is found to be
maximum and is 205.26 percent more over the deflection
of base reference concrete prisms at ultimate load. It is
observed that the deflections in the MFRC specimens
Table 3: Compressive strength of mixed fiber reinforced concrete cube at 28 days
Mixed Fiber (%)
S. No.
Total fiber
(%)
Glass
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.0
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
Steel
Ultimate Load
(Pu) in KN
(fu) in N/mm2
0.0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
457.2
599.0
580.2
557.3
532.5
519.7
617.8
604.2
583.6
542.5
530.1
639.8
621.4
603.0
587.7
564.9
668.5
641.2
634.6
604.3
587.5
45.72
59.90
58.02
55.73
53.25
51.97
61.78
60.42
58.36
54.25
53.01
63.98
62.14
60.03
58.77
56.49
66.85
64.12
63.46
60.43
58.75
36
Increase in
compressive strength
(%)
------31.01
26.90
21.89
16.47
13.67
35.13
32.15
27.65
18.66
15.94
39.94
35.91
31.89
28.54
23.56
46.21
40.24
38.80
32.17
28.49

Table 4: Compressive Strength Results of MFRC Specimens with Various Total Fiber Percentages and 15 Percent
Microsilica at 28 days.
S.No.
Total
fiber (%)
Total
Micro
silica (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
0.0
0.0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
0.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
Mixed Fiber (%)

Glass
Steel
Compressive
strength
(N/mm2)
0.0
0.0
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0.0
0.0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
46.30
52.76
65.91
64.73
62.57
60.15
58.19
67.94
66.26
64.83
62.82
59.42
69.22
68.86
66.99
64.14
61.34
70.08
69.75
67.73
64.39
62.71
Increase in
Compressive
Strength with 15
% Microsilica
Reference (%)
--------------24.92
22.69
18.59
14.00
10.29
28.77
25.59
22.88
19.07
12.62
31.19
30.51
26.97
21.57
16.26
32.83
32.20
28.37
22.04
18.86
Increase in
Compressive
Strength over the
Base Reference
(%)
---------13.95
42.35
39.80
35.14
29.91
25.68
46.73
43.11
40.02
35.68
28.33
49.50
48.72
44.68
38.53
32.48
51.36
50.65
46.28
39.07
35.44
flexural specimens tested have exhibited ductility

characteristics. At the failure load a diagonal crack has
appeared in between the loading points and the specimens
have not failed suddenly. The failure is not brittle and is
entirely different from that of plain concrete, where
failure is brittle. The ductility characteristics exhibited by
the specimens are due to the introduction of fiber in the
mix. At the age of 28 days with 1.5 percentage fiber the
deflection is 205.26 percent in excess over the deflection
of reference mix.
microsilica and no fibers and is 134.21 percent more over

the deflection of base reference specimens without any
fibers and without any microsilica.
The deflection of the MFRC specimens with 15 percent
microsilica added as partial replacement of cement by
weight and 1.5 percent total fiber content with 25 percent
glass fiber and 75 percent steel fiber is 77.08 percent
more over the reference specimens with 15 percent
microsilica and no fibers. It is observed that the deflection
of MFRC specimens with 15 percent microsilica is 123.68
percent more over the base reference prisms with no fiber
and no microsilica. The deflection of MFRC specimens
with 100 percent glass fibers at 28 days age in total fiber
percent of 1.5 and with no microsilica is found to be
maximum and is 84.21 percent more over the deflection
of base reference prisms.
Cracking Characteristics
Observation of specimens during Split tensile strength test
shows a single crack occurring at failure along diameter
of cross section without any appearance of longitudinal
crack. It is observed that failure has taken place gradually
with the formation of cracks. In the case of plain concrete
specimens the failure is sudden and brittle. Hence it is
established that the presence of fibers in the matrix has
contributed towards arresting sudden crack formation.
Ductility Characteristics
Beam specimens of M25 Mix with various percentages of
fibers have been tested for flexural strength under two
point loading as per the standard specifications. The
37
Table 5: Ultimate Flexural Strength of MFRC Standard Prisms with and without 15 Percent Micro Silica at 28 days
Mixed Fiber (%)

S.
No.
Total
Fiber
(%)
Total
Micro
Silica (%)
Glass
Steel
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
0.0
0.0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
0.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
0.0
0.0
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0.0
0.0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
Ultimate
Flexural
Strength
(N/mm2)
11.58
15.50
20.33
20.50
18.17
16.83
16.33
22.33
22.42
20.17
18.33
17.17
24.08
24.17
21.67
20.25
19.25
26.42
27.08
24.33
23.17
20.50
4.63
6.20
8.13
8.20
7.27
6.73
6.53
8.93
8.97
8.07
7.33
6.87
9.63
9.67
8.67
8.10
7.70
10.57
10.83
9.73
9.27
8.20
24.00
glass fiber = 0%,

Steel fiber = 0%
24.00
21.00
glass fiber = 0%,

Steel fiber = 100%
21.00
18.00
18.00
glass fiber = 100%,

Steel fiber = 0%
15.00
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
Ultimate
Flexural
Load
(KN)
12.00
9.00
6.00
12.00
Increase in
Ultimate
Flexural
Strength over
the Base
Reference (%)
--------33.91
75.59
77.10
57.01
45.36
41.04
92.87
93.74
74.29
58.32
48.38
107.99
108.85
87.26
74.95
66.31
128.29
133.91
110.15
100.22
77.10
glass fiber = 0%,

Steel fiber = 0%
glass fiber =
25%, Steel fiber
= 75%
9.00
6.00
3.00
0.00
0.00
15.00
Increase in
Ultimate
Flexural Strength
over the Reference
with 15 % Micro
Silica (%)
--------------31.13
32.25
17.26
8.54
5.32
44.03
44.67
30.16
18.23
10.81
55.32
55.96
39.84
30.65
24.19
70.48
74.68
56.94
49.52
32.26
3.00
3.00
6.00
9.00
12.00
0.00
0.00
15.00
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 1: Load Deflection curves of MFRC Standard Prisms at

various Fiber Percentages in Total Fiber Percentage of 1.5
3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00

Deflection (mm)
Fig. 2: Load Deflection curves of MFRC Standard Prisms at

various Mixed Fiber Percentages in Total Fiber Percentage
of 1.5
38

Table 6: Ultimate Deflection values of Mixed Fiber Reinforced Concrete (on Standard Prisms)
Mixed Fiber (%)

S. No.
Total
Fiber
(%)
Glass
Steel
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
100
75
50
25
0
0%
Micro
silica
5%
Micro
silica
15%
Micro
silica
117.11
107.89
75.00
59.21
52.63
139.47
127.63
106.58
94.73
63.15
184.21
155.26
148.68
130.26
73.68
205.26
160.52
151.32
146.05
84.21
78.65
73.03
42.69
29.21
16.85
96.63
78.65
52.81
35.96
19.10
113.48
93.26
87.64
61.79
28.09
121.35
100.00
78.65
65.17
35.96
47.92
38.54
20.83
12.50
2.08
66.67
57.29
26.04
22.92
5.21
81.25
69.79
51.04
36.46
14.58
88.54
77.08
54.17
44.79
16.67
Percent
Increase for
5% Micro
silica over the
Base Reference
109.21
102.63
67.11
51.32
36.84
130.26
109.21
78.94
59.21
39.47
150.00
126.32
119.74
89.47
50.00
159.21
134.21
109.21
93.42
59.21
Percent
Increase for
15% Micro
silica over the
Base Reference
86.84
75.00
52.63
42.10
28.94
110.53
98.68
59.21
55.26
32.89
128.94
114.47
90.79
72.36
44.74
138.16
123.68
94.73
82.89
47.37
microsilica in the same mix, the increase is 117.49%

over the base reference concrete. With 15%
microsilica, there is a further increase to 133.91%.
Mixed fiber combination results in substantial increase
in the flexural strength. Optimum percentage of
microsilica used as replacement to cement contributes
to further increase.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigation
conducted and the analysis of test results, the following
conclusions are drawn.
1. There is a maximum increase of 46.21% in the
compressive strength of mixed fiber reinforced
concrete at 28 days at 1.5% of total fiber content with
100% steel fiber over reference plain concrete. With
5% micro silica in the same mix, the increase is
46.93% over the reference concrete. With 15% micro
silica, there is a further increase to 51.36%.
4. The Flexure strength of dual fiber concrete is also

found to be maximum at 1.5 percent of fiber, and there
is an increase of 77.75 percent for M25 grade mix at
28 days
5. The ultimate flexural strength at 1.5% total fibers and
15% microsilica in specimens with 100%steel fiber
and in specimens with 100% glass fiber is found to
have an increase of 47.39% and 28.46% over the first
crack strength of base reference specimens.
2. The compressive strength of dual fiber concrete is

maximum at 100 percent total fiber content of steel at
28 days compared to plain concrete. There is
substantial increase in the compressive strength for
mixed fiber combination when compare to plain
concrete. As the percentage of steel fiber is reduced
and glass fiber is increased, the compressive strength
is getting reduced compared to that of 100 percent
steel fiber in the matrix.
6. The maximum ultimate deflection capacity of MFRC

standard prisms with no microsilica has been found to
increase by 205.26% with 100% steel fibers in a total
fiber percent of 1.5. With 5% microsilica, increase in
deflection is 159.20%. With 15% microsilica this
increase is 138.16%. The presence of microsilica is
rendering the beam specimens more stiffer.
3. The flexural strength of MFRC standard prisms with

mixed fibers of 25% glass fiber and 75% steel fiber in
1.5% total fiber content is higher and is 77.75%
compared to reference plain concrete. With 5%
7. The flexural strength of dual fiber concrete is found to

be maximum at 75 percent total steel fiber content in
39
the mixed fiber proportion at 28 days compared to

plain concrete in all the total fiber percentages. As the
percentage of steel fiber is reduced and glass fiber is
increased, the flexural strength is getting reduced
compared to that of mixed fiber percent of 25 75 in
the matrix.
[3]
8. The ductility characteristics have improved with the

addition of glass fibers. The failure is gradual
compared to that of brittle failure of plain concrete.
The ductility characteristics are improved by adding
Steel fibers also.
[6]
[4]
[5]
[7]
[8]
9. Cracks can be controlled by introducing glass fibers.

Cracks have occurred and propagated gradually till the
final failure. This phenomenon is true with all the
percentages of glass fiber. Glass fiber also helps in
controlling the shrinkage cracks.
Compared
glass fiber
combining
possessing
produced.
[9]
[10]
to metallic fibers like steel, alkali resistant

gives corrosion free concrete. By judiciously
Glass fiber with Steel fiber, optimum FRC
required strength and other properties can be
[11]
[12]
[13]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to place on record the help provided by
the managements and the academic teaching and non
teaching faculties of Vasavi college of Engineering,
Ibrahimbagh, and Deccan college of Engineering and
Technology Darussalam, Hyderabad in the completion of
this project.
[14]
[15]
[16]
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
ACI 544.1R-96 reapproved 2009 Report on Fiber

Reinforced Concrete
ACI 544.2R-89 reapproved 2009 Measurement of
Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
40
ACI 544.4R-88 reapproved 2009 Design Considerations

for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
ACI 544.3R-08 Guide for Specifying, Proportioning, and
Production of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
ACI 544.5R-10 Report on the Physical Properties and
Durability of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
ACI 549.3R-09 Report on Glass Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete Premix
D. D. Theodora kopoulos Creep Characteristics of Glass
Reinforced Cement Under Flexural Loading Cement &
Concrete Composites 17 (1995) 261-219
GRCA 2nd edition Specification for the manufacture,
curing and testing of GRC products. 2006.
Heurik Strang, Victor C Li. 2004. Classification of Fiber
Reinforced Cementitious Materials for Structural
Applications 6th Rilem symposium on FRC, 2022 Sep.
Varenna, Italy, P.P 197 218.
Majumdar A. J., Laws V. 1991. Building Research
Establishment book on Glass fibre reinforced cement 2nd
ed. Oxford; Boston: BSP Professional.
IS 456 : 2000 Plain and reinforced concrete - code of
practice
IS : 516 1959 Methods of tests for strength of concrete
N. Banthia, N. Nandakumar Crack growth resistance of
hybrid fiber reinforced cement composites Cement &
Concrete Composites 25(2003)39
R.I. Gilbert Shrinkage, Cracking and Deflection the
Serviceability of Concrete Structures Electronic Journal of
Structural Engineering, 1 ( 2001)
Saint Gobain Vetrotex, Cem Fil. 2002. Why Alkaline
Resistant Glass Fibers. In Technical data sheets.
www.cem-fil.com
Sivakumar. A and Santhanam Manu. 2007. Mechanical
Properties of High Strength Concrete Reinforced with
Metallic and Non-Metallic Fibers. Cement and Concrete
Composites (29) pp. 603608.

Effect of Fly Ash Addition on Properties of Concrete

with Portland Pozzolana Cement
A. Chandrashekar1, P.D. Maneeth2, B.S. Mantesh3 and Nausha4
1
HOD & Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 3,4U.G Student
Department of Civil Engineering, K.V.G College of Engineering. Kurungibhag, Sullia, Karnataka, India.
Email: acs.nitk@gmail.com, maneeth.pd@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fly ash is a waste material generated from thermal power plants which are responsible for 2/3rd of total
electricity generation in India. Safe disposal of fly ash is a cause of concern for power industry. Waste utilization
is one of the main methods employed in the case of fly ash disposal. However, it is in very small quantity
compared to its production. The chemical composition of fly ash made it useful material in the production of
cement and concrete. Portland pozzolana cement is one such cement produced using this waste material. In this
study, the amount of fly ash which can be further added to the Portland pozzolana cement as an extra ingredient
was investigated. The control mix of M30 was considered for the comparative study. PPC has been partially
replaced by fly ash in the ratio 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by weight of cement. Slump test and compaction
factor were carried out to know the workability of concrete. Mechanical strength properties such as
compressive, split tensile and flexural strength were evaluated at different ages and compared. The results are
quite promising to use additional fly ash.
Keywords Pozzolana cement, fly ash, slump, mechanical strength, waste utilization.
impurities are carried away by the flue gas in the form of
ash. The molten ash is cooled rapidly and solidifies as
spherical, glassy particles. Fly ash particles range in
diameter from <1 microns up to 150 microns. Fly ash is
removed from the flue gas by means of a series of
mechanical separators followed by electrostatic
precipitators or bag filters (Malhotra and Mehta, 2002).
Generally fly ash quality is assessed on the basis of some
of the key parameters like pozzolanic activity, material
retained on 45 micron sieve, loss on ignition and other
chemical parameters.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used construction material
today. Concrete has attained the status of a major building
material in all branches of modern constructions. It can be
readily moulded into durable structural items of various
sizes and shapes and is possible to control the properties
of cement concrete within a wide range, using appropriate
ingredients and by applying special processing
techniques- mechanical, chemical and physical. It is
possible to mechanize completely its preparation and
placing processes and it posses adequate plasticity for
mechanical work. It is difficult to point out another
material of construction which is as versatile as concrete.
Concrete is the best material of choice where strength,
durability, impermeability, fire resistance and abrasion
resistance are required.
Fly ash is a pozzolanic material. A pozzolana is defined

by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
material which in itself possesses little or no cementitious
value but which will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties. In the presence of
moisture, alumino-silicates within the fly ash react with
calcium ions to form calcium silicate hydrates (Malhotra
et al., 1994). Many ready-mix companies use fly ash to
partially replace Portland cement in concrete. Although
the addition of fly ash to concrete has economic benefits,
fly ash also provides enhanced fresh and hardened
concrete properties (Mindess et al., 2003). Fly ash
influences the rheological properties of the fresh concrete
and the strength, finish, porosity, and durability of
hardened concrete (Malhotra et al., 1994).
The principal ingredients of concrete are coarse and fine

aggregate, Portland cement and water. Amongst them,
cement is one of the most costly and energy intensive
components of concrete. Although the cement only
comprises 10-15% of concrete by weight, its production is
responsible for most of concretes environmental impacts.
Worldwide, the manufacture of Portland cement accounts
for 6-7% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by
humans (Rafat Siddique, 2010).
Fly ash is an inorganic, non-combustible by-product of
coal - burning power plants. As coal is burnt at high
temperatures, carbon is burnt off and most of the mineral
41
Today, there is a general trend to replace 20-25% of

Portland cement with fly ash in concrete. The increased
pressure to use higher percentage of fly ash in concrete
stems from three main aspects. The first aspect is
economics. In most markets fly ash is less expensive than
Portland cement. Therefore, as the replacement level of
fly ash increases, the cost to produce concrete decreases.
The second aspect and arguably the most important is the
environment. Fly ash is an industrial by-product, much of
which is deposited in landfills if not used in concrete.
Also from an environmental perspective, the more fly ash
being utilized in concrete, the less the demand for
Portland cements the less Portland cement production and
therefore the lower CO2 emissions. The third and final
aspect influencing the use of higher replacement levels is
the technical benefits of fly ash concrete (Donald Burden,
2006).Fly ash for this study is obtained from UPCL
(Udupi Power Corporation Limited).
Fly Ash
Fly ash for this study is obtained from UPCL (Udupi
Power Corporation Limited). Fly ash has been studied for
physical properties in Table 2.
Table 2: Physical Properties
Sl.
No
ii
Problem Statement
iii
Safe disposal of fly ash is a cause of concern for power

industry. There are around 75 thermal power plants all
over India producing 2/3rd of the electricity on the other
hand it produces 125 million tons of fly ash as a waste
material. There is a need to minimise wastage of precious
natural resources by making their efficient and judicious
use. This study will evaluate fly ash as a supplementary
cementitious material for replacement of Portland
pozzolana cement by weight in terms of performance and
concrete properties such as slump, compaction factor and
mechanical strength properties.
Sl.
No
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
In the present investigation Portland Pozzolana Cement

(PPC) has been used. The following tests were conducted
and the results are tabulated below in Table 1.
Table 1: Test Results for Cement
Properties
2
3
Standard
consistency
Initial setting time
Final setting time
Fineness
Compressi
ve strength
3
Days
7
Days
28
Days
Test
Results
32%
45 min
267 min
300
kg/m3
14
N/mm2
26
N/mm2
35
N/mm2
>30 min
<600 min
<225
kg/m3
Requirements
for Siliceous
fly ash
340
320
29
34
4.9
4.5
Table 3: Chemical composition of fly ash
Cement
Sl. No
Fineness- Specific
surface in m2/kg by
Blaines permeability
method, Min.
Particles- retained on
45 micron IS sieve
(wet sieving) in
percent, Maximum.
Lime reactivity
Average compressive
strength in N/mm2,
Minimum.
Test
results
To know the pozzolanic activity chemical composition of

fly ash was studied.
CONCRETE INGREDIENT
I.S.
Permissible
Limits
Characteristics
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
Characteristics
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
+ Aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) + Iron oxide
(Fe2O3)
Silicon dioxide
Reactive Silica
Magnesium Oxide
(MgO)
Total sulphur as
sulphur trioxide (SO3)
Available alkalis as
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Total Chlorides
Loss on Ignition
Test Requirements
results of Siliceous
(%)
fly ash (%)
87.60
70
54.90
--
35
20
1.80
5.0
0.60
3.0
0.60
1.5
---
0.05
5.0
TESTS ON FLYASH AND CEMENT REPLACED

WITH FLY ASH
Standard Consistency Test
13 N/mm2
As that of cement, same test procedure was adopted to

find standard consistency of fly ash and cement replaced
with fly ash. Standard consistency of different mixes
varied due to different water absorption characteristics of
cement and fly ash during the mixing. Obtained results
are given in Table 4.
23 N/mm2
33 N/mm2
42
ash. When the cement is replaced by fly ash in different

percentages, initial strength gain was found to be low.
This may be due to reduction in available CaO for the
primary hydration. In the later stages (28 days), it was
found that the compressive strength of mortar cubes
containing fly ash were showing enhancement when fly
ash of 10% was used. Further increase of fly ash tends to
decrease the strength. Compressive strength of different
mixes of cement with fly ash is given in Table 6.
Variation of compressive strength is plotted and shown in
Fig. 1.
Table 4: Standard consistency of different mixes
Particulars
Fly ash
95% cement+5% FA (M1)
Standard consistency
(%)
26
31
32
31
31
30
Table 7: Compressive strength of mortar cubes
Setting Time
The time at which cement paste loses its plasticity after
addition of water is known as initial setting time. As that
of cement, same test procedure was adopted to find initial
setting time of fly ash and cement replaced with fly ash.
Due to decrement in the cement content in different mixes
heat of hydration will be reduced and hence initial setting
time goes on increasing. Obtained results are given in
Table 5.
Particulars
100% cement (REF)
Table 5: Initial setting time of different mixes
Fly ash
Initial setting time

(min)
40
50
60
65
65
75
Compressive Strength of Mortar Cubes

40
Compressive strength (MPa)
Particulars
(N/mm2)
3 days 7 days 28days
14
26
35
13
15
35
11
14
36
8
12
31
9
11
27
9
12
25
Specific Gravity
find specific gravity of fly ash and cement replaced with
fly ash. Since fly ash is less dense than cement,
replacement of cement with fly ash reduces the specific
gravity of the mix. Obtained results are given in Table 6.
35
35
35
36
31
30
27
25
25
20
3 day
15
7 day
10
28 day
5
0
REF
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
MIX DESIGNATIONS
Fig. 1: Variation of Compressive Strength of Mortar cubes

Table 6: Specific gravity of different mixes
Particulars
Fly ash
Aggregates
Specific gravity
2.10
2.77
2.74
2.70
2.68
2.66
Table 8: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate (20mm down)
find compressive strength of cement replaced with fly
43
IS sieve size
(mm)
Percentage
passing (%)
40
20
10
4.75
100
90
5
0
Grading for single

sized aggregate of
nominal size 20mm
100
85-100
0-20
0-5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
GRADATION CURVE OF COARSE

AGGREGATE
100
90
1.0
GRADATION CURVE OF SAND
10 (mm)
SIEVE SIZES
100
Fig. 2: Gradation Curve for Coarse Aggregate
Results
2.65
0.5
28.58
Specification
-------<2
< 30
10.3
0.1
0.2
2.1
SIEVE
SIZES (mm)
0.1
27.64
< 30
Cement = 394 kg/ m3

Water = 197 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 698.8 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate =1068.5 kg/m3
Grading
Remarks
for Zone
II
90-100
85-100
75-100
Conforming
60-79
Zone II
requirement
12-40
0-10
0
fine aggregates are given in
Water-cement ratio = 0.5
Percentage
passing
Test
Specific gravity
Fineness modulus
Water absorption, %
Grading zone
81.5
For the comparative study M30 grade of concrete was

designed as per 10262:2009 and the mix proportions are
as follows.
Hence mix proportion for ingredients is given as follows

C: Fa: Ca: W = 1: 1.77: 2.71: 0.5
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
In the present investigation, to evaluate various properties
of fly ash concrete mixes, cube specimens of size 100 mm
were tested for compressive strength. In order to study the
flexural behaviour, beam specimens were used. The
cylindrical specimens were used for split tensile strength
test.
The mixing operation is carried out as follows:
Table 11: Properties of fine aggregate
Sl. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
100
DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX
Table 10: Sieve analysis of sand
4.75mm
100
2.36mm
95.8
1.18mm
81.5
600m
10.3
300m
2.10
150m
0.2
75m
0.1
Various properties of
Table 11.
95.8
Fig. 3: Gradation Curve for Sand
Table 9: Properties of coarse aggregate
Sieve size
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
.01
Various properties of coarse aggregates are given in

Table 9.
Test
Specific Gravity
Water absorption, %
Aggregate crushing value,
%
Aggregate impact value, %
PERCENTAGE FINNER (%)
PERCENTAGE FINNER (%)
1. The cement and fine aggregate are mixed dry to

uniform colour and then coarse aggregate was added
and mixed until coarse aggregate was uniformly
distributed throughout the batch.
Results
2.60
2.90
1.0%
II
2. About 60 to 70 percent by weight of water was added

to the ingredients and mixed for 1 minute; remaining
water were mixed and added to the ingredients till a
uniform mix was obtained. This process takes about 510 minutes.
Water
Tap water available in the laboratory was used for casting
and curing of concrete.
3. Cube specimens of size 100 mm were prepared by

mechanical vibration. Cylinders of 100 mm in
44
10
Table 12: Mix proportion for various mixes
3
Mix
Cement (kg/m )
REF
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
Fly ash
(kg/m3)
0
19.7
39.4
59.1
78.8
95.5
394.0
374.3
354.6
334.9
315.2
295.5
698.8
692.6
685.7
678.84
671.98
665.12
diameter and 200 mm in height were prepared by

mechanical vibration. Beams with a cross-section of
100 mm by 100 mm and a length of 500 mm were
prepared by mechanical vibration. All the samples
were subsequently remoulded after 24 hours and
placed in water tank for curing.
Slump (mm)
Slump Cone and Compaction Factor Test
197
197
197
197
197
197
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M1
M2
M3
M4
MIX DESIGNATIONS
M5
MIX DESIGNATIONS
Fig. 4: Variation in Slump
Compaction factor test
0.96
Compaction factor
0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
Ref
Fig. 5: Variation in Compaction Factor
For given workability, water required for fly ash added

concrete (M5) would be less compared to REF which may
in turn enhance the strength. The variations of slump and
compaction factor are plotted in Fig 4 and Fig 5.
The compressive strength test results for various mixes
are tabulated in Table 13 for curing period of 3, 7 and 28
days. The fly ash concrete mixes show increased
compressive strength compared to reference concrete for
some extent of replacement then it gradually reduced. Fly
ash, when used in concrete, contributes to the strength of
concrete due to its pozzolanic reactivity. However, since
the pozzolanic reaction proceeds slowly, the initial
strength of fly ash concrete tends to be lower than that of
concrete without fly ash. Due to continued pozzolanic
reactivity concrete develops greater strength at later age,
which may exceed that of concrete without fly ash. The
pozzolanic reaction also contributes to making the texture
of concrete dense, resulting in decrease of water
Table 13: Slump and Compaction Factor Values of Different

Mixes
100% cement (REF)

W/C
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Ref
Workability is considered to be that property of concrete,

which determines its capacity to be placed, compacted
properly and finished without segregation. Workability is
affected by: the grading, particle shape, proportions of
aggregate, the quantity & qualities of cement +
cementitious materials, the presence of entrained air and
the consistency of the mixture. Consistency is defined as
the relative mobility of the concrete mixture. It is
measured in terms of slump and compaction factor.
Slump and Compaction factor values of different mixes of
concrete are given in Table 12. For the control mix when
the water cement ratio was 0.5, the slump recorded was
50mm. When fly ash was added in replacement of cement
(25%) the slump value was enhanced to 140mm for the
same water-cement ratio. The increased slump was
attributed to ball bearing action of fly ash particles.
Slump
(mm)
50
55
60
70
120
140
Water (kg/m3)
Slump cone test
Batch
Coarse
aggregate(kg/m3)
1068.5
1068.5
1068.5
1068.5
1068.5
1068.5
Sand (kg/m3)
Compaction
Factor
0.87
0.92
0.93
0.95
0.92
0.90
45
Table 14: Compressive strength of concrete cubes (100100100mm)
Particulars
3 days
11.50
16.33
11.83
17.16
16.00
13.00
100% cement (REF)

COV%
3.55
9.46
8.60
4.90
4.40
9.70
permeability and gas permeability. As pozzolanic reaction

can only proceed in the presence of water enough
moisture should be available for long time. Strength
mainly depends on water - cement or water - cementitious
material ratio [w/c or w/(c+p)].
Flexural Strength
The flexural strength was measured by testing 10 cm x 10
cm x 50 cm beams cast on site with the sample concrete
and determining the modulus of rupture. The results of
Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes
35
35.4
Table 14: Flexural strength of beams (100100500mm)
37.6
34.16
32
31
Particulars
30.83
30
100% cement (REF)

25
3day
20
7 day
15
28 day
10
5
0
REF
M1
M2
M3
M4
COV %
3.85
2.95
1.72
7.00
5.20
10.11
Hence, it can be concluded that up to certain level of

addition of fly ash, the compressive strength improved
due to continued secondary hydration process. From the
results, it can be observed that compressive strength at the
age of 28 days tends to improve when 10% addition of fly
ash was used. When the fly ash added further, the strength
tended to decrease, however, the compressive strength
was higher than reference concrete for M3 mix (15% fly
ash). The variations of compressive strength are plotted in
Fig 6.
Also along with these parameters the gel formation in the

later stages also plays a major role. From the obtained
results it clearly shows that amount of free lime present in
the later mixes i.e. M3 and so on is less due to less
cementitious content and hence silica present in fly ash
may not be able to react and form C-S-H gel. The
compressive strength of fly ash concrete is found in the
range of 30- 40N/mm at 28 days of curing.
40
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

7 days
COV %
28 days
16.83
5.04
32.00
19.67
4.32
35.40
22.50
9.04
37.60
21.16
6.70
34.16
18.66
2.50
31.00
18.66
2.50
30.83
Flexural strength
(N/mm2)
28 days
2.56
3.70
3.91
3.53
2.86
2.33
Flexural strength of beams
M5
4.5
Flexural strength (MPa)
MIX DESIGNATIONS
Fig. 6: Variation in Compressive strength of concrete cubes
The compressive strength at the age of 3 days was 11.50

N/mm2 for REF mix. The same was about 13.00 N/mm2
for M5 mix (with 25% fly ash). In the case of 7 days, the
strength acquired by REF mix is 16.83 N/mm2 and M5
mix is 18.66 N/mm2. After 28 days of curing, the
compressive strength of control concrete (REF) was 32
N/mm2 and for M5 mix was 30.83N/mm2. When fly ash is
added, the pozzolanic activity increases resulting in
increased compressive strength. The cement considered
for the study was PPC and which already contains fly ash.
28 day
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Ref
M1
M2
M3
M4
MIX DESIGNATIONS
Fig. 7: Variation in Flexural strength
46
M5
flexural strength were tabulated in Table 14. The 28 day

flexural strength for reference concrete was found to be at
2.56N/mm2. When additional fly ash was added the
flexural strength tended to increase up to 10% addition
then decreased. The maximum flexural strength of
3.91N/mm2 was obtained for 10% addition. When 20%
fly ash was added the flexural strength was 2.86 N/mm2
which is higher than control concrete. The increase of
nearly 35% strength was found for M2 in compared to
conventional concrete (REF). The variations of flexural
strength are plotted in Fig 7.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental investigation the following
conclusions were drawn:
1. With constant water cement ratio, workability of
concrete goes on increases with increase in fly ash
percentage.
2. All the mixes reached the designed strength, i.e. 30
MPa.
3. The compressive strength acquired by replacing
cement with fly ash by 10% is more compared to other
mixes. However, 15% replacement gives higher
strength than reference concrete. Hence, 15% fly ash
can be added further to the mix where compressive
strength is the main criteria of the design.
Split Tensile Strength

Concrete cube specimen is placed between the platens of
a compression testing machine and the load applied
through 2 loading pieces on two opposite faces. The
tensile stress generated in the perpendicular plane causes
a splitting failure along the center line of the specimen.
The results of split tensile strength were tabulated in
Table 15. The 28 day split tensile strength for reference
concrete was found to be at 1.86N/mm2. When additional
fly ash was added the split tensile strength tended to
increase up to 10% addition then decreased. The
maximum split tensile strength of 2.82 N/mm2 was
obtained for 10% addition. When 15% fly ash was added
the flexural strength was 2.12 N/mm2 which is higher than
control concrete. The increase of nearly 35% strength was
found for M2 in compared to conventional concrete
(REF).The variation of split tensile strength are plotted in
Fig 8.
4. The flexural strength obtained by replacing cement

with fly ash by 10% is more compared to other mixes.
However, 20% replacement gives higher strength than
reference concrete. Hence, 20% fly ash can be added
further to the mix where flexural strength is the main
criteria of the design.
5. The split tensile strength acquired by replacing cement
with fly ash by 10% is more compared to other mixes.
However, 15% replacement gives higher strength than
reference concrete. Hence, 15% fly ash can be added
further to the mix where split tensile strength is the
main criteria of the design.
6. Hence, 10% of fly ash can be further added to PPC
without compromising the strength characteristics. By
adjusting water-cement ratio for a given workability,
higher percentages of fly ash can be added to concrete
made using PPC.
Table 15: Split tensile strength of cylinders (200100mm)
Particulars
100% cement (REF)

(N/mm2) 28 days
1.86
2.65
2.82
2.12
1.84
1.72
REFERENCES
[1]
Anil Banchhor, Krishnan S.,(2006) Advantages of using

Fly Ash in Concrete PPC or site mixing of OPC and fly
ash site.
[2]
Camoes A., Aguiar B, Jalali S. (2003). Durability of Low

Cost High Performance Fly Ash Concrete International
Ash Utilization Symposia and the World of Coal Ash
conference, Covington.
[3]
Donald Burden, The Durability of Concrete Containing

High Levels of Fly Ash, The University of New
Brunswick, January 2006.
[4]
Jayawardane D.L.N.B., Ukwatta U.P.A.S., Weerakoon

W.M.N.R. and Pathirana C.K., Physical and Chemical
Properties of Fly Ash based Portland Pozzolana Cement.
Civil Engineering Research Exchange Symposium 2012.
[5]
Langley W.S., Carette G.G. and Malhotra V.M.,

Structural Concrete Incorporating High Volumes of
ASTM Class F Fly Ash, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 86,
No. 5, September-October 1989, pp. 507-514.
Malhotra V.M., and Ramezanianpour, A.A. (1994). Fly
Ash in Concrete, Second Edition. Natural Resources

Split tensile strength (MPa)
3
28 Days
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Ref
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
MIX DESIGNATIONS
[6]
Fig. 8: Variation in Split tensile strength
47
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, CANMET Canadian Centre

for Mineral and Energy Technology.
Malhotra V.M., and Mehta, P.K. (2002). High
Performance, High Volume Fly Ash Concrete.
Supplementary Cementing Materials for Sustainable
Development Inc.,Ottawa, Canada.
Mindess S., Young, J.F., and Darwin, D. (2003).
Concrete, Second Edition. Prentice Hall, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
Mehta P.K., Paulo J. Monteiro, Concrete, Micro
Structure, Properties and Materials, Tata McGraw Hill,
3rd Edition 2006, New Delhi. pp. 298-305
Prusinski M.P., Fouad D.L and Donovan A, Properties of
fly ash concrete, In Proceeding of Singapore on
Structural Engineering, Singapore, 1993.
Rafat Siddique, Wear Resistance of High-Volume Fly
Ash Concrete, Leonardo Journal of Sciences ISSN 15830233, Issue 17, July-December 2010, p. 21-36.
Shetty M.S (2003), Concrete Technology Theory and
Practice, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi, pp.
176-183.
Singh T.P., Field performance of high volume fly ash
concrete- The Indian Experience, (2007).
Swamy R.N., Sami A.R.A.and Theodorakopoulos D.D.,
Early Strength of Fly Ash Concrete for Structural
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
48
Applications, ACI Journal, September-October, 1983, pp.

414-423.
Swamy R.N. and Mahmud H.B., Shrinkage and Creep
Behaviour of High Fly Ash Content Concrete, in Fly Ash
Silica Fume, Slag And Natural Pozzolan in Concrete,
Malhotra V.M, Ed., Proceedings of the Third International
Conference, Trondheim, Norway, Vol. 1, ACI SP-114,
ACI, Detroit, 1989, pp. 453-475.
Taniguchi K., Suzuki T., Shimomura Y., Ohga H. and
Nagataki S., Applicability of High-Volume Fly Ash
Concrete to Marine Structures, Third CANMET/ACI
International Conference On Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag,
and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Supplementary Papers,
compiled by Alasali M, Trondheim, Norway, 1989, pp.
66-81.
IS 383:1970, Specification for coarse and fine aggregate
from natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian
Standard, New Delhi.
IS 456:2000, Code of practice for plain and reinforced
concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 10262:2009, Recommended Guideline for Concrete
Mix Design, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 5816:1999,Method of test for Splitting Tensile
Strength of concrete cylinder, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.

Experimental Investigation on the Performance of Concrete with GGBS as

Admixture at Complete Replacement of Fine Aggregate with Steel Slag
Chandana Sukesh1, D. Kishore Babu1,
Polina V.V.S. Sivarama Krishna1 and C. Ravi Kumar Reddy2
1
Students, Department of Civil Engineering, 2Associate Professor

Bapatla Engineering College
ABSTRACT
The study has been made through an investigation to understand the behavior and to obtain the mechanical
properties of concrete with GGBS as admixture and by replacing the fine aggregate with fine steel slag. Natural
sand is becoming increasingly scare and their production and shipment is also becoming more difficult. Due to
rapid growth in construction activity, the consumption of concrete is increasing every year. This results in
excessive extraction of natural sand and aggregates. Thus it is becoming inevitable to use alternative materials
for aggregates in concrete. The use of materials would be such that they not only results in conservation of
natural resources but also helps in maintaining good environmental conditions with more or less same cost. In
this context the experimental work is carried out the physical properties of the steel slag and the mechanical
properties of concrete by replacing cement with different percentages of GGBS and sand with 100% steel slag in
the designed M30 mix. Strength and workability is assessed at 7days and 28days.The results from the
experimental study revealed that the replacement of natural sand with steel slag does not considerably alter
workability and compressive strength. Hence the steel slag is identified as the ideal replacement for natural sand
in GGBS concrete.
containing fused mixtures of oxides and silicates. Its
highly compressed structure resulted in a very dense and
hard material. It is the coarse portion of the residues
produced during the separation of the molten steel from
impurities in steel making furnaces (See and Hamzah,
2002). Steel slag occurs to be in liquid melt of complex
solution containing silicates and oxides, primarily
calcium, iron, unslaked lime and magnesium and
solidified upon cooling.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a composite material which is composed of
coarse granular materials called aggregates or filler
embedded together in the form of a matrix with the help
of the cement or binding material that fills the space
between the aggregates particles and glues them together.
Cement binds the aggregates together. Other material like
fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag may also
be used as binding material. Aggregates are divided into
two parts: fine aggregates and coarse aggregate. Finally,
water is added to initiate the binding process. This makes
the mix stiffer and forms the material called concrete,
which can be used in construction and forms a basis of
our modern society. Recently the use of recycled
materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining
popularity
because
of
increasingly
stringent
environmental legislation. The mix design depends on the
type of structure being built, how the concrete will be
mixed and delivered and how it will be placed to form
this structure.
Air-cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS) is a rock-like

material used in fill and embankments, as a road base, or
for concrete aggregates, concrete sand, glass insulation
wool, as a filter medium, and as a leveling material.
Water cooling results in granulated blast furnace slag,
which has highly cementations properties. It is often
called slag cement and is used as a cement replacement
for Portland cement, glass making, concrete block
manufacturing, filtration medium, and soil amendment.
The US Geological Survey reported Although data on
U.S. slag production are unavailable, the range of output
is estimated as having increased by about 30% to about 11
to 15 tons in 2010, owing to a restart of many of the iron
and steel furnaces that had been idled at least part time in
2009. Better slag availability led to a modest increase in
slag sales in 2010, although volumes remained
constrained by continued low levels of construction
spending. An estimated 15 million tons of iron and steel
slag, valued at about $290 million (f.o.b. plant), was sold
in 2010. Iron or blast furnace slag accounted for about
Fortunately we have just such a material - concrete, and

most of the essential research has been done to enable
concrete to fill this role. The use of steel slag as a
replacement to natural sand is of recent origin. It uses
mostly the waste products of industries in addition to that
its production requires no burning of fossils fuels thus no
emission of polluting gasses like CO2 and SO2 etc. Steel
slag is a by-product of the steel producing process,
49
60% of the tonnage sold and had a value of about $250

million; nearly 85% of this value was granulated slag.
Steel slag produced from basic oxygen and electric arc
furnaces accounted for the remainder. As defined by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
steel slag is a non-metallic product consisting primarily of
calcium silicates and ferrites combined with fused oxides
of iron, aluminum, manganese, calcium, and magnesium.
It is a by-product of steel making produced during the
separation of the molten steel from impurities in steelmaking furnaces. The slag occurs as a molten liquid and
is a complex solution of silicates and oxides that solidifies
upon cooling. Virtually all steel is now made in integrated
steel plants using a version of the basic oxygen process or
in specialty steel plants using an electric arc furnace
process. Steel slag produced in an electric arc furnace is
referred to as electric arc furnace slag (EAF) or steel
furnace slag. Steel furnace slag can be blended with other
products such as granulated slag and fly ash to produce
pavement material, and is also used as an aggregate in
asphalt pavement, as a soil conditioner, and for
unconfined construction fill. Steel slag also differs from
blast furnace slag in that free calcium and magnesium
oxides are not completely consumed in the steel slag, and
subsequent hydration results in deleterious expansion
characteristics. In addition, various grades of steel are
produced, which result in corresponding variances in the
resulting steel slag. Worldwide, almost 100% of BFS is
recycled, while about 80% of steel slag is recycled. The
expansion characteristic of the steel slag is one of the
main differences, and barriers, to its construction use.
of various forms of metal oxides silicates, ferrites and

others.
Source and Production of Steel Slag
Steel slag could normally be obtained from slag
processors who collected the slag from steel-making
facilities. Slag processors handled a variety of materials
such as steel slag, ladle slag, pit slag, and used refractory
material to recover steel metallic. These materials were
source separated, and well-defined handling practices
were in place to avoid contamination of the steel slag
aggregate. The slag processors were also aware of the
general aggregate requirements of the end user (Liz Hunt
and Boyle, 2000). FHWA mentioned that the processing
of steel slag from metals recovery was not only important
to remove excess steel at the source for reuse at the steel
plant, but was also important to facilitate the use of the
nonmetallic steel slag as construction aggregate. This
nonmetallic slag could either be crushed, then screened
for aggregate use (steel slag aggregates), or sintered and
recycled as flux material in the iron and steel furnaces
(TFHRC, 2002).
STEEL SLAG
The German Research Association for Iron and Steel Slag
described steel slag as a non-metallic by-products
generated from the non-metallic constituents of the raw
materials ore, coke and fluxes during the production of
steel. After slow cooling in air they form an artificial
crystalline rock. Their formation was comparable to that
of natural magmatic rocks like basalt or granite. Molten
slag fulfilled important metallurgical functions and must
be distinguished from ashes which were residues of
incineration processes. Steel slag was separated from the
liquid metal at the end of the metallurgical treatment by
means of their lower density. The separated slag
underwent appropriate heat treatment processes followed
by mechanical processing to provide the specific
properties required by standards and regulations (FEhS,
2004). Steel slag (basic oxygen furnace slag and electric
arc furnace slag) was the by-product generated from this
steel-making process in amounts of 110 to 120 kg per ton
of crude steel (NSA, 2006). Hamzah (2002) on the other
hand described steel slag as a by-product generated during
steel making due to addition of flux such as lime during
the melting process. The flux reacted with the oxides or
any inorganic non-metallic components present in the
metallic scrap and formed complex minerals comprising
Fig. 1: Steel slag
Steel Slag was generated as a melt at about 1650C

during steelmaking from hot metal, direct reduced iron or
scrap. It consisted of oxidized co-elements of the hot
metal and other metallic charges which reacted with the
added limestone and dolomite. Depending on the process
technology, one could distinguish Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF), Open Hearth, and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
slag (FEhS, 2004). There were several different types of
steel slag produced during the steel-making process.
These different types were referred to as furnace or tap
slag, raker slag, synthetic or ladle slag, and pit or cleanout
slag. Production of different slag in a modern steel plant.
The steel slag produced during the primary stage of steel
production was referred to as furnace slag or tap slag.
This was the major source of steel slag aggregate. After
being tapped from the furnace, the molten steel was
transferred in a ladle for further refining to remove
additional impurities still contained within the steel. This
operation was called ladle refining because it was
completed within the transfer ladle. During ladle refining,
additional steel slags were generated by again adding
fluxes to the ladle to melt. These slags were combined
50
Experimental Investigation on the Performance of Concrete with GGBS as Admixture at Complete Replacement of Fine
with any carryover of furnace slag and assist in absorbing

deoxidation products (inclusions), heat insulation, and
protection of ladle refractories. The steel slags produced
at this stage of steel making were generally referred to as
raker and ladle slags (TFHRC, 2002).
slag is generally expressed in terms of simple oxides

calculated from elementary analysis determined from
x-ray fluorescence. Various ranges of compounds
presents in steel slag from a typical oxygen furnace.
(TFHRC-Steel slag material description, accessed Nov
2008). The mineralogical form of slag is highly dependent
on the rate of cooling of slag in the steel making process.
Table 2: Typical steel slag chemical composition (TFHRC)
Constituents
Cao
Sio2
Feo
Mno
Mgo
Al2o3
P2o5
S
Metallic Fe
Fig. 2: Showing how the steel slag is produced
40-52
10-19
(70-80% Fe0,20-30%Fe203)
5-8
5-10
1-3
0.5-1
<0.1
0.5-10
The rate of cooling of steel slag is generally kept lower so

that the crystalline compounds are formed. The
predominant compounds in steel slag are dicalcium
silicate, tricalcium silicate, dicalcium ferrite, merwinite,
calcium aluminate, calcium-magnesium iron oxides, some
free lime and magnesia. Steel slag is mildly alkaline, with
a solution pH generally in range of 8 to 10. However, the
pH of leach ate from steel slag can exceed1511, a level
that can be corrosive to aluminum or galvanized steel
pipes placed in direct contact with the slag. According to
Department of Transportation (DOT) and Federal
Highway Administration (FHA), the amount of free
calcium and magnesium oxides is not completely
consumed in steel slag. The hydration of unslaked lime
and magnesia in contact with moisture is largely
responsible for the expansive nature of most steel slag.
The free lime hydrates very rapidly and can cause large
changes in volume over a relatively short period of time,
i.e. weeks, while magnesia hydrates much more slowly
and contributes to long term expansion which may
continue for many years. Free lime (Calcium oxide)
(CaO) + water (H2O) = Calcium carbonates (CaCO3)
Magnesium oxide (MgO) + water (H2O) = Magnesium
carbonates (MgCO3)
Physical Properties of Steel Slag

Steel slag aggregates are fairly angular, roughly cubical
pieces having flat or elongated shapes. They have rough
vesicular nature with many non-interconnected cells
which gives a greater surface area than smoother
aggregates of equal volume; this feature provides an
excellent bond with Portland cement (NSA accessed Nov
2008). Steel slag has a high degree of internal friction and
high shear strength. The rough texture and shape ensure
little breakdown in handling and construction (NSA
accessed Nov 2008). Steel slag has high bulk specific
gravity and less than 3% water absorption. Steel slag
aggregates have high density, but apart from this feature
most of the physical properties of steel slag are better than
hard traditional rock aggregates. Below are listed some of
the positive features of steel slag (GeoPave, 1993).
They are strong and durable.
They have excellent angular shape which helps to
develop very strong interlocking properties.
They have high resistance to abrasion and impact.
Table 1: Physical properties of steel slag
Property
Specific gravity
Density, kg/m3
Water absorption
Composition (%)
Value
3.2-3.6
(100 to 120)
Upto 3%
Current Uses of Steel Slag

Some of the current uses of steel slag according to the
National Slag Association (NSA accessed, 2008) are as
follows:
i. Steel slag is used as an ideal aggregate in hot mix
asphalt (HMA) surface mixture application due to its
high frictional resistance and skid resistance
characteristics. The cubical nature of steel slag and its
rough texture provides more resistance than round,
smooth and elongated aggregates.
Chemical and Mineralogical Composition

Blast furnace slag usually contains four major oxides,
namely lime, magnesia, silica and alumina. Minor
elements include sulfur, iron, manganese, alkalis and trace
amount of several others. The chemical composition of
51
ii. It is also used in making Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)

because the particle-to particle contact of the
aggregate does not break down during the
manufacturing, laying down, or compaction process.
Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) has
successfully specified steel slag SMA bituminous
mixes on roadways.
with water and subsequently projected into the air by a

rotating drum. In order to obtain a suitable reactivity, the
obtained fragments are ground to reach the same fineness
as Portland cement.
Components of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace
Slag (GGBFS)
The main components of blast furnace slag are CaO (3050%), SiO2 (28-38%), Al2O3 (8-24%), and MgO (1-18%).
In general, increasing the CaO content of the slag results
in raised slag basicity and an increase in compressive
strength. The MgO and Al2O3 content show the same
trend up to respectively 10-12% and 14%, beyond which
no further improvement can be obtained. Several
compositional ratios or so-called hydraulic indices have
been used to correlate slag composition with hydraulic
activity the latter being mostly expressed as the binder
compressive strength. The glass content of slags suitable
for blending with Portland cement typically varies
between 90-100% and depends on the cooling method and
the temperature at which cooling is initiated. The glass
structure of the quenched glass largely depends on the
proportions of network-forming elements such as Si and
Al over network-modifiers such as Ca, Mg and to a lesser
extent Al. Increased amounts of network-modifiers lead to
higher degrees of network depolymerization and
reactivity. Common crystalline constituents of blastfurnace slags are merwinite and melilite.
iii. It is also used for manufacture of Portland cement.

iv. It is used in base application, construction of unpaved
parking lots, as a shoulder material, and also in the
construction of berms and embankment.
v. It is also used in agriculture because it has minerals
like iron, manganese, magnesium, zinc and
molybdenum which are valuable plant nutrients.
vi. It is environment friendly. During the production of
cement, the CO2 emissions are reduced as slag has
previously undergone the calcination process.
vii. Steel slag aggregates are used for soil stabilization or
soil improvement material and for remediation of
industrial waste water run-off.
GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE
SLAG (GGBFS)
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) is a
byproduct of the steel industry. Blast furnace slag is
defined as the non-metallic product consisting essentially
of calcium silicates and other bases that is developed in a
molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. [1] In the production of iron, blast furnaces are
loaded with iron ore, fluxing agents, and coke. When the
iron ore, which is made up of iron oxides, silica, and
alumina, comes together with the fluxing agents, molten
slag and iron are produced.
Application of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

(GGBFS)
GGBS is used to make durable concrete structures in
combination with ordinary Portland cement and/or other
pozziolonic materials. GGBS has been widely used in
Europe, and increasingly in the United States and in Asia
(particularly in Japan and Singapore) for its superiority in
concrete durability, extending the lifespan of buildings
from fifty years to a hundred years [2]. Two major uses of
GGBS are in the production of quality-improved slag
cement, namely Portland Blast furnace cement (PBFC)
and high-slag blast-furnace cement (HSBFC), with GGBS
content ranging typically from 30 to 70%; and in the
production of ready-mixed or site-batched durable
concrete. Concrete made with GGBS cement sets more
slowly than concrete made with ordinary Portland cement,
depending on the amount of GGBS in the cementitious
material, but also continues to gain strength over a longer
period in production conditions. This results in lower heat
of hydration and lower temperature rises, and makes
avoiding cold joints easier, but may also affect
construction schedules where quick setting is required.
Use of GGBS significantly reduces the risk of damages
caused by alkalisilica reaction (ASR), provides higher
resistance to chloride ingress, reducing the risk of
reinforcement corrosion and provides higher resistance
to attacks by sulfate and other chemicals.
Production of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

(GGBFS)
The chemical composition of a slag varies considerably
depending on the composition of the raw materials in the
iron production process. Silicate and aluminate impurities
from the ore and coke are combined in the blast furnace
with a lux which lowers the viscosity of the slag. In the
case of pig iron production the flux consists mostly of a
mixture of limestone and forsterite or in some cases
dolomite. In the blast furnace the slag floats on top of the
iron and is decanted for separation. Slow cooling of slag
melts results in an unreactive crystalline material
consisting of an assemblage of Ca-Al-Mg silicates. To
obtain a good slag reactivity or hydraulicity, the slag melt
needs to be rapidly cooled or quenched below 800 C in
order to prevent the crystallization of merwinite and
melilite and fragment the slag a granulation process can
be applied in which molten slag is subjected to jet streams
of water or air under pressure. Alternatively, in the
pelletization process the liquid slag is partially cooled
52
Table 3: Compaction factor and slump cone test results
GGBS
Percentage
Cement
Percentage
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Compaction factor test

Mix A
Mix B
(with sand)
( with steel slag)
0.88
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.63
0.89
0.90
0.88
0.89
0.85
0.85
METHODOLOGY
Slump cone test

Mix A
Mix B
( with sand)
( with steel slag)
37
35
41
43
48
48
50
49
48
49
45
46
35
34
determined by using the cube moulds of standard size and

using an UTM machine. The Mix design calculation was
done using the physical properties of the materials and
using IS 10262: 2009. The Quantity of cement is 504.53
kg per Cu.m, Sand is 484.77 Kg per cu.m, 20mm
aggregates is 692.18 Kg per Cu.m, 10mm aggregates is
461.73 kg per cu.m, The water cement ratio was
maintained at 0.38.
Tests on Steel Slag

Various test like gradation, specific gravity are studied
Gradation
The sieve analysis is conducted on sand and steel slag as
per the standard procedure and the values are tabulated
and then plotted in a semi log sheet for the particle size
distribution curve

Compaction Factor and Slump Cone Test Results
The compactor factor test was done using the Vee-Bee
apparatus. The slump cone test was done using the slump
cone apparatus according to the IS standard procedures.
The tests were done and the values are tabulated in Table
3 and are plotted as shown in figure 5 and figure 6. From
the results is seen that there is increase in the value of the
compaction factor as the replacement percentage of
GGBS increases upto 50% replacement and then
Fig. 3: Gradation curve of sand and steel slag
Concrete Mix Proportion

The M30 grade concrete is selected for testing it
compressive strength. The compressive strength is
Fig. 5: Compaction factor test results
Fig. 4: Concrete cubes
Fig. 6: Slump cone test results
53
Table 4: Compressive strength at 7days and 28days
GGBS
Percentage
Cement
Percentage
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
At 7 days
Mix A
( with sand)
35.3
35.5
35.8
37.1
37.4
37.2
35.9
Mix B
( with steel slag)
35.6
35.7
36.0
37.4
37.7
37.4
36.2
decreased in mix A. The same is observed in the case of

the mix B i.e., Sand fully replaced by steel slag but the
replacement was about 50% and then decreased. The
slump cone values had increased up to 50% and then
decrease in the case of the both the mixes.
At 28 days
Mix A
Mix B
( with sand)
( with steel slag)
39.7
39.7
39.7
40.0
40.7
41.4
41.1
42.2
41.0
42.5
40.8
39.6
39.7
38.7
Sand fully replaced by steel slag but the replacement was

about 60% and then decreased.
CONCLUSIONS
The all experimental programme had been conducted
on the steel slag stated that the available steel slag is
comes under ZONE-II category which represents the
most suitability for the fine aggregate as per IS: 3831970.
Compressive Strength Test Results

The Compressive strength test was done using the cubes
and they were tested at 7days and 28days in an UTM
machine. The values are tabulated in Table 4 and are
represented in figure 7 and figure 8. From the results is
seen that there is increase in the value of the compressive
strength as the replacement percentage of GGBS
increases upto 60% replacement and then decreased in
mix A. The same is observed in the case of the mix B i.e.,
The results obtained from these tests revealed that the

concrete with steel slag and GGBS has attained good
workability and as well as good strength than concrete
with normal sand.
The concrete attains maximum workability for about
50-60% replacement of GGBS, strength is maximum
for about 50-60% replacement of GGBS.
A cost saving of about 12% is seen when GGBS is
used up to 50% with steel slag as fine aggregate.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
Fig. 7: Compressive strength of concrete at 7days
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Fig. 8: Compressive strength of concrete at 28days
54
ASTM C 33. (2003). Standard Specification for Concrete

Aggregates. ASTM International.
ASTM C 39/C 39M. (2003). Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM International.
ASTM C 78. (2002). Standard Test Method for Flexural
Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with ThirdPoint Loading). ASTM International.
Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content
(Gravimetric) of Concrete. ASTM International.
Slump
of
Hydraulic-Cement
Concrete.
ASTM
International.
ASTM C 150. (2005). Standard Specification for Portland
cement. ASTM International.
ASTM C 157/C 157 M. (2004).. Standard Test Method for
Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement, Mortar,
and Concrete. ASTM International.
ASTM C 173. 2004.. Standard Test Method for Air
Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method. ASTM International.
[9]
ASTM C 192/C 192M. 2002.. Standard Practice for

Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory. ASTM International.
[10] ASTM C 215. (1997).. Standard Test Method for
Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and Torsional
Resonant Frequencies of Concrete Specimens
[11] ASTM C 231. 2004.. Standard Test Method for Air
Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure
Method. ASTM International.
[12] ASTM C 260. (2001). Standard Specification for Air

Entraining Admixtures for Concrete. ASTM International.
[13] ASTM C 494/C 494 M. (2005). Standard Specification for
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete. ASTM International.
[14] ASTM C 496. 1996.. Standard Test Method for Splitting
Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM International.
55


M. Bhasker1, B.L.P. Swami2 and B. Dean Kumar3
1
Associate Professor, 2 Professor, Co-ordination, Research & Consultancy
Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad.
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU College of Engineering, Kukatpally, Hyderabad.
Email: 1mbhasker@gmail.com, 2blpswami@yahoo.com, 3bdeankumar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The cost of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is increasing day by day and the constructional cost of concrete
structures is becoming more and more expensive. In addition to this cement production causes atmospheric
pollution in many ways. OPC is the main binding material in the concrete mix and it cannot answer all the
problems faced by the concrete structures. Use of mineral admixtures like fly ash, Condensed Silica Fume (CSF)
as partial replacement of OPC in concrete helps to solve several problems faced by concrete structures. The
mineral admixtures which are available as industrial waste by products lead to economy in construction besides
imparting many beneficial properties to concrete. They help in the sustainability of concrete. Concrete is weak in
tension and this can be overcome to a considerable extent by adding a small percentage of steel fibres. With this,
besides tensile and flexural strengths, the elastic properties of concrete are very much improved resulting in
more stronger and ductile structural components.
In the present experimental investigation, fly ash and CSF were added in different percentages to produce triple
blended high strength concrete mixes, steel fibres are added in different percentages. The elastic properties of
the fibrous triple blended high strength concrete mixes are determined experimentally. The improvement in the
above properties as a result of triple blending and addition of fibres is highlighted in comparison with reference
concrete.
The results of the present work would help in the construction of structural components which are stronger,
ductile, defect free and economical.
Keywords Triple Blending, Flexural Strength, Youngs Modulus, Poissons Ratio, Ductility.
strengths, higher stiffness, better durability, when
compared to the conventional normal strength concrete
(NSC). Concrete of very high strength entered the field of
construction of high raised buildings and long span
bridges. In India, there are cases of using high strength
concrete for pre-stressed concrete bridges.
INTRODUCTION
Importance of Concrete
Concrete is one of the versatile heterogeneous materials,
civil engineering has ever known. With the advent of
concrete, civil engineering has touched highest peak of
technology. Concrete is a material with which any shape
can be cast and with equal strength or rather more
strength than the conventional building stones. It is the
material of choice where strength, performance,
durability, impermeability, fire resistance and abrasion
resistance are required.
The requirement of high strength concrete requires a

higher cementitious material in the concrete mixture,
which could be in the range of 400 kg. plus per m3.
Addition of pozzolanic admixture like the pozzolanic fly
ash (PFA) or condensed silica fume (CSF) help in the
formation of secondary C-S-H gel there by improving of
strength. The addition of pozzolanic admixture like the fly
ash used as admixture will reduce the strength gain for the
first 3 to 7 days of concrete will show gain beyond 7 days
and give a higher strength on long term. With the addition
of highly reactive pozzolonic admixtures like the silica
fume will start contributing in about 3 days.
High Strength Concrete

High Strength Concrete (HSC) is a relatively new
construction material. Technology for producing high
strength concrete has sufficiently advanced that concrete
with compressive strength greater than 40 Mpa are
commercially available and strength much higher than
that can be produced in laboratories. High strength
concrete offers significantly better structural engineering
properties, such as higher compressive and tensile
Mineral Admixtures
These days concrete is being used for wide varieties of
purposes to make it suitable in different conditions. In
56

Table 1: Design Mix Proportions by Weight for M60 Concrete
Proportions
1
Cement
1
Fine Aggregate
1.01
Coarse Aggregate
1.72
Water
0.33 of cement
590.94 Kg.
597.21 Kg.
1016.88 Kg.
195 Lit.
these conditions ordinary cement concrete may fail to

exhibit the required quality performance or durability. In
such cases, mineral admixtures are used to modify the
properties of ordinary cement concrete so as to make it
suitable for any situation. Mineral admixtures contribute
towards production of a stronger and more durable
concrete.
Remarks
Quantities required
for 1c.m. of concrete
Water
Potable water was used for concrete mixing.
M60 Design Mix
The concrete mix of M60 grade is designed using the
above stated materials and following the procedure of
DOE method. The mix proportions and materials required
for one cubic meter of concrete are given in table.1.
Previous Work
Several researchers investigated the properties of fibrous
concrete mixes and highlighted the improvement in the
properties of concrete achieved. Admixtures were tried to
improve the properties like strength and durability of
concrete. Limited work was carried out on triple blended
mixes.

The materials of concrete along with the mineral
admixtures were mixed dry and then water was added
gradually and again mixed in a pan mixture. Fly ash
percentage was varied as 0, 10, 20 and 30 whereas CSF
was added at 0 and 15 percent by weight. Steel fibres of
1mm diameter and 50mm long with an aspect ratio of 50
were added to each triple blended mix at 0, 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5 percent by volume of concrete. In all 32 combinations
of triple blended fibrous concrete mixes were prepared.
Cylindrical moulds of 150mm diameter and 300mm
length were used for casting of specimens. 2 nos. of
cylinders were cast for each combination. In all 64 nos. of
cylinders were cast. After 24 hrs. of air drying the
specimens were transferred to the curing tank and they
were tested at the age of 28 days. Mixing, casting and
curing was carried out as per the standard specifications.
DETAILS OF THE PRESENT EXPERIMENTAL

STUDY
The aim of the investigation is to study the elastic
properties of high strength concrete mix of M60 grade,
with a partial replacement of cement by silica fume and
fly ash. This includes the concept of triple blending of
cement with silica fume and fly ash. This triple blended
cements exploit the beneficial characteristics of both
pozzolonic materials in producing a better concrete. To
further fortify the tensile and flexural strengths including
the elastic properties like youngs modulus and poissons
ratio, steel fibres are added to produce optimum fibrous
triple blended cement concrete mixes. The investigation
concentrates on the determination of elastic properties by
taking M60 design mix as the reference concrete.
Testing
The following tests were conducted on the cured
specimens.
Workability
All the fresh concrete mixes were tested for workability
before casting by using the compacting factor apparatus.
Materials
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 53 grade (M/s.
Ultratech Ltd.) locally available river sand and crushed
granite metal (20mm nominal size) are selected as the
basic materials of concrete. All the materials were tested
and found to satisfy the relevant I.S. specifications.
The workability was maintained at medium level. When

the percentages of the mineral admixtures and fibres was
on the higher side, superplasticizer (SP430 Conplast) was
employed in small dosages to maintain the medium
workability.
Fly Ash and Condensed Silica Fume (CSF)

The mineral admixture fly ash was obtained from
Ramagundam Power Station of A.P. and CSF was
obtained from M/s. V.B. Ferro Alloys Ltd., Rudraram
near Hyderabad.
Elastic Modulus
To determine the youngs modulus of the matrix,
longitudinal extensometer was used. Fig.1 shows the
arrangement of the set up while testing in the standard
compression testing machine. Loading in the compression
testing machine was increased at the specified rate and
dial readings were noted at every stage. Upto the specified
loading level the readings of deformation were noted for
the calculation of youngs modulus as per the procedure
Superplasticizer
Complast 430 of M/s. Fosrock (India) Ltd., is employed
as the chemical admixture to maintain the workability
level.
57
outlined in I.S. 516. Loading was further continued till the

ultimate level till crushing has taken place.
Poissons Ratio
To determine the Poissons ratio of concrete, lateral
extensometer was employed. Following the above
procedure lateral deformations were also noted at various
load levels.
Fig. 4: Cracks on the Sample after Testing

The results of the experimental investigation are
presented in typical tables and graphs. The results are
discussed herein.
Tables and Graphs
Tables 2 to 4 show the variation in the values of youngs
modulus for typical combinations. Tables 5 to 8 show the
values of poissons ratio. Figs. 5 and 6 show the variation
of youngs modulus with fibre percentage for typical
combinations.
Fig. 1: Sample fixed in the compression testing machine
Triple Blended Concrete Mixes

Triple blending of cement by partially replacing cement
with pozzolonas like fly ash and condensed silica fume
contribute to the enhanced properties of the concrete mix.
By replacing the cement with readily and cheaply
available pozzolonas contribute to economy.
Use of Fibres in Concrete
Plain concrete possesses a very low tensile strength,
limited ductility and little resistance to cracking. Internal
micro cracks are inherently present in the concrete and its
poor tensile strength is due to the propagation of such
micro cracks, eventually leading to brittle fracture of the
concrete. It has been recognized that the addition of small,
closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibres to concrete
would act as crack arrester and would substantially
improve its static and dynamic properties and does not
notably increase the mechanical properties before failure
but governs the post failure behaviour. The addition of
fibres contribute to the enhanced properties in tensile
strength and flexural strength of the concrete.
Fig. 2: Loading Unit
Influence of Fly Ash on Youngs Modulus and

Poissons Ratio
Keeping the percentage of silica fume and steel fibre
percentage zero in the concrete mix, the increase in fly
ash content has considerably decreased the youngs
modulus as shown the tables and figures and has shown
an increase in the Poissons ratio. Keeping the steel fibre
Fig. 3: Longitudinal Extensometer Fixed to the Cylinder
58

Table 2: Youngs Modulus for E00 (Fly ash=0% CSF=0% Fibres=0%)
Load
(kN)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
Longitudinal
Extensometer
Reading
4.5
9
14
19
24
29
35
41
46
51
56
61
67
72
78
85
92
100
107
115
121
ReadingxL.C
LC=0.002mm
0.009
0.018
0.028
0.038
0.048
0.058
0.07
0.082
0.092
0.102
0.112
0.122
0.134
0.144
0.156
0.17
0.184
0.2
0.214
0.23
0.242
Compressive
Strain
Stress
(N/mm^2)
0.0000225
0.000045
0.00007
0.000095
0.00012
0.000145
0.000175
0.000205
0.00023
0.000255
0.00028
0.000305
0.000335
0.00036
0.00039
0.000425
0.00046
0.0005
0.000535
0.000575
0.000605
1.1317
2.263
3.3953
4.527
5.6588
6.7906
7.9233
9.0541
10.1859
11.3176
12.4494
13.581
14.7129
15.8447
16.9765
18.108
19.24
20.37
21.503
22.653
23.7671
Ec (N/mm^2)
50297.78
50288.89
48504.29
47652.63
47156.67
46831.72
45276
44166.34
44286.52
44382.75
44462.14
44527.87
43919.1
44013.06
43529.49
42607.06
41826.09
40740
40192.52
39396.52
39284.46
Remarks
Avg. Ec =
42607.06 N/mm^2
percentage zero and silica fume content equal to15

percent, with increase in fly ash content in the concrete
mix youngs modulus increased initially and decreased
with the increase in fly ash content as shown. The
poissons ratio has initially decreased and with the
increase in fly ash content it has increased as shown.
Keeping the silica fume percentage zero and fibre
percentage 0.5 in the concrete mix, with increase in fly
ash content, the youngs modulus has gradually decreased
as shown. Keeping the silica fume percentage constant of
15 percent and fibre percentage of 0.5 in the concrete mix,
with increase in fly ash content the youngs modulus has
gradually increased as shown the poissons ratio has
gradually decreased. Keeping the silica fume percentage
zero and fibre percentage 1.0 in the concrete mix, with
increase in fly ash content, the youngs modulus has a
gradual variation of decrease and increase as shown, the
poissons ratio also has a varied change.
fly ash content as shown, the poissons ratio has initially

decreased and later increased due to the increase in fly ash
content.
Keeping the silica fume percentage 15 and fibre

percentage 1.0 in the concrete mix, with increase in fly
ash content, the youngs modulus has a guadual increase
initially and a gradual decrease later due to the increase in
Influence of Fibres on Youngs Modulus
Influence of Silica Fume on Youngs Modulus and

Poissons Ratio
Keeping the silica fume percentage zero in the concrete
mix and varying percentages of fibres, the youngs
modulus has an decreasing graph as shown, the poissons
ratio shown an increase. With an increase in silica fume
content upto 15 percent in the concrete mix and fly ash
content kept constant, the youngs modulus of the mixes
have a gradual increasing graph, the poissons ratio shows
a gradual decrease. With an increase in silica fume
content upto 15 percent in the concrete mix and fly ash
content varying up to 30 percent, the youngs modulus
has an increase in graph initially but the values have come
down with an increase in fly ash content as shown.
The increase in fibre content in concrete mixes and

keeping the silica fume and fly ash contents constant has
shown a gradual increase in youngs modulus as shown.
59
Table 3: Youngs Modulus for E01 (Fly ash=0% CSF=0% Fibres=0.5%)
Load
(kN)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
Longitudinal
Extensometer
Reading
5
9
14
20
25
29
34
38
43
48
54
60
65
71
76
81
86
91
97
103
108
ReadingxL.C.
LC=0.002mm
0.01
0.018
0.028
0.04
0.05
0.058
0.068
0.076
0.086
0.096
0.108
0.12
0.13
0.142
0.152
0.162
0.172
0.182
0.194
0.206
0.216
Compressive
Strain
Stress
(N/mm^2)
0.000025
0.000045
0.00007
0.0001
0.000125
0.000145
0.00017
0.00019
0.000215
0.00024
0.00027
0.0003
0.000325
0.000355
0.00038
0.000405
0.00043
0.000455
0.000485
0.000515
0.00054
1.1317
2.263
3.3953
4.527
5.6588
6.7906
7.9233
9.0541
10.1859
11.3176
12.4494
13.581
14.7129
15.8447
16.9765
18.108
19.24
20.37
21.503
22.653
23.7671
Remarks
45268
50288.89
48504.29
45270
45270.4
46831.72
46607.65
47653.16
47376.28
47156.67
46108.89
45270
45270.46
44632.96
44675
44711.11
44744.19
44769.23
44336.08
43986.41
44013.15
Avg. Ec =
44675 N/mm^2
Table 4: Youngs Modulus for E12 (Fly ash=0% CSF=15% Fibres=1.0%)
Load
(kN)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
Longitudinal
Extensometer
Reading
5
10
16
22
30
39
48
57
66
68
69
70
72
73
76
79
84.5
88
88.5
81
Reading
0.01
0.02
0.032
0.044
0.06
0.078
0.096
0.114
0.132
0.136
0.138
0.14
0.144
0.146
0.152
0.158
0.169
0.176
0.177
0.162
Compressive
Strain
0.000025
0.00005
0.00008
0.00011
0.00015
0.000195
0.00024
0.000285
0.00033
0.00034
0.000345
0.00035
0.00036
0.000365
0.00038
0.000395
0.000423
0.00044
0.000443
0.000405
60
Stress
1.1317
2.263
3.3953
4.527
5.6588
6.7906
7.9233
9.0541
10.1859
11.3176
12.4494
13.581
14.7129
15.8447
16.9765
18.108
19.24
20.37
21.503
22.653
E
45268
45260
42441.25
41154.55
37725.33
34823.59
33013.75
31768.77
30866.36
33287.06
36085.22
38802.86
40869.17
43410.14
44675
45843.04
45538.46
46295.45
48594.35
55933.33
Remarks
Avg. Ec =
45843.04 N/mm^2

Table 5: Poissons Ratio Cement-100% Fly Ash-0% Silica Fume-0%
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Load
280
300
320
Extensometer
Reading
5
6
7
Reading
*LC
0.01
0.012
0.014
Lateral Strain
0.0000333
0.00004
0.0000466
Longitudinal
Strain
0.00036
0.00039
0.000425
VC
Stress
Remarks
Stress
Remarks
0.092596
0.102564
0.109804
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Load
280
300
320
Extensometer
Reading
8
9
10
Reading
*LC
0.016
0.018
0.02
Lateral
Strain
0.00005
0.00006
0.000066
Longitudinal
Strain
0.000365
0.00038
0.000395
VC
0.1363
0.1578
0.167
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Load
290
300
310
Extensometer
Reading
8
9
9
Reading
*LC
0.016
0.018
0.018
Lateral Strain
0.00005
0.00006
0.00006
Longitudinal
Strain
0.00034
0.000365
0.000385
VC
Stress
Remarks
Stress
Remarks
0.147059
0.164384
0.155844
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Load
360
400
420
Extensometer
Reading
12
15
19
Reading
*LC
0.024
0.03
0.038
Lateral Strain
0.00008
0.0001
0.000126667
Longitudinal
Strain
0.000575
0.000605
0.000635
VC
0.13913
0.165289
0.199475
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental investigation conducted, the
following conclusions are drawn.
1. By using triple blended cements a better concrete mix
possessing higher strength and elastic properties can
be produced.
2. Steel fibres in the concrete mix help in gaining tensile
strength and flexural strength in addition to improving
its elastic properties as well as crack resistance.
Fig. 5: Youngs Modulus with Fibre Percentage for 0% Fly
ash and 15% CSF
3. In the case of high strength concrete mixes as the

water cement ratio is low, superplasticizers are to be
added to maintain the required workability.
4. On increasing the fly ash content from 0-30
percentage and with no silica fume, compressive
strength is reduced as such elastic properties have
reduced.
5. When fly ash is used along with silica fume in triple
blended concrete mixes, the strength and elastic
properties can be maintained without reduction in
Youngs modulus.
6. The presence of silica fume in the concrete mix helps
in the strength gain. As the silica fume percentage
added is increased upto 15 percent, there is maximum
Fig. 6: Youngs Modulus with Fibre Percentage for 20% Fly

ash and 15% CSF
61
strength gain. Elastic modulus is increased and

Poissons ratio is decreased.
laboratory facilities in
7. The presence of silica fume compensates for the loss

of strength which occurs when higher percentages of
fly ash are used.
conducting
the
present
REFERENCES
[1]
IS 1344-1968 : Indian standard specification for

pozzolonas-Bureau of Indian Standards.
[2] IS 4031-1988 : Indian standard methods of physical test
for hydraulic cement first revision.
[3] IS 2386-1963 : Indian standard methods for aggregates of
concrete-Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[4] IS 383-1970 : Indian standard specification on for coarse
and fine aggregate for natural sources for concrete- 2
revision bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[5] IS 516-1959 : Method of test for strength of concrete
[6] IS 7869 (Part-2): Indian standard specification for
admixtures for concrete 1981.
[7] IS 456-2000 : Plain and reinforced concrete Indian
standard specification.
[8] A.M. Neville : Properties of Concrete English
language book society - 1998
[9] N. Krishnaraju: Design of Concrete Mix- CBS
publisher-1985
[10] M.S. Shetty : Concrete Technology- S.Chand and
company limited-2006.
[11] P.K. Mehtha & J.J.M. Paulo : Concrete micro structure
properties and materials-Mc Graw Hill publishers 1997.
8. Steel fibres in the concrete mix contribute towards

higher compressive strength, higher elastic modulus
and lesser Poissons ratio.
9. Triple blended concrete mix with 15 percent silica
fume and zero percent fly ash and 1.5 percent fibres is
giving the highest Young;s modulus and lowest
Poissons ratio.
10. On the whole, in almost all the mixes tried in the
investigation the elastic properties are fairly good
when compared to the reference mix (Fly ash=0%,
silica fume=0%, fibre=0%).
11. Triple blended concrete mixes with suitable
percentages of steel fibres serve all the requirements
and hence provide the best answer to the production of
high performance concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
62

Influence of Super Plasticizers on High Early Strength Concretes Made

with Special Cements
M. Kishore Kumar1, P.S. Rao2 and B.L.P. Swami3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, 2Director General, GVP-SIRC
GVP College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad
1
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the laboratory investigations of the research work carried out for the precast concrete
construction industry and in present day infrastructure development projects, to develop the concrete mix
proportions for getting high early strength concretes without steam curing. Compressive strength, workability,
super plasticizer dosage and water demand results were presented.
Keywords Cement, Compressive Strength, Super plasticizer and Workability.
early strength. Also the one day strength is to be
attainable without steam curing. It also makes an attempt
to identify the most optimal grades of cement from
amongst the available Indian cements for making the
required high strength/high early strength concretes.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this investigation is to develop a mix
proportions for high early strength concrete required for
the precast concrete construction industry. To prepare a
concrete mix which can give high early strength requires
proper selection of ingredients of concrete as well as
chemical admixtures if necessary so that a concrete
technologist can produce concretes for any specific
applications.
The experimental programme was divided into the

following three phases.
Tests on cement and other ingredients
Tests on fresh concrete
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Tests on hardened concrete
On the materials side one of the pre-requisites for

successful adoption of precast concrete technology is to
have facility for producing high strength concrete (to keep
concrete volumes low such that weights of members to be
handled is low) and also to have concretes which attain
adequate strength at an early age (to facilitate quick turnover of the moulds). Use of such high strength/high early
strength concretes is becoming more and more common
even in general construction activities in India.
Cement
Cement type is an important parameter in the design of

concrete mixes. IS: 456-2000 Code of Practice for Plain
and Reinforced Concrete recognizes Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) of 33, 43 and 53 grades, Portland
Pozzolana Cement (PPC) and Portland Slag Cement
(PSC) as the major classes of cement that can be used for
normal construction activities. Another grade of cement
OPC 53-S identical with the cement quality used by the
Indian Railways for their sleeper manufacturing units as
IRS/T-40-1985 [1] has also been introduced into the IS
specification 12269-1987 [2] (Amendment No.6 June
2000), but its use so far has been confined almost
exclusively to sleeper manufacturing purposes only which
use steam curing for obtaining the required very high
The IS Code requirements of chemical and physical

properties of OPC 53 and OPC 53 - S cements are given
in table 1 & table 2 along with IRS specifications. The
one day compressive strength of special cement OPC 53S cement was 20-26Mpa which is considerably higher
than tested for the OPC 53 grade cements and matched at
7days the BIS requirements. The properties of OPC 53
and OPC 53-S cements are given in table 3 (Tests are
carried out as per IS: 4031-1968).
The OPC 53 grade cement and the Special Cement OPC

53-S were tested for their compressive strength as per IS:
12269-1987. Besides compressive strength the rate of
hardening in the early hours was also studied indirectly by
measuring the heat development of a cement paste in a
thermos container, which enabled semi-adiabatic
conditions.
The basic difference in the chemical specifications of

OPC-53 and OPC 53-S cements is that there is a special
provision for Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) and Tricalcium
Silicate (C3S) in the case of OPC 53-S cement which is
responsible of giving high early strength to the cement.
63
Table 1: IS Code requirements of Chemical Properties of OPC 53 and OPC 53- S grade Cements along with IRS
specifications
S.
No
1
2
Particulars
3
4
5
6
7
Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)

Alumina to that of Iron oxide Ratio
% (A/F)
In soluble Residue (% by mass)
Magnesium Oxide (% by mass)
Sulphuric Anhydride (% by mass)
Total Loss on Ignition (% by mass)
Total Chloride (% by mass)
8
9
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) %

Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) %
Requirement of
OPC-53 grade
As per IS:12269-1987
Requirement of
IRS/T-40 -1985
0.66 to 1.02
0.80 to 1.02
Requirement of
OPC-53 S grade, as
per IS:12269-1987,
Amendment No.6,
June 2000,
0.80 to 1.02
0.66 Min.
0.66 Min.
0.66 Min.
3.00 Max
6.00 Max
3.00 Max
4.00 Max
0.10 Max. (for N.C.)
0.05 Max. (for P.C.)
---
2.00 Max
5.00 Max
5.00 Max
4.00 Max
2.00 Max
5.00 Max
5.00 Max
4.00 Max
0.10 Max. (for N.C.)
0.05 Max. (for P.C.)
10.00 Max.
45.00 Min.
-10.00 Max.
45.00 Min.
Table 2: IS Code requirements of Physical Properties of OPC 53 and OPC 53- S grade Cements along with IRS
specifications
S.
No
1
2
Particulars
Fineness (m2/kg) Blains
Setting Time (Min.)
Initial Setting Time
Final Setting Time
Expansion
Le.Chatelier (mm)
Auto Clave (%)
3 Days
7 Days
28 Days
Requirement of
OPC-53 grade
As per IS:12269-1987
Requirement of
IRS/T-40 -1985
225 Min.
370 Min.
Requirement of
OPC-53 S grade, as
per IS:12269-1987,
Amendment No.6,
June 2000,
370 Min.
30 Min.
600 Max.
60 Min.
600 Max.
60 Min.
600 Max.
10.00 Max.
0.8 Max.
-0.8 Max.
5.00 Max.
0.8 Max.
27 Min.
37 Min.
53 Min.
Not specified
37.5 Min.
Not specified
Not specified
37.5 Min.
Not specified
Similarly the differences in the physical properties of

those two cements include higher fineness of OPC 53-S
cement which is of 370 (m2/Kg) against 225 (m2/Kg) of
OPC-53 cements. The compressive strengths of cement
samples used by the author are given in table 4.4. It can
be seen that the cement samples used satisfy the strength
requirements of the relevant Indian codes. The
compressive strength of 3 samples of OPC 53 and 2
samples of OPC 53-S grade cements tested in the
laboratory are given in table 4 and figure 1.
Table 3: Properties of OPC 53 and OPC 53-S grade cements
Fineness of cement
Normal Consistency
Initial Setting Time
Final Setting Time
Soundness as per Lechatlier
OPC 53
grade
cement
330 m2/kg*
28%
110 minutes
180 minutes
OPC 53-S
grade
cement
402 m2/kg*
29.5 %
130 minutes
220 minutes
1.0mm
1.0mm
Reported by the supplier
64
Table 4: Compressive Strength of the OPC 53 and OPC 53-S grade cements at different ages
Compressive Strength in N/mm2
OPC-53 Sample, C-I
OPC-53 Sample, C-II
OPC-53 Sample, C-III
OPC 53-S, Sample I, (SC-I)
OPC 53-S, Sample II, (SC-I)
Requirement of OPC 53 and OPC-53
S grade cement, as per IS: 12269 1987, Amendment No.6, June 2000.
1 Day
9.8
10.2
11.2
23.2
25.7
---
OPC 53
OPC 53-S
Age of Testing
3 Days
7 Days
28.4
39.2
28.8
38.6
29.2
38.4
35.4
48.4
36.6
49.2
27
37
37.5
--
28 Days
54.4
55.0
54.6
56.0
58.2
53
--
% gain in strength compared

to 28-day strength
Compressive strength of OPC 53 and OPC

53 S grade Cements
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
OPC 53
Sample,
C-I
10 Age in
15Days 20
25
30
Fig. 1: Compressive strength of OPC 53 and OPC 53S

grade Cements at different ages
Fig. 3: Temperature rise during hardening of OPC 53 &

OPC 53 S Cements
Heat of Hydration of Cements
From the figure 3 (C-I, C-II and C-III are different

samples of OPC-53 cements and SC-I & SC-II are two
samples of OPC 53-S cements) it can be clearly seen that
the rate of temperature rise as well as maximum
temperature reached during hydration are considerably
higher for OPC 53-S cements as compared to those
obtained in the case of OPC 53. The measured heat
generation confirms the strength test results and shows
that the sampled OPC 53-S cements are better suited than
the OPC 53 grade cement for high early strength concrete.
In addition to the compressive strength, the temperature

rise during hardening of OPC 53 and OPC 53-S cements
were tested. The test setup is shown in figure 2. For the
test a cement paste consisting of 200g cement and 70g
water (water cement ratio of 0.35) was mixed in a plastic
beaker. Immediately after mixing, the beaker was placed
in a thermos container and equipped with a thermo-wire.
A number of four specimens can be tested at a time by
connecting it to the multi thermostat. The temperature
gain was recorded over about 22hrs. and the profile of
temperature rise observed is shown in figure 3.
Fine Aggregate
The river sand obtained from River Godavari was used
which was having the properties as Grading of River sand
conformed to zone II as per IS 383, Specific Gravity :
2.53, Fineness Modulus : 2.91
Coarse Aggregate
Crushed quarried granite chips were used as coarse
aggregate having the properties as Specific Gravity: 3.01
for 20mm aggregate and for 10mm aggregate 2.96,
Fineness Modulus : 7.36, water Absorption : 0.4%
Water and Water-Cement Ratio
Good, potable water was used for making concrete.
Fig. 2: Heat Generation of Cement Test Setup
65
Table 5: Flow Test results on Cement samples both OPC 53 & OPC 53-S with super plasticizers
Super Plasticizer
SP I (MCE)
SP IX (MCE)
SP III (SMF)
SP II (SMF)
SP IV (SNF)
SP V (SNF)
SP VI (SNF)
SP VII (SNF)
SP VIII (SNF)
SP X (SNF)
SP - XI (SNF)
OPC 53
Sample C-I
18.3
22.0
13.5
11.8
17.0
17.5
19.0
0.00
18.5
17.8
18.5
Cement Samples ( Flow in mm)

OPC 53 Sample OPC 53 Sample
OPC 53-S
C-II
C-III
Sample SC-I
23.2
20.3
20.3
20.5
22.0
23.0
14.9
9.5
9.5
16.8
7.3
7.3
19.3
19.0
19.0
17.5
18.8
18.5
18.0
20.5
21.5
17.8
20.0
20.0
17.8
19.8
22.0
17.0
19.5
13.0
16.5
18.5
18.5
Water-cement ratio can be obtained only by conducting

trial mixes, but some guide line value is needed for
ascertaining the compatibility of super plasticizers. As per
IRS/T-40 1985, for railway sleepers manufacturing the
water-cement ratio of the concrete mix was 0.35. W/c
ratio near about this value was adopted also for trial
mixes.
OPC 53-S
Sample SC-II
23.0
24.0
6.5
9.5
18.3
8.5
22.0
21.0
22.0
14.0
19.0
From the flow characteristics shown in Table 5 it can be

seen that the Multi carboxylic ether (MCE) group of super
plasticizers have shown very good characteristics for all
cement samples, whereas the Sulphonated melamine
formaldehyde (SMF) super plasticizers did not show
much of a flow in all the 5 cement samples. The
performance
of
the
Sulphonated
naphthalene
formaldehyde (SNF) group also was good for 4 samples
out of 5 cement samples but somewhat inconsistent in one
sample. Hence for further studies super plasticizers from
the two groups Multi carboxylic ether (MCE) group and
Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF) group
were considered.
Super Plasticizer
11 super plasticizers were chosen, two from the Multi
carboxylic either (MCE) family, two from the
Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) family and 7
from the Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF)
family. More number of samples were chosen from SNF
family because they are more commonly available than
the other types.
Heat of Hydration of Cement Paste with Super

Plasticizer
It is known that plasticizing admixtures have the tendency
to retard the cement hydration to a certain extend. The
retarding potential of the investigated admixtures were
tested by measuring the temperature gain of a cement
paste with and without admixture over time. The cement
paste was prepared as mentioned for the measurement of
the hydration heat. For the paste with super plasticizer 1%
of the respective super plasticizer was added. The
temperature development was then measured in thermos
containers as mentioned. The temperature developments
for different super plasticizers for one particular cement
SC-II of OPC 53-S grade are shown in figures 4 to 6.
The relative compatibility of 11 different samples of super

plasticizers were tested using the Flow Table Method as
per Chinese standard GB 8076-1997 at a water-cement
ratio of 0.35. This w/c ratio was chosen because the w/c
ratio in the mixes to be designed was expected to be in
this region. For the test 100gms of cement was mixed
with 35ml of water (water cement ratio of 0.35). After
mixing, super plasticizer 1% by wt of cement, was added
and the well mixed paste was poured onto a glass plate.
The diameter of the spread paste which was used to
compare the compatibility of the admixtures. The flow
value of this was indicated by the average of the two
perpendicularly crossing diameters of flow spread.
In figure 4, the cement paste with SP-XI is not gaining

any temperature within 21 hours and subsequently no
strength could be developed. The conclusion of the
temperature graph could be confirmed by the still liquid
cement paste extracted from the thermos container after
21hours. Hence super plasticizer SP-XI is not considered
for further tests because of delay in attaining the
temperature. That an increase in the super plasticizer
7-8 hours. From the above graph the super plasticizers
SP-I and SP-IX of MCE group and SP-VIII of SNF group
The flow tests were conducted for compatibility of the

different super plasticizers namely Multi carboxylic ether
(MCE), Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) and
Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF) with OPC
53 grade cement of different samples C-I, C-II and C-III
and OPC 53-S grade cement of samples SC-I and SC-II
are shown in the table 5. As many as 11 different super
plasticizers were tested with each cement.
66
SELECTED CEMENT TYPE AND TARGET

CONCRETE STRENGTH
Temperature Development of Cement

Paste with and without Admixtures over
Time
70
Temperature, C
65
60
55
OPC 53 grade cement and special cement OPC 53-S are

selected from the compressive strength tests as well as the
heat of hydration tests of the cement for the investigated
cements. The concrete mix should give a target
compressive strength of 50 N/mm2 at 28 days.
No Admixture SC-II
1% SP-XI
SC-II
1% SP-IX
SC-II
1% SP-X
SC-II
50
45
The High Early Strength to the concrete mix is required in

manufacturing of concrete railway sleepers, precast
concrete products like pipes, poles and prestressed
concrete structural elements in bridge construction with
proper dosage of cement content, water cement ratio and
super plasticizer. Attempts were therefore to be made to
meet the more stringent requirement that the concrete
should attain a strength of the order of 15 to 20 N/mm2 in
16 hours (high early strength concrete) without steam
curing. In the process it was also attempted to reduce the
cement content of 480 Kg/m3 used in the sleeper
manufacturing units, to a value in the neighborhood of
400 Kg/m3 in order to reduce the cost of concrete. And
also it was aimed that the fresh concrete should have a
good workability which was required in the precast
industry (slump of not less than 150mm).
40
35
30
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122
Elapsed Time, hours
Fig. 4: Retarding Effect of Super plasticisers with OPC 53-S

cement of sample SC-II
Table 6: Basic Mix Proportions for Concrete Trials with

OPC 53
Material
OPC 53 Grade Cement
Sand 0/5mm (Zone II)
Aggregates 5/10mm
Aggregates 10/20mm
Water content
w/c-Ratio
Super Plasticizer
Fig. 5:Retarding Effect of Super plasticizers with OPC 53-S

Content
400 kg/m
607 kg/m
695 kg/m
695 kg/m
220 kg/m
Varies (0.38-0.43)
% as per Manufacturers
Recommendation
As part of these investigations, trial mixes have been cast

using cement OPC 53 grade cement with different cement
samples C-I, C-II and C-III with a cement content of 400
Kg/m3 and with super plasticizer. For the w/c ratio in the
expected range of 0.35 to 0.45 (based on the experience of
sleeper manufacturing) a few trial mixes without super
plasticizers were tried. But all of these gave zero slump.
Hence it was decided to have also an appropriate % of
super plasticizer added to the mix in order to attain a
slump of desirable magnitude. The basic concrete mix
proportions used for the trials mixes are shown in table: 6.
Fig. 6: Retarding Effect of Super plasticizers with OPC 53-S

dosage leads to an increased retardation (1% SP-II and

2% SP-II) is shown in figure 5. All super plasticizers
shown in figure 6 are retarding, this can be seen by the
delay in temperature increase compared to the reference
mix without admixture. While SP-I and SP-IX retard the
cement by about 3 4 hours and SP-VIII is retarding by
are having higher flow. Hence from amongst the super
plasticizers tested they can be considered to be better
suited for use with OPC 53-S grade cement.
The following mixing sequence was arrived at after

several trials optimizing the workability. All the
ingredients were first mixed in dry condition in the
concrete drum mixer for one minute. Then 70% of
calculated amount of water was added to the dry mix and
mixed thoroughly for one minute. The remaining 30% of
67
water was mixed with the super plasticizer and poured

into the mixer at the final stage and mixed thoroughly for
another one minute before the concrete is taken from the
mixer. The concrete was filled in the cube moulds of
150mmx150mmx150mm and were compacted by using
table vibrating machine. Because strengths of concrete
were to be ascertained not only at 28 days but also at
other ages, a minimum of 12 cubes were cast in each mix.
A minimum of 3 cubes were tested to ascertain any
particular value and the mean thereof was taken as the
result.
of samples SC-I and SC-II with cement content of 400

Kg/m3 and with super plasticizer. The basic concrete mix
proportions used for the trial mixes with OPC 53-S are
shown in table: 8. The mix design proportions by the
sleeper factories have been taken as guidelines for
arriving at these proportions.
Table 8: Basic Mix Proportions for Concrete Trials with
OPC 53-S
Material
OPC 53-S Cement
Aggregates 5/10mm
Aggregates 10/20mm
Super plasticizer
Water content
w/c-Ratio
Test Results on Fresh Concrete Mixes and Hardened

Concrete Mixes with Opc 53 Cement
The concrete mixes were prepared by using OPC 53
grade cements of different brands with different super
plasticizers (dosages were selected as per the
manufacturers recommendation with the water/cement
ratio of 0.35 to 0.40). The workability (slump) and
compressive strength tests were conducted on the
investigated trial concrete mixes and are shown in table 7.
Test results from two trial mixes T4 and T5 made with

super plasticizers SP-IV and SP-I are shown in table 9 It
can be seen that it was possible to obtain a value as high
as 22 N/mm2 concrete strength at 16 hours even with
normal curing. But the slump with zero value was
unsatisfactory.
Table 7: Concrete Trials with OPC 53 grade cements with

super plasticizer
Compressive
Strength at
Days
(N/mm)
Trial Code
Kg/m
Cement
Content
Type
Water Content (Kg/m)
W/C Ratio
Admixtur % ^by Wt
e Content Type
Slump (mm)
Unit Weight (Kg/m)
1 day
3 days
7 days
28 days
T1
400
C-I*
172
0.43
0.75
SP-I
80
2.433
8.0
10.5
19.0
31.1
T2
400
C-II*
163
0.38
1.37
SP-III
60
2.584
10.8
22.8
34.1
42.3
Content
400 to 420 kg/m
800 kg/m
400 kg/m
800 kg/m
0.7 to 1.8 % by wt. of cement.
152 kg/m
0.37 to 0.39
T3
450
C-III*
170
0.38
1.00
SP-IV
0
2.621
12.1
17.9
33.3
49.3
Table 9: Concrete Trials with Special Cement OPC 53-S

Grade
Trial Code
Cement
Content
Kg/m
Type

W/C Ratio
Admixture
% ^by Wt
Content
Type
Slump (mm)
Unit Weight (Kg/m)
16 hrs
18 hrs
20 hrs
24 hrs
Compressive
Strength at
Days
(N/mm)
Note: C-I*, C-II* and C-III* were different brands of OPC 53

grade cements
The concrete trials confirmed the perception that common

Grade 53 cement i.e. OPC 53 grade cement is not that
suitable for the high early strength concrete needed for the
Pre-cast elements production. Even with a low w/c-ratio
of 0.38 the concrete reached the 1day compressive
strength of only about 8 -10 N/mm ( table 7, mixes T1
and T2). With cement content increased to 450kg/m (mix
T3) the strength improved slightly to about 12 N/mm at
24hrs.
T4
400
OPC 53-S
(SC-I)
155
0.39
0.84
SP-IV
0
2.530
16.3
18.7
22.4
27.1
T5
400
OPC 53-S
(SC-II)
152
0.38
0.70
SP-I
0
2.533
22.4
24.9
27.8
31.7
Note: SC-I and SC-II are the two samples of OPC-53S cement
Hence further trails for concrete mix were carried out

with the special cement OPC 53-S cement with other
super plasticizers. Keeping the cement content as 400
Kg/m3 and water cement ratio as 0.39, trial mixes T6, T7
and T8 with different super plasticizers having
appropriate dosage as recommended by the
manufacturers, were tried. The mix particulars and the
results are shown in table 10. The investigations on fresh
concrete have however shown that once again the super
plasticizer SP-II, SP-III and SP-IV did not give the
Test Results on Fresh Concrete Mixes and Hardened

Concrete Mixes with Opc 53-S Cement
After getting the results of the concrete trials with OPC 53
cement, concrete trials were made with OPC 53-S cement
68
required slump of an order of 150mm. That the super

plasticizers SP-II and SP-III belonging to the Sulphonated
Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF) family did not give
satisfactory slump values was in conformity with the
results of compatibility tests carried out earlier. Hence
these super plasticizers were not considered for further
trials.
grade with super plasticizers SP-VIII and SP-IX are

shown in table 12.
Grade
Trial Code
T9
T10
T11
T12
Kg/m
400
400
420
400
Cement
Content
Type
SC-I SC-I SC-I SC-II
Water Content
155
155
155
152
(Kg/m)
W/C Ratio
0.39 0.37 0.39 0.38
Admixture
% ^by
0.75 0.62 1.00 0.75
Content
Wt
Type
SP-I SP-I SP-I SP-I
Slump (mm)
50
100
20
20
Unit Weight (Kg/m)
2.530 2.454 2.558 2.663
1 day
24.2 24.9 30.0 31.7
3 days
33.3 33.5 39.0 35.0
7 days
37.3 38.0 44.1 51.3
28 days 39.3 51.5 47.4 56.3

Grade
Compressive
Strength
at .hours
and days
(N/mm)
Kg/m
Type
Water Content ( Kg/m)
W/C Ratio
Admixture % ^by Wt
Content
Type
Slump (mm)
Unit Weight (Kg/m)
1 day
3 days
7 days
28 days
T6
420
SC-I
160
0.38
2.0
SP-II
0
2.598
35.4
45.7
50.4
53.7
T7
400
SC-I
155
0.39
2.0
SP-III
0
2.568
30.5
39.7
45.3
40.0
T8
400
SC-I
155
0.39
0.7
SP-IV
0
2.530
27.1
28.4
42.1
46.8
Compressive
Strength
at .hours
and days
(N/mm)
Trial Code
Cement
Content
Note: SC-I and SC-II are the two samples of OPC-53S cement
Grade
Note: SC-I represents the sample of OPC-53S cement
As the Preliminary studies on compatibility of super

plasticizers with OPC-53S grade cement have indicated
that SP-I belonging to the latest series Multi Carboxylic
Either (MCE) group of super plasticizers could be a good
choice. The trail mix T5 which used SP-I as super
plasticizer gave high early strength of 22 N/mm2 at 16
hours (table 9 but exhibited zero slump. So it was
attempted to see whether any modification in the dosages
of SP-I could perhaps give better workability. Four trial
mixes T9 to T12 (Table 11) have been tried with cement
sample SC-I as well as SC-II and with super plasticizer
percentage varying between 0.62 to 1.00. But these mixes
have also shown inadequate slump characteristics except
in the trial mix T-10. Hence the super plasticizer SP-I was
also not considered for further trials.
Trial Code
Cement Content
Kg/m
Type
at .hours and days
(N/mm)

W/C Ratio
Admixture
% ^by Wt
Content
Type
Slump (mm)
Unit Weight (Kg/m)
16 hrs
18 hrs
20 hrs
24 hrs
3 days
7 days
28 days
It is relevant to note here that although SP-I showed good

compatibility when tested with pure cement, it did not
function satisfactorily in the concrete mix. This shows
that the compatibility tests on super plasticizers can only
be taken as guidelines and final confirmation of the
usefulness of the Super plasticizers is to be proved only
by a trial mix.
T13
400
SC-II
152
0.38
1.5
SP-VIII
170
2.526
16.7
20.7
22.1
28.4
29.8
42.2
48.8
T14
400
SC-II
152
0.38
0.90
SP-IX
180
2.572
21.3
22.9
24.3
25.2
33.5
37.7
51.5
From the table 12 it can be observed that it was possible

to get the necessary high early strength concrete even by
reducing the cement content from 480 Kg/m3 to 400
Kg/m3 using the super plasticizers SP-VIII and SP-IX.
The slump values of 170/180mm and the 28 day
compressive strengths were also as per required target
values.
Therefore further investigations were carried out with the

super plasticizers SP-VIII of Sulphonated Naphthalene
Formaldehyde (SNF) group and SP-IX of Multi
Carboxylic Either (MCE) group. The early strength
development of concrete mixes with cement OPC 53-S
69
The mix proportions finally arrived at for high early

strength concrete mix are shown in table 13.
OPC 53-S grade cement with a Blaines fineness value

of 375 m2/kg is better suited than OPC 53 grade
cement with a Blaines fineness of 225 m2/kg
Table 13: Mix proportions for high early strength Concrete

Mix
Material
OPC 53-S Cement
Aggregates 5/10mm
Aggregates 10/20mm
Super plasticizer
Water content
w/c-Ratio
4. The mix proportions developed for making high

strength/high early strength (50 MPa at 28 days/ 15 to
20 at 16 hours) concretes using OPC 53-S Grade
Cements with cement consumption as low as 400
kg/m3 (compared to 480 kg/m3 used by sleeper
manufacturer) can be used as guidelines by the
construction industry for developing their own trial
mixes.
Content
400 kg/m
800 kg/m
400 kg/m
800 kg/m
0.9 % by wt. of cement of
SP-IX of MCE group
(or)
1.5 % by wt. of cement of
SP-VIII of SNF group
152 kg/m
0.38
5. It is possible to make concretes of M50 also by using

OPC 53 grade, with Blaines fineness around 225
m2/kg, but the corresponding 16 hours strength will be
only around 10 N/mm2.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
CONCLUSIONS
1. When it is attempted to design high strength concrete
mixes with high early strength using super plasticizer,
the Sulfonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF) super
plasticizers do not give required slump and strength
even when added in high dosages.
[3]
[4]
2. The Sulfonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde (SNF)

based super plasticizers require higher dosage
compared to Multi Carbaxylat Ether (MCE) group for
the same slump, keeping all other parameters same for
the required strength.
[5]
[6]
3. For making high early strength concretes of the order

of 15 to 20 N/mm2 in 16 hours without steam curing,
70
IRS/T-40-1985, Indian Railways Standard Specification

for Special grade cement for use in concrete sleepers.
IS 12269:1987, Specification for 53 grade ordinary
Portland cement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
First Reprint, September, 1993.
Code of Practice for Precast Concrete Conctruction-2003,
Buildings Department, the Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, October,
2003.
Shetty.M.S., Klaus Muenz, Norbert Gall, Delhi Metro:
Quality Control of Concrete for under Ground Secton
The Indian Concrete Journal, April 2005, pp. 11-21.
Portland cement Association, Concrete Technology
Today, Vol.15, No.1, March,1994.
Collepardi M., Admixtures used to enhance placing
characteristics of concrete, Cement Concrete Composite
Vol.20, 1998, pp.103-112.

Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete Admixtured

with Fly Ash and Silica Fume Behaviour and Properties
S. Vijaya Kumar1, M. Jaganaiah2, P. Sravana3 and B.L.P. Swami4
1
Associate Professor, 2Technical Assistant, 4Professor, Co-ordinator, Research & Consultancy
Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU College of Engineering, Kukatpally, Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
SCC is generally defined as the concrete that does not need compaction. It means SCC gets compacted
without external efforts like vibration, floating, or poking. The mix therefore is required to have the ability of
flowing, filling voids and being stable. The present experimental investigation deals with the strength properties
of fibrous SCC with triple blending. Fly ash and condensed silica fume (CSF) are both employed as replacement
to cement at various percentages to give triple blending. By doing this kind of triple blending, it is expected to
derive the beneficial properties of both the mineral admixtures. Concrete mixtures of two grades M25 and M30
are designed and tried for the SCC. Steel fibres of different aspect ratios ranging from 15-25 are tried in the
present investigation. SCC mixtures with various combinations were tested for workability, compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength. Comparisons are made. Based on the experimental
investigation carried out in the present project, important and practically useful conclusions are drawn.
Keywords Triple Blending, Self Compacting, Superplasticiser, VMA, Flowability.
INTRODUCTION
Development of Self-Compacting Concrete for

Modern Concrete Construction
Preparation of Self Compacting Concrete
Due to a gradual reduction in the number of skilled

workers in Japans construction industry, a similar
reduction in the quality of construction work took place.
As a result of this fact, one solution for the achievement
of durable concrete structures independent of the quality
of construction work was the employment of Selfcompacting concrete, which could be compacted into
every corner of a formwork, purely by means of its own
weight.
Development of self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a

desirable achievement in the construction industry in
order to overcome problems associated with cast-in place
concrete. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is an
innovative concrete which does not require vibration for
placing and compaction. It is able to flow under its own
weight completely filling form work and achieving full
compaction even in the presence of congested
reinforcement. The hardened concrete is dense,
homogeneous and has the same engineering properties
and durability as traditional vibrated concrete. With
regard to its composition, self- compacting concrete
consists of the same components as conventionally
vibrated concrete, which are cement, aggregates, and
water, with the addition of chemical and mineral
admixtures in different proportions. Usually, the chemical
admixtures used are high-range water reducers (super
plasticizers) and viscosity-modifying agents, which
change the rheological properties of concrete. Mineral
admixtures are used as an extra fine material, besides
cement, and in some cases, they replace cement. In this
study, the cement content was partially replaced with
mineral admixtures, like fly ash and silica fume.
Admixtures improve the flowing and strengthening
characteristics of the concrete.
Advantages of Self-Compacting Concrete

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) can be classified as an
advanced construction material. The SCC as the name
suggests, does not require to be vibrated to achieve full
compaction. This offers many benefits and advantages
over conventional concrete like Reduction in site
manpower, Better surface finishes, Easier placing, Higher
strength, Lower overall costs etc.
Applications of Self-Compacting Concrete
Applications of self-compacting concrete is summarized
as Bridges (anchorage, arch, beam, tower, pier, joint
between beam & girder), Box culvert, Buildings,
Concrete filled steel columns, Tunnels (lining, immersed
tunnel. Fill of survey tunnel), Dams (concrete around
structure), Concrete products (block, culvert, wall, water
71
tank, slab and segment), Diaphragm walls, Tanks (side

wall, joint between side wall and slab).
iv. To use triple blended cement by employing two

mineral admixtures.
Brief Review of Pioneering Work
v. To use steel fibres at different percentages and

different aspect ratios to produce fibrous triple
blended SCC.
Narayanan, R (6) studied the workability characteristics

of steel fibres reinforced concrete (SFRC) and concluded
that workability is decreased with increase in fibre
reinforcement. Okamura and Ouchi (8) have developed
new type of concrete, which can be compacted into every
corner of a formwork purely by means of its own weight,
was proposed by Okamura et al(8) in 1986. Ozawa(10)
(1989) completed the first prototype of self-compacting
concrete using materials already available in the market.
By using different types of super plasticizers, he studied
the workability of concrete and developed a concrete,
which was very workable.
Materials Used
Cement 53 Grade
Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade from the local
market was used and tested for physical and chemical
properties as per IS: 4013-1988 and found to be
confirming to various specifications of IS 10269-1987.
Fine Aggregate
In the present investigation, fine aggregate is natural river
sand obtained from local market. The physical properties
of fine aggregate like specific gravity, bulk density,
gradation and fineness modulus are tested in accordance
with IS-2386.
EFNARC-Proposals for Mix Composition

In designing the mix it is most useful to consider the
relative proportions of the key components by Volume
rather than by mass. The requirements are;
Coarse Aggregate
The crushed coarse aggregate of 10mm maximum size is
obtained from the local crushing point. The physical
properties like specific gravity, bulk density, gradation
and fineness modulus were tested in accordance with IS2386.
Water/powder ratio by volume of 0.80 to 1.10

Total powder content - 160 to 240 litres (400-600 kg)
per cubic meter.
Coarse aggregate content normally 28 to 35 per cent
by volume of the mix.
Fly Ash
In the present investigation work, the TYPE-II fly ash
used as cement replacement material was obtained from
Ramagundam Thermal Power Station in Andhra Pradesh.
The specific surface of fly ash is found to be
4750cm^2/gm by Blaines permeability apparatus.
Water/cement ratio is selected based on requirements

in EN 206. Typically water content does not exceed
210 litre/m3.
The sand content balances the volume of the other
constituents.
Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA)

The inclusion of VMA ensures the homogeneity and the
reduction of the tendency of the highly fluid mix to
segregate. Gelenium-2 VMA of M/s BASF India Ltd.,
was used for this work.
Details of the Present Investigation

The present study deals with fibrous self-compacting
concrete with triple blending. This triple blending
includes the replacement of 15% of cement by fly ash and
also replacement of 10% of cement by silica fume in
every mix. Chemical admixtures like superplasticizer and
viscosity modifying agent are also used for better
flowability and workability. Strength properties of fibre
reinforced self compacting concrete admixtured with fly
ash and CSF are studied.
Superplasticizer
Superplasticizer B233of M/S. BASF India Ltd., was
employed in the present investigation.
Steel Fibres
Mild steel fibres of 0.9mm diameter with three aspect
ratios were employed.
The objectives of the present experimental study that was
conducted are given below:
Water
Potable water is used for mixing and curing.
i. To design and try two basic concrete mixes of M-25

and M-30 grades.
Designed Concrete Mix Proportions for M-25 and

M-30 Grades
ii. Development of SCC mixes with the least amount of

cement but with a target compressive strength
Concrete mixes of M-25 and M-30 grades are designed as

per IS: 10262-2009. In the present experimental
investigation mineral admixtures of fly ash and CSF are
iii. To use the lowest possible water/powder ratio in the

development of the SCC mixes.
72
Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete Admixtured with Fly Ash and Silica Fume Behaviour and Properties
employed at 15% and 10% respectively as replacements

to OPC towards triple blending.
increasing with increase in fibre percentage. There is

increase in the compressive strength with aspect ratio also
but in the present investigation the maximum percentage
of fibre is kept at 1 and the maximum aspect ratio was 25.
Hence, it is clear that upto certain optimum percentage
and optimum aspect ratio, steel fibres contribute towards
strength increase. Beyond 1% fibre percent and beyond an
aspect ratio of 25, it can be understood that the flow of
SCC will be adversely affected and it may not satisfy
EFNARC specifications. Practical applications become
difficult. Hence, the optimum values may be taken as
fibre percent 1% and aspect ratio of 25.
Workability and Test Methods for SCC

The following tests were conducted on the fibrous triple
blended SCC mixes for workability.
1. Slump flow The slump flow is used to assess the
horizontal free and the filling ability of SCC in the
absence of obstructions. It is recommended to
maintain slump flow value as 650 to 800mm.
2. V-funnel This test is used along with slump flow test
to assess the flowability of SCC.
The Above Tests were Conducted as Per Efnarc

Specifications and the Results are Found to be
Satisfactory.
It can be seen from table.2 the tensile strength of SCC of

M-25 and M-30 grades is increasing with increase in fibre
percentage. There is increase in the tensile strength with
aspect ratio also. But in the present investigation the
maximum percentage of fibre is kept at 1 and the
maximum aspect ratio is 25. Hence, it is clear that upto
certain optimum percentage and optimum aspect ratio,
steel fibre contributes towards strength increase.
Testing for Compression, Split Tension and Flexure

Required number of cube, cylinder and prism specimens
were cast for various combinations of S.C.C., cured for 28
days and tested for compressive strength, split tensile
strength and flexural strength. Casting, curing and testing
were carried out as per standard specifications. The
strength results are given in table.2.
Flexural Strength
The flexural strength results are shown in the table.2. It
can be seen that the flexural strength of SCC of M-25 and
M-30 grades is increasing with increase in fibre
percentage. There is increase in the flexural strength with
aspect ratio also but in the present investigation the
maximum percentage of fibre is kept at 1 and the
maximum aspect ratio was 25. Hence, it is clear that upto
certain optimum percentage and optimum aspect ratio,
steel fibre contribute towards strength increase.
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

The strength results are given in table.2. The loaddeflection plots are given in figs. 1 and 2.
Workability Results
For the fibre reinforced triple blended SCC, the results of
workability tests are shown in table.1. For the various
mixes considered both for M-25 and M-30 mixes, the
slump flow times (50cms diameter) results are between 2
to 5 seconds. Similarly the V-Funnel timings are in
between 8 to 12 seconds. The measured timings satisfy
the EFNARC specifications for SCC mixes. It is generally
observed that the timings are on the higher side for higher
percentages of steel fibre and higher aspect ratios.
Load Deflection Characteristics

The load deflection characteristics are plotted and shown
in figs. 1 and 2 for typical percentages. It can be seen that
there is a smooth increase of deflection with the increase
in the total load and the behaviour is ductile. The
specimens have failed after reaching the ultimate load and
only a few readings could be taken after failure. The
ultimate load is observed to be more with increase in fibre
percentage as well as increase in aspect ratio.
This shows that the optimum percentage of super

plasticizers is between 0.8 and 1.2 and the VMA is 0.1
respectively. With these percentages, fibre reinforced
triple blended self compacting concrete satisfying the
requirements can be produced.
The highest ultimate load recorded for the fibre percent of

1 and aspect ratio of 25 is 12.8 kN. Maximum deflection
reached corresponding to ultimate load is 18mm for 1%
fibre and aspect ratio of 25.
The compressive strength results are shown in the table.2
for both M-25 and M-30 mixes. The concrete mix with
triple blending (Fly ash 15% & CSF 10%) is showing
higher strength than the reference mix. The mineral
admixtures like CSF contribute towards increase in the
strength in addition to giving additional beneficial
properties. It can be seen from table.2, that the
compressive strength of SCC of M-25 and M-30 grades is
Cracking Characteristics
In the case of plane SCC specimens, the specimens crack
and fail simultaneously. In the case of fibre reinforced
SCC, the specimens have undergone gradual and ductile
failure. Fibres have helped SCC to possess better cracking
behaviour and made it more ductile.
73
Table 1: Workability results for fibrous, triple blended SCC with basic concrete mixes of M-25 and M-30
1
2
3
% of
Fiber
0.50
Aspect
Ratio
15
T50 time
(sec)
3
4
3
V-funnel
(Sec)
8
8
9
T50 time
(sec)
3
4
4
V-funnel
(Sec)
7
8
9
0.75
15
10
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1.00
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.50
0.75
1.00
15
20
20
20
25
25
25
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
10
10
11
12
12
12
12
4
3
3
4
4
5
5
10
10
11
12
12
12
12
S.No.
Remarks
The workability results
satisfy the EFNARC
specifications. Min.
values are 2 & 6 seconds
respectively.
Table 5: Strength Results of Fibrous Triple Blended SCC with Different Combinations
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
M-25
M-30
27.20
31.20
28.80
33.30
32.50
34.40
33.90
35.20
35.10
36.00
35.75
37.14
36.20
38.50
37.30
40.60
37.60
41.20
37.90
42.32
39.20
43.50

M-25
M-30
2.46
2.60
2.75
2.79
2.80
2.82
2.84
2.85
2.90
2.92
2.95
2.98
2.99
3.10
3.00
3.21
3.12
3.31
3.15
3.42
3.30
3.50
Use of Triple Blending
Flexure Strength
M-25
M-30
3.65
4.40
3.84
4.47
3.95
4.52
4.05
4.65
4.20
4.70
4.30
4.25
4.50
4.85
4.65
5.00
4.75
5.15
4.88
5.22
5.12
5.36
cracking characteristics and ductility. Hence, it may be

stated that in practical SCC construction, use of fibre in
concrete matrix helps to increase the tensile and flexural
strengths, impact strength besides controlling the micro
cracks.
Triple blending of cement using mineral admixtures like

fly ash and silica fume, renders the concrete mix to flow
smoothly and contributes towards strength increase.
Besides use of mineral admixtures in certain proportions
in concrete matrix, improves the durability property.
1200
In the case of high strength concrete mixes and high

performance concrete, triple blending really helps in
strength gaining and durability. Hence, for practical
modern concrete constructions where SCC is employed,
triple blending of cement using mineral admixtures in
SCC is very much desirable.
1000
800
15
20
25
600
400
Use of Fibres
200
In the present investigation, steel fibres have been

employed to develop fibre reinforced triple blended SCC.
As it is self compacting mix where the flow of concrete is
important, the percentage of steel fibre and aspect ratios
are restricted. However, the introduction of the steel fibres
has improved the strength properties, flexural behaviour,
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 1: Load-Deflection Relationship of M25 for a Typical
Fiber Percentage of 0.50 for Different Aspect Ratio
74
Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete Admixtured with Fly Ash and Silica Fume Behaviour and Properties
7. It is concluded that by employing mineral admixtures

economical and environmental friendly concrete
mixed can be produced with several other beneficial
properties. By employing steel fibre without affecting
the flow ability, the tensile and flexural strengths are
considerably increased. On the overall admixtures,
fibre reinforced self compacting concrete possesses
optimum properties all round.
1400
0.5
1200
0.75
1000
800
600
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
400

laboratory facilities in conducting the present
200
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
REFERENCES
Fig. 2: Load-Deflection Reltionship of M30 for a Typical

Fibre Percentage of 1.0 for Different Aspect Ratio
[1]
ACI 544, IR-96, State-of-the-art report on fibre reinforced

concrete, Farmington Hills, Michigan: American concrete
institute, 1996.
[2] IS 10262: 2009, Concrete mix proportioning
[3] IS 516: 1959, Methods of test for strength of concrete.
[4] American concrete institute, AN International symposium:
fibre reinforced concrete, Detroit: ACI, 1974 (ACI special
publication SP-44).
[5] EFNARC, Specifications and Guidelines for SelfConsolidation Concrete, February 2002.
[6] Narayanan, R., Kareem-Planjian, A.S., Factors
influencing the workability of steel-fibre reinforced
concrete, Concrete, Part-1: vol.16, No.10, 1982, pp.4548, Part 2: Vol. 17, No.2, 1982, pp.43-44.
[7] Neville, A.M., Properties of concrete, Third Edition,
Longman Scientific & Technical, UK(1993).
[8] Okamura, H.,Y Ouchi, M.,Self compacting concrete
development, present use and future, 1st International
RILEM Symposia on Self Compacting Concrete, Edited
by A.Skarendahi y O. Petersson, Editorial RILEM
publications S.A.R.L., Cachan, Francia, 1999.
[9] Ouchi, M. And M. Hibino, Development, Applications
and Investigations of Self-Compacting Concrete,
International Workshop, Kochi, Japan (2000).
[10] Ozawa, K., Development of high performance concrete
based on the durability design of concrete structures,
EASEC-2, Vol.1, pp.445-450 (1989).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The optimum percentage of super plasticizers is
between 0.8 and 1.2 and the VMA is 0.1 respectively.
With these percentages, fibre reinforced self
compacting concrete satisfying the requirements can
be produced with basic concrete mixes of M-25 and
M-30.
2. The concrete mix with triple blending (fly ash 15%
and silica fume 10%) shows higher strength
(compressive, split tensile and flexure) than the
reference mix.
3. Upto a certain optimum percentage and optimum
aspect ratio, steel fibres contribute towards increase in
the strengths.
4. Beyond 1% fibre percent and beyond an aspect ratio
of 25, the flow of SCC will be adversely affected.
5. Even in the case of SCC, addition of steel fibres
improve the flexural strength as well as the deflection
capacity besides improving the cracking behaviour.
6. For practical modern concrete constructions where
SCC is employed, triple blending of cement using
mineral admixtures with fibres is very much desirable.
75

Influence of Fine Aggregate to Total Aggregate Ratio on Mechanical Properties

of Self Compacting Concrete
K.L. Radhika
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, UCE (A), O.U, Hyderabad A.P.
ABSTRACT
A Self compacting concrete (SCC) is the one that can be placed in the form and can go through obstructions by
its own weight and with out need of vibration. The concept of SCC resulted from research into in-situ concrete
piling and the filling of other inaccessible areas where compaction is essential but difficult. The required
workability for casting concrete depends on type of construction, selected placements and consolidation
methods, complex shape of the formwork and structural design details, that affect the degree of congestion of
reinforcement. Originally developed in Japan, self compacting concrete technology was made possible by the
much earlier development of super plasticizers for concrete. A highly flowable concrete is not necessarily SCC,
because self compacting concrete should not only flow under its own weight but should also fill the entire form
and achieve uniform consolidation without segregation. In the present work firstly, M40 grade of SCC was
developed using different percentages of fine aggregate to total aggregate ratio i.e. 0.50, 0.55, 0.60 using Nansu
method of mix design. Secondly the influence of fine aggregate to total aggregate ratio for above developed
SCC, on mechanical properties i.e. Compressive strength, Split tensile strength and Flexural strength, for 7 and
28 days curing period, maintaining water powder ratio constant are investigated. It was observed that as the
FA/TA ratio is increased from 0.5 to 0.60 the flowable property and mechanical properties i.e compressive
strength and split tensile strength has increased.
for SCC, the paste volume can be minimized. In cases
where favourable aggregates are unavailable, it is often
still possible to adjust the mixture proportions to
accommodate challenging aggregates and achieve the
required self-consolidating properties.
INTRODUCTION
Self-compacting concrete was developed in Japan in the
early 1990s. Okamura [1] pointed out that SCC can flow
into any corner and pass through the spacing of
reinforcement without vibrating. The major advantages of
SCC over conventional concrete are: high mobility,high
resistance to segregation and no need of
vibration.Okamura and Ozawa [1] also pointed out that in
SCC mixes not only the coarse aggregate content might
be limited but also the pozzolanas and superplasticizer
might be used to prevent segregation and increase
flowability. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is an
advanced type of highly flowable, non-segregating
concrete that is able to flow under its own mass without
vibration and through congested reinforcement. The
advantages of SCC include the elimination of vibration,
reduced labor costs, improved consolidation, improved
formed surface finish, improved jobsite safety, and
increased construction speed. Compared to conventional,
vibrated concrete mixtures, SCC typically exhibits higher
sand-to-aggregates ratios (S/A), higher paste volume and
in some cases smaller maximum aggregate size. In
addition, SCC utilizes relatively high dosages of highrange water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) and, in some
cases, a viscosity modifying admixture (VMA). The
extent to which SCC mixture proportions must be
changed relative to comparable vibrated concrete
mixtures is determined to a large extent by the aggregate
characteristics. By selecting the proportion of aggregates
NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

The main property that defines SCC is high workability in
attaining consolidation and specified hardened properties.
Before it satisfies the hardened properties it should also
satisfy the fresh properties in terms of filling ability,
passing ability and resistance to segregation. The self
compatibility is largely affected by the characteristics of
the materials and mix proportions. The strength of SCC is
provided by the aggregates binded by the paste at
hardened state, while the workability of SCC is provided
by the binding paste at fresh state. Therefore the contents
of coarse and fine aggregates, binders, mixing water and
superplasticizer will be the main factors influencing the
properties of SCC. In Nansu method(3) of mix design the
volume ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregates ranges
from 50% to 57% to achieve the fresh properties of SCC.
And as per EFNARC specifications the coarse aggregate
content normally ranges from 28% to 35% by volume of
mix to achieve the fresh properties of SCC. The need for
the present work is to find the optimum content of FA/TA
ratio that satisfies the fresh properties and also the
hardened properties of SCC maintaining water powder
ratio constant.
76
Influence of Fine Aggregate to Total Aggregate Ratio on Mechanical Properties of Self Compacting Concrete
BASIC PROPERTIES OF SELF-COMPACTING

CONCRETE
Fresh SCC must possess the key properties including
filling ability, passing ability and resistance to segregation
at required levels. The filling ability is the ability of the
SCC to flow into all spaces within the formwork under its
own weight. Without vibrating the concrete, SCC has to
fill any space within the formwork and it has to flow in
horizontal and vertical directions without keeping air
entrapped inside the concrete or at the surface. Passing
ability is the ability of the SCC to flow through tight
openings such as spaces between steel reinforcing bars,
under its own weight. Passing ability is required to
guarantee a homogenous distribution of the components
of SCC in the vicinity of obstacles. The resistance to
segregation is the resistance of the components of SCC to
migration or separation and remains uniform throughout
the process of transport and placing. To satisfy these
conditions EFNARC(2,9) has formulated certain test
procedures as described below.
Fig. 3: U-Box
Fig. 4: J-Ring
Tests on Self-Compacting Concrete

The slump flow equipment (Fig 1) is currently widely
used in concrete practice, and the method is very simple
and straightforward. Thus the slump flow combined with
T50 was selected as the first priority test method for the
filling ability of SCC. The V-funnel (Fig 2) or Orimet
tests are recommended as second priority alternatives to
the T50 measurement. The passing ability of fresh SCC
can be tested by U-box (Fig 3) or J-ring (Fig 4).
The fresh properties of SCC as

Specifications are shown in the table-1.
per
EFNARC
Table 1: Fresh Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete as

PER Efnarc Specifications
S.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Method
Slump Flow by Abrams
Cone
T50 cm Slump Flow
V-Funnel
Time Increase, V-Funnel at
T5 Minutes
J-Ring
U-Box
Unit
Efnarc
Limit
mm
650-800
sec
sec
2-5
upto 12
sec
0-3
mm
mm
0-10
0-30
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The experimental program can be identified in two stages,
firstly to develop SCC mixes for M40 grade for various
percentages of FA/TA ratio i.e. 0.50%,0.55%,0.60%
which satisfies the fresh properties as per EFNARC
specifications. Secondly to study the influence of various
percentages of FA/TA ratio i.e. 0.50%,0.55%,0.60% for
above developed SCC, on mechanical properties such as
Compressive strength, Split tensile strength and Flexural
strength, for 7 and 28 days curing period. The tests were
conducted according to IS: 516-1959(7) to attain the
mechanical properties of concrete.
Fig. 1: Slump Flow
Materials Used
Cement
Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade ultratech (5)
Fig. 2: V-Funnel
77
confirming to IS : 12269 and tested as per IS:4031-1988

was used. The normal consistency, fineness and specific
gravity of the cement used are 33%, 9% and 3.07
respectively.
cement particles. In the present study GLENIUM B233

conforming to ASTM C494, IS 9103;1999 is used.
Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA)
The use of VMA as admixture gives more possibility of
controlling segregation when the amount of powder is
limited. This admixture helps to provide very good
homogeneity and reduces the tendency to segregation. In
the present work Stream2 VMA is used.
Aggregates
Fine Aggregate used was locally available river sand
confirming to Zone-II as per IS : 383-1970(6) was used.
Locally available machine crushed granite chips of 12mm
and maximum size of 20mm was used as coarse
aggregates.The physical properties of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregates are given in the table 2
Mix Design
Nansu method of mix design for SCC was used to arrive
at initial trial mixes for M40 grade concrete for various
percentages of FA/TA ratio i.e. 0.50%,0.55%,0.60%,
maintaining water powder ratio constant,and these mixes
were modified accordingly as per EFNARC specifications
to achieve the optimum mix proportions satisfying fresh
and hardened properties and also economy.The principal
consideration of the proposed method is to fill the paste of
binders into voids of the aggregate framework piled
loosely.
Table 2: Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
S.
No
1
2
3
4
Properties
Specific Gravity
Fineness Modulus
Compacted Bulk
Density
Loose Bulk Density
Fine
Aggregate
2.56
2.73
1742kg/m3
Coarse
Aggregate
2.62
7.61
1560kg/m3
1643kg/m3
1470kg/m3
Casting and Curing of Specimens
Fly Ash
Fly ash was obtained from Hyderabad Industries private
limited, Hyderabad, which was originally obtained from
Vijayawada Thermal Power Station.The silica content
was estimated to about 96%. Fly ash used in this study
was basically to improve workability and cohesiveness of
concrete. The physical properties were tested as per IS
3813-1999 and presentated in the table -3
The program consisting of casting and testing six standard

cubes of size 150mmx150mmx150mm for compression
test, six standard cylinders of size 150mm diameter and
300mm height for conducting split tensile strength and six
standard prisms of size 100mm x 100mm x 500mm for
conducting flexural strength. Total of 18 pecimens were
cast at the same time under identical temperature
conditions and all the specimens were demoulded after 24
hours of air drying and kept in water for 28 days for water
curing. All these tests were conducted according to IS:
516-1959 after the curing period of 7 and 28 days.
Table 3: Physical Properties of Fly Ash
S.
No
1
2
3
4
5
Properties
Values
Specific Gravity
Specific Surface Area
Particles Retained On 45 Micron
Is Sieve
Lime Reactivity-Avg Comp.
Strength
Comp. Strength at 28 Days
1.95
338m2/kg
24%

Mix Proportions
Trial mixes were carried out based on traditional Nansu
method of mix design for M40 grade self compacting
concrete for various percentages of FA/TA ratio i.e.
0.50%,0.55%,0.60%, maintaining water powder ratio
constant and then these mixes were modified accordingly
as per EFNARC specifications to achieve optimum mix
proportions satisfying fresh properties. The details of the
fresh properties and mix proportions and are shown in
Table 4 and 5.
8.4 N/mm2
84 N/mm2
Water
The water(13) which is used for mixing concrete was
clean and free from harmful impurities such as oil, alkali,
acid etc.
Tests on Hardened Concrete

Compression strength test, Flexural strength test and split
tensile strength test has been conducted confirming to IS
516-1959(7), for M40 grade self compacting concrete for
various
percentages
of
FA/TA
ratio
i.e.
0.50%,0.55%,0.60%, maintaining water powder ratio
constant, in the Universal Testing Machine of capacity
200MT. The results of various mechanical properties for
the curing period of 7 and 28 days are shown in the table-
Superplasticizer
High range water reducing admixture called
superplasticizer are used for improving the flow or
workability for decreased water cement ratio without
sacrificing in the compressive strength. These admixtures
when dispersed in cement significantly decrease the
viscosity of the paste by forming a thin film around the
78
Influence of Fine Aggregate to Total Aggregate Ratio on Mechanical Properties of Self Compacting Concrete
Table 4: Fresh Properties of M40 Grade SCC With Various FA/TA Ratios
Filling Ability
FA/ TA
Ratio
Slump Flow
Value(mm)
685
713
738
0.50
0.55
0.60
T50
(sec)
3.0
3.2
3.6
Passing Ability
V-Funnel
(sec)
6.85
7.25
9.36
L-Box
(mm)
0.9
0.9
1.0
U-Box
(mm)
18
17
17
Segregation
Resistance
V-Funnel T5
minutes(sec)
2.12
2.34
2.95
Table 5: Final Mix Proportions of M40 Grade SCC with Various FA/TA Ratios
FA/TA
Ratio
0.50
0.55
0.60
Cement
Flyash
345
345
345
3.70
0.98
0.68
Fine
Aggregates
744.12
869.04
1070.98
Coarse
Aggregates
744.12
711.05
694.51
0.50
0.55
0.60
Split Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)
7
28
Days Days
1.87
2.55
2.01
2.68
2.15
3.00
VMA
189.13
187.92
187.91
3.48
3.46
3.45
0.87
0.86
0.86
W/P
Ratio
0.54
0.54
0.54
The maximum compressive strength and split tensile

strength was observed for the FA/CA ratio of 0.60%.
The flexural strength of concrete increases with the
increase in the ratio from 0.50 to 0.55, on further
increase in the ration from 0.55 to 0.60 the strength
decreased.
REFERENCES
[1]
Table 6: Hardened Properties of M40 Grade SCC with

Various FA/TA Ratios
Compressive
Strength
(N/mm2)
7
28
Days Days
34.54 50.18
38.90 52.25
39.89 54.19
SP
As the ratio of FA/TA is increased from 0.50 to 0.60

compressive strength and split tensile strength also
increased for 7 and 28 days curing period,but different
trend was observed in the case of flexural strength
where the strength increased as the ratio increased
from 0.50 to 0.55 and on further increase in the ratio
from 0.55 to 0.60 the flexural strength decreased.
6. It has been observed that as the ratio of FA/TA is

increased from 0.50 to 0.60 compressive strength and split
tensile strength also increased for 7 and 28 days curing
period,but different trend was observed in the case of
flexural strength where the strength increased as the ratio
increased from 0.50 to 0.55 and on further increase in the
ratio from 0.55 to 0.60 the flexural strength decreased for
both 7 and 28 days curing period. The above results show
that as the FA/TA ratio increased from 0.50 to 0.60 the
compressive strength also increased by 13.41% and
7.40% and split tensile strength increased by 13.02% and
15.0% for 7 and 28 days curing period.The flexural
strength increased by 7% and 8.57% when the ratio
increased from 0.50 to 0.55, on further increased to 0.60%
the strength decreased by 2.33% and 3.17% for 7 and 28
days curing period.
FA/
TA
Ratio
Water
Flexural
Strength
(N/mm2)
7
28
Days Days
2.01 2.88
2.16 3.15
2.11 3.05
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
CONCLUSIONS
Mix proportions for M40 grade SCC for various
percentages of FA/TA ratio i.e. 0.50%,0.55%,0.60%
were developed using Nansu method of mix design,
which satisfies the fresh properties as per EFNARC
specifications.
[6]
[7]
As the ratio of FA/TA increased, its filling ability and

resistance to segregation also gradually increased.
[8]
79
Hajime okamura and Masahor Ouchi (2003), SelfCompacting Concrete Journal of Advance Concrete
Technology Vol.1, No.1,5-15, April 2003.
EFNARC, Specifications and Guidelines for SelfCompacting Concrete, EFNARC,UK, February 2002, pp.
1-32.
Nan Su, K.C.Hsu, h.W. Chai. A Simple mix design
methods for Self compacting concrete, Cement and
Concrete Research 2001
Dr.P.Rathish Kumar et al (2008-2009), Effect of CA to
FA ratio on the compressive strength of silica fume
concrete Journal of marine science and technology,vol38,No.4,Dec-Feb,pp.25-33
IS: 12269-1987 Specifications for 53 Grade Ordinary
Portland Cement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
IS: 383-1970 Specifications for Coarse and Fine
Aggregate from Natural Source of Concrete, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 516-1959 Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
M S Shetty Concrete Technology text book.
[9]
Specifications and guidelines for self-compacting

concrete. Published by EFNARC in February 2002(4)
[10] J.C. gibbs and W. zhu strength and hardened concrete self
Compacting Concrete Uneasily of Paisley, Scotland,
United Kingdom, 1st International RILEM Symposium on
Self Compacting Concrete, Stockholm Sweden September
13-14-, 1999.
[11] Snobi. M and P.F bartos Hardened SCC and the
reinforcement ACM Advanced Concrete and Masonry
Centre. University of Paisley, Scotland, Sweden 1st
International RILEM Symposium on Self Compaction,

Concrete, Stockholm, Sweden September 13-14, 1999
[12] Ozawa K., Kunishima, M., Maikawa, K. and Ozawa, k,
Development of High performance Concrete Based on
the Durability Design of Concrete StructuresProceedings
of the second East-Asia and Pacific Conference on
Structural Engineering and Construction (EASEC-2), Vol.
1 pp. 445-45, Jan1989
[13] IS: 516-1959 Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
80

Analysis and Design of Steel and PSC Composite Girder for Cost Comparison
D. Annapurna1 and L. Ajay Kumar2
1
Asst.Professor, 2Asst.Professor(C)
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
In the recent years the national high ways and state high ways are being widened to increase number of lanes
and to raise the standards. Apart from this number of express ways are being built with hassle free cross roads
of the adjacent localities all along the express ways, for speedy transportation of men and material. In the
similar way many level crossing gates of the Indian railways are being converted into road over bridges to avoid
train operational problems, to avoid waiting time for the road users. Due to the above reasons number of
ROBs/RUBs need to be constructed across the express ways and railways. In Indian railways earlier ROBs are
constructed using steel composite girders but later started constructing PSC composite bridges, with the
popularity of PSC girders, because of their maintainability & low initial cost etc.,. But again railways are
looking back to the steel composite girders, especially for the running lines, for spans below 25m, because of
launching problems under the traffic conditions. Whereas for the bridges which are being constructed in the new
lines PSC composite girders are being used. Wherein in the National and State highways all the major bridges
are being constructed using the PSC girders.
In the present work it is proposed to analyse and design the steel and PSC composite girder of a typical clear
span of 23.00 m having the same deck width, including all the components of the girders in the bridge super
structure. This work is mainly intended to compare the cost of steel & PSC composite girders, duly analysing
and designing the super structure of a typical clear span of 23 m bridge. After critical cost comparison, It is
found out that the cost of the PSC girders is much less than the Steel composite girders.
Centre of bearing to end of girder

Centre to centre of bearings
Overall length of girder
Overall length of deck
Depth of girder
Thickness of deck slab
Mix considered in the design
girder & M40 for deck
Steel used for the design
INTRODUCTION
Bridges are an essential part of the rail transport
infrastructure. For example, there are more than 1, 27,000
bridges on Indian Railways, with approximately 1000
being constructed each year as replacements or additions.
Many of these new bridges use either steel or PSC as the
principle structural elements because it is an economic
and speedy form of construction.
Objective of Present Study
The main objective of the present study is to investigate
the cost variation of PSC and steel composite girders.
Also it is aimed to analyse and design PSC and Steel
composite girders using STAAD.PRO Package.
= 0.799 m
= 24.140 m
= 25.738 m
= 27.115 m
= 1700 mm
= 200 mm
= M45 for PSC
= Fe 415
It is proposed to use 4 nos. (cables 1, 2, 3 & 4) 19 T 13

cables and one no. of (cable 5) 7T13 cable in each of the 7
girders. Each 19 T 13 cable consists of 19 Nos. of
12.7mm dia. 7T13 consists of 7 nos. low relaxation
strands and has an area of 1875.3 mm2. Steel conforming
to IS 14268 is used in cables.
METHODOLOGY
Salient Features of the PSC Composite Girder
Salient Features of Steel Composite Girder ROB
Span Arrangement and Other Features
The salient features of steel composite girder of ROB are

given as under.
Clear span
= 23.000 m
Effective span
= 24.140 m
Overall length of girder
= 25.100 m
Width of carriage way
= 13.000 m
The span arrangement and other features of PSC

composite structure are as under.
Clear span
= 23.000 m
Width of abutment
= 16.030 m
Gap between end of girder curtain wall= 0.293 m
81
Overall width of deck

Spacing of girders
Number of main girders
= 16.025 m
= 1.830 m
= 9 nos.
Provide shear connectors 4 nos. of 10mm dia. @200 mm

c/c = 1571mm2/m
Ultimate bond stress = 0.399 MPa < 2.10 Mpa
The materials used for the construction are M40 Grade

concrete, Fe415 Steel, Grade B-IS 2062 structural
steel.Apart from the dead load, super imposed dead load,
foot path live load, Prestressing forces(in PSC girder
only), the various IRC loading standards are also
considered.
Hence safe as per clause 611.4.2.5 of IRC:22 1986
Loads are calculated and analysis is done using

STAAD.PRO Package for both the type of girders.
Provided 12mm dia. rods at 85 mmc/c i.e., 2568 mm2/m
Transverse Reinforcement
As per cl 611.5.2.3 of IRC 22 1986, minimum
transverse reinforcement (As) = 0.8 x Ls / sy
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Design of PSC Girder
As Per clause 15.2 of IRC 21- 2000 Minimum % of

longitudinal reinforcement in PSC girders are calculated.
The PSC girder is analysed / checked for the following

conditions.
At end Section - Provided 35 no's of 10 mm dia. rods

(2748.893 mm2)
Check for permissible stresses

Max. compressive stress = 13207.1 kN /m2 = 13.21 Mpa
< 25.9Mpa
At mid span section - Provided 22no's of 10mm dia. tar

rods (1727.876 mm2)
Max. tensile stress in deck slab = (-)1.9 Mpa for which

reinforcement will be provided.
Design of END BLOCK

Max. Force in the cable at anchorage is considered (As
per Table 8 of IRC -18 -2000 ) after allowing for losses
due to elastic shortening and seating of anchorage except
due to shrinkage and creep of concrete.
Check for ultimate FLEXURE

Subsequently, the section of the girder is checked for the
strength in ultimate flexure which shall be more than the
total flexural moment.
Provided 2 layers of 10mm dia. tar mesh @ 110 mm c/c

i.e 2856 mm2/m
Referring to clause 12 of IRC: 18 2000
Since the bearing stress in the end block is more than the
allowable bearing stress then as specified in clause 7.3 of
IRC:18 - 2000 reinforcement is to be provided as per the
recommendation of the system of manufacturer ( i.e.,
Freyssinat ).
i) By failure due to yeild of steel

Mult =21407 kN-m > 11472 kN-m
(BM due to DL + SIDL + LL)
OK
ii) By failure due to crushing of concrete

Mult = 25094 kNm > 11472 kNm
Design of DECK SLAB
OK
The deck slab panel will be analysed using the tables

given in DESIGN TABLES FOR CONCRETE DECK
SLAB. A hand book published by SERC, ROORKEE
both for the effects of dead load and concentrated strip
loads due to IRC loadings.
Hence, the girder is safe for ultimate limit state.

Check for SHEAR
Provide shear reinforcement of 4 Legged Tor 10mm dia.
bars @ 200 mm c/c and 2 Legged Tor 10mm dia. rods @
200 mm c/c
Provide 10mm dia. tar rods @ 170mm c/c at top and

bottom i.e Ast Provided = 462 mm2/m
Design of SHEAR CONNECTORS
Reinforcement for cantilever slab
Design of the tie reinforcement and transverse

reinforcement are calculated keeping in view of the cl
611.5.2.3 of IRC 22 1986
Provide 16mm dia.tar @170 mm c/c (1183 mm2/m)

Provide 12mm dia. tar @170 mm c/c (665 mm2/m)
Reinforcement for cantilever slab (Longitudinal direction)
Ast required = 956.472 x103 / 415 = 2305 mm / m
Provide 16mm dia. tar rods @ 85mm c/c (2365 mm2/m)
Provide stirrups 4 nos. of 10mm dia. @ 200 mm c/c i.e.

1571 mm2/m
82
Analysis and Deisgn of Steel and PSC Composite Girder for Cost Comparison
Provide 12mm dia. tar rods @ 85mm c/c (

mm2/m)
1331 / 3696
The diaphragm is designed as a deep beam as per clause

28 of IS:456 - 2000
Provide 10mm dia. tar rods @ 150 mm c/c (524 mm2/m)

as distribution reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement required = (241.00 x 106) / (200 x

720) = 1674 mm2
Design of MIDDLE DIAPHRAGM
Minimum reinforcement =0.2 / 100 x 450 x 1600

= 1440 mm2
Generally the diaphragms need to be designed ad deep

beams as the span to depth ratio will be less than 2.5.If the
beam is to be designed as deep beam then min. shear
reinforcement of 0.15% need to be provided.
Hence provide 4 nos. 20 mm dia. tor and 3nos. 16 mm

dia. tor at bottom i.e (1860 mm2) in (0.25D - 0.05L) from
bottom i.e. in 340mm from bottom of diaphragm.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Ast required = (66.6 x 106) / (200 x 975) = 340 mm2
Ast required = 3793 mm2, Provide 8 nos. of 25 dia. tor

rods
i.e. 3920 mm2
Minimum reinforcement = (0.2 x 300 x 1650) /100 = 990

mm2
Distribution of -ve Reinforcement - At 0.2D = 0.2 x 1.600

= 0.320 m
Hence provide 3 nos. of 16mm dia. tar bars at bottom

(1206 mm2) in (0.25D - 0.05L) distance from bottom i.e.
in 293mm from bottom of diaphragm.
Ast = 3793 x 0.5 x ((1.200 / 1.600) - 0.5) = 474 mm2

Hence provide 2nos. of 16mm dia. tor rods and 2nos. of
12mm dia. rods at top (628 mm2)
Negative reinforcement
Ast = (103.28 x 106) / (200 x 975) = 530 mm2 < 990 mm2
Balance Ast = 3793 - 628 = 3165 mm2 to be distributed in

0.6D below the reinforcement at (a) above i.e. 0.6 x D =
0.6 x 1.600 = 0.960 m
Distribution of negative reinforcement at 0.2D = 0.2 x

1.650 = 0.330 m
Ast = 990 x 0.5 x ((2.400 / 1.65) - 0.5) = 473 mm2
Hence, provide 6nos. of 20mm dia. rods & 6nos. 20 mm

dia. rods at middle (3770 mm2)
Hence provide 2 nos. of 16mm dia. tor rods at top (804

mm2)
Since this is a deep beam shear does not govern. Hence

provide minimum shear reinforcement of 0.15 %
Balance Ast =
990 - 804 = 186 mm2 to be distributed
in 0.6D below the reinforcement at (a) above.
i.e 0.6 x D = 0.6 x 1.650 = 0.990 m
Asv = (0.15 / 100) x 1000 x 450 = 675 mm2/m

Provide 2legged, 12mm dia. tor rods at 200 mm c/c
(1131mm2/m)
Hence, provide 4 nos. 12 mm dia. tor rods at middle

(905 mm2)
Design of steel girder
Shear reinforcement
Clear span 23.00m, Effective span 24.14m, Overall length

of girder 25.10m
Since this is a deep beam shear does not govern.

Hence provide min. shear reinforcement of 0.15 %
Width of carriageway 13.00m, Overall width of deck

16.025m
Asv = (0.15 / 100) x 1000 x 300 = 450 mm2/m
Spacing of girders - 1.83m, Number of girders - 9nos.
Provide 2 legged 10mm dia. tor rods at 200 mm c/c

(785 mm2/m)
Grade of concrete M40, Grade of steel (Confirming to IS

1786) Fe415
Design of END DIAPHRAGM
Grade of structural steel B (Confirming to IS 2062)
End diaphragms also generally need to be designed as

deep beams as the span to depth ratio will always be less
than 2.5.
The Steel Girder is Analysed / Checked for the

Following Conditions
If the developed stress is either beyond the permissible
stress or found to be more uneconomical the sectional
Positive reinforcement
83
Table
Description
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
G8
G9
Total bending moment in t-m 290.378 304.528 319.915 291.834 291.834 286.385 316.794 360.898 358.897
Total shear force in tons
49.659 49.545 67.104 63.556 63.734 62.147 63.805 71.231 63.077
Table
Description
Final stress with temperature
Permissible
Slab top
28.35
133.33
Slab bottom
14.87
-10.12
dimensions are suitably assessed and go for fresh analysis

and design.
Beam bottom
-633
-1550
Thickness of intermediate stiffener = 12 mm

Projection
= 150 mm
Check for shear stresses
of
intermediate
stiffener
beyond
Web
Vertical stiffeners spacing = 1,400 mm c/c.
The girder is also checked for permissible shearing

stresses
Design the end diaphragm
Permissible shear stress for fy = 250 Mpa is 0.38 fy = 95

Mpa (from Table - 6.2 of IRC 24 - 2001)
Shear stress () = 46.64 Mpa < 95
Beam top
1481.06
1550
End diaphragm is designed to withstand the jacking loads

during maintenance
OK
Check for deflection

Maximum permissible total deflection = 1 / 600 of span
= 4.023 cm
Bending stress, ft = fb = 651.77 / 5216194

= 124.95 Mpa < 200
OK
Shear stress, = 6.84 Mpa < 95
OK
Load bearing stiffener for End diaphragm
Maximum permissible live load deflection = 1 / 800 of

span = 3.018 cm
Thickness of bearing stiffener plate = 12 mm

The projection of bottom flange beyond web = 145 mm
Live load deflection (SIDL + LL) = 1.95cm < 3.018 OK
Height of stiffener = 818 mm
Actual deflection = 4.59cm > 4.02 Pre camber to be

given
Design of middle diaphragm
Pre camber to be given = DL + Slab = 0.78 + 1.86

= 2.64 cm
Provided- 2 ISMC 150 at top and bottom

Design of mild steel shear connectors
Deflection with pre camber = 4.59 - 2.64 = 1.95 cm <

4.023 OK
Shear connectors are the vital components of the

composite girder which are responsible for the composite
action and designed to with stand the following forces.
Design the load bearing stiffeners.
Shear Force due to DL of Slab + SIDL (KN)
The load bearing stiffeners are designed as under vide

page 50, CL. 508.11.1.1 of IRC 24
Longitudinal Shear due to differential Shrinkage

Longitudinal shear due to temperature
Depth of web, d1 = 1,149 mm
d = Diameter of stud shear connector = 25 mm
Thickness of bearing stiffener plate = 12 mm
h = Hight of stud shear connector = 150 mm
The projection of bottom flange beyond web = 244 mm

Design the intermediate stiffeners.
Provided 25mm dia. stud shear connectors at 150 mm c/c

@ 4nos. in each row.
The intermediate stiffeners are designed as under vide

CL. 508.2&CL508.11.2 of IRC 24.
Design the deck slab

The bottom reinforcement required is calculated as per the
bending moments considered. Minimum reinforcement is
Depth of web, d1 = 1,149 mm

84
to be provided as per IS 456 if the bending moments are

nominal. As the shear force will be nominal for the slabs
minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided as per the
code.
Middle cross girder

2 x 2 ISMC 150 - area 83.52 cm2
Total weight = 3 x 9 x 83.52 x 0.7843 / 1000 = 3.184 t
Provided 16mm dia. tor at 150 mm c/c, as main steel i.e

1340 mm2
Load bearing stiffeners
Provided, 12mm dia. tor at 150 mm c/c, as distributors i.e

753.982 mm2
Thickness
12 mm
Length
1149 mm
Lateral bracing of 100 x 100 x 10mm angle of length

2.457 is provided at top and bottom.
Width of stiffener 244 mm
Result Analysis of Cost
Total weight = 9 x 2 x 2 x 1.15 x 24.4 x 1.2 x 0.7843 /

1000 = 0.951 t
In this chapter the cost of both steel and PSC composite

girders are evaluated adopting the rates as obtained from
South Central Railway and local market. Finally the cost
of both the girders are compared separately for girder and
diaphragms, deck slabs and total composite girder.
Intermediate stiffener
Cost Analysis of Main Steel Composite Girders

Weight of 6mm thick Shuttering Plates with Stiffeners
1.9m wide
1.90 x 1.0 x 0.006 x 7.85 = 0.089 t/m2
TOTAL = 0.106 t/m2
50.0
1.2
50.0
1149 mm
Spacing along length
1400 mm
2.5
119.9
3.6
y in cm
Area-A
Web splice
124.8
63.6
1.8
125.0
143.9
180.0
448.9
Size
980 mm x 500 mm x 12 x 2
980 mm x 500 mm x12 x 2
Total weight = 9 x 2 x 0.98 x 50 x 1.2 x 0.7843 / 1000

= 0.831 t
Weight of 25mm dia. shear connectors =
9 x 4 x 25.15 / 0.15 x 0.15 x 3.85 kg/m = 3485.79 / 1000
= 3.486 t
End and middle cross girder

Table 2: Cross Sectional Area of Cross Girder
B,cm
30.0
81.8
30.0
Length
Total weight = 9 x 2 x 0.98 x 50 x 1.2 x 0.7843 / 1000

= 0.831 t
Total weight = 9 x 25.1 x 448.9 x 0.7843/1000 = 79.553 t
Description
Top flange
Web
Bottom flange
Total
150 mm
Size
Table 1: Cross sectional area of I section (main girder)
Top flange
Web
Bottom flange
Total
Width
Flange splice
Total weight = 0.106 x 25x (16 (9 x 0.50)) = 30.475

tonnes
12 mm
Total weight = 9 x 2 x 25.1 / 1.4 x 1.15 x 15 x 1.2 x

0.7843 / 1000 = 5.239 t
0.05 x 1.8 x 0.006 x 7.85 x 4.00 = 0.02 t/m2
Description
Thickness
D,cm
1.6
1.20
1.6
X,cm
15.0
15.0
15.0
100 x 100 x 10mm bracings,18nos. each span =
A, cm2
48.0
98.16
48.0
194.2
18 x 2 x 8 x 2.46 x 14.90 kg/m = 10556.35 / 1000

= 10.556 t
Total weight of the structural steel = 140.041 t
Add 3% for welding / riveting / bolting = 4.20 t
Total weight of structural steel for composite girder
= (140.041 + 4.20) = 144.242 t
Total weight = 2 x 9 x 1.80 x194.2 x 0.7843 / 1000 =

4.935 t
85
Rate for supply and fabrication of composite girder =

42500 + 55300 = Rs. 97800 per t
Qty. of M 45 in the reduced section

= 16.14 x 0.9685 = 15.632 m3
Total cost of girders, diaphragms, studs and bracings
Total quantity of M 45 concrete for one girder

= 28.764 m3
= 144.242 x 97800 = Rs.1,41,06,890.00
Qty. of End diaphragm

= (0.9 x 0.45 + 0.2 x 0.35) x (16.03 7 x 0.35) = 6.450 m3
2.5.2 Cost Analysis of Steel Composite Girder Deck

Slab
Qty. of concrete in deck slab
= 16.03 x 25.1 x 0.20 = 80.471 m3
Qty. of Middle diaphragm

= (1.6 x 0.325 + 0.2 x 0.288) x (16.03 7 x 0.35)= 7.84m3
Total Quantity of M45 for all girders = 215.635 m3
Cost of M40 concrete

= 80.471 x 2116.06 = Rs. 1,70,286.00
Qty. of reinforcement
Cost of concrete for all PSC girders

= 215.635 x 4000 = Rs. 8,52,540.00
Main reinforcement 16mm dia @ 150mm c/c

= 2 x 25.10 / 0.15 x 15.95 x 1.58 kg/m= 8425kg
Total quantity of cement required for PSC girder

= 215.635 x 5q = 1078.175 q
Dist. reinforcement 12mm dia.@ 150mm c/c

= 2 x 15.95 / 0.15 x 25.10 x 0.89 kg/m = 4750.76 kg
Cost of cement for PSC girders

= 1078.175 x 4600.00 / 10 = Rs. 4,95,960.50
Reinforcement for cantilever portion
Shuttering area for all PSC girders sides

= 9 x 2 x 27.00 x 1.7 = 795.6 m2
16mm dia. @ 170mm c/c

= 2 x 2.4 x (25.00 / 0.17 + 1) x 1.58 = 1122.878 kg
Shuttering area for all PSC girders Horizon

= 9 x 27 x 1.2 = 291.6 m2

= 2 x 2.4 x (25.00 / 0.17 + 1) x 0.89 = 632.507 kg
Total shuttering area for PSC girders = 1087.2 m2

= 2 x 25.00 x (2.40 / 0.15 + 1) x 0.62 = 527.00 kg
Total Cost of shuttering

= 1087.2 x 350.00 = Rs.3,80,542.00
Total reinforcement steel for deck slab = 15458.145 kg
Girder placement for Seven days with 150 Tonnes crane
Cost of reinforcement steel

= 15458.145 x 50.76 = Rs.784655.44
Girder launching at one girder per day during night per

one day.
Cost of cement = 80.471 x 4.3 x 4600 / 10 = 159171.00
Hence 150 MT crane need to be engaged for 14 days @

Rs. 2,50,000 / day
Total cost of deck slab = Rs. 11,14,112.44
Total Cost of PSC girder launching

= 14 x 2,50,000 = Rs. 35,00,000.00
Total cost of steel composite girder for the given span

= Rs.1,52,21,002.53
Weight of the prestressing steel / cables @ 0.70 kg/m of

12.7 mm dia. strand.
2.5.3 Cost Analysis of Main PSC Girder

Area of cross section from end to 2.4m from either end
= 1.501m2
Total weight of the cable 1,2,3&4 = 9 x 4 x 25.25 x 19 x

0.700 kg/m = 12089.7 kg
Area of cross section from 4.8m to 20.94m = 0.9685 m2
Total weight of cable 5 = 9 x 1 x 25.25 x 7 x 0.700 kg/m

= 1113.525 kg
Area of cross section reducing from 2.4 to 4.8m and 20.94

to 25.74m.
Qty. of M 45 in full section = 2 x 2.4 x 1.501 = 7.205 m
Total Weight of Cables = 13203.225 kg
Total cost of PSC cables = 13,203 / 1000 x Rs1,13,357.06

per t = Rs.14,96,653.26
Qty. of M 45 in tapered section

= 2 x 2.4 x (1.501 + 0.9685) / 2 = 5.927 m3
Reinforcement in PSC girder
86
10mm dia. rods in longitudinal direction @100mm c/c

= 7 x 2 x 8.3 x 36 x 0.62 = 2593.584 kg
Total reinforcement for complete PSC girder, diaphragms

= 18354.564 kg
10mm dia. rods in transverse direction@170mmc/c

= 7 x 22 x 8.3 x 0.62 = 792.484 kg
Cost of reinforcement for PSC girder portion

= 16215.02 x 50.76 = Rs.8,23,074.42
10mm dia. Stirrups 4 legged @200mm c/c

=7 x ((25.7 / 0.2) + 1) x (4 x 1.65 + 2 x 0.3) x 0.62
= 4046.616 kg
Total cost of the complete PSC girder = Rs.75,48,770.18

2.5.4 Cost Analysis of Psc Composite Deck Slab
Quantity of deck slab = 27.115 x 16.03 x 0.20 = 86.93 m3
10mm dia. shear connectors 4 legged @ 200mm c/c

= 7 x ((25.7 / 0.2) + 1) x (4 x 1.85 + 2 x 0.3) 0.62
= 4496.24 kg
Cost of deck slab concrete

= 86.93 x 2160.06 = Rs.187775.50
16mm dia. spirals around anchorage

= 7 x 8 x 2 x 2(1.65 + 0.30) x 1.58 = 690.144 kg
Cost of cement for deck slab

= 86.93 x 4.3 x 4600/10 = Rs.1,71, 947.54
10mm dia. mesh in end block

= 7 x 2 x 2 x (18 x 0.7 + 8 x 1.67) x 0.62
Reinforcement in Deck slab
= 450.666 kg

= 2 x 16.00 x (25.7 / 0.17 + 1) x 0.89 = 4333.985 kg
Total reinforcement for PSC girder = 13069.734 kg

End Diaphragms

= 2 x 16.00 x (25.7 / 0.17 + 1) x 0.62 = 3019.181 kg
20mm dia. 4nos. at bottom

= 2 x 4 x15.95 x 2.48 = 316.448 kg

= 2 x 25.7 x (16.0 / 0.17 + 1) x 0.62 = 3031.209 kg
16mm dia. 3nos. At bottom

= 2 x 3 x 15.95 x 1.58 =151.206 kg
Reinforcement in deck slab cantilever
16mm dia. 2nos. @ top

= 2 x 2 x 15.95 x 1.58 =100.804 kg

= 2 x 1.2 x (25.70 / 0.17 + 1) x 1.58 = 577.053 kg
12mm dia. 2 nos. @ top

= 2 x 2 x15.95 x 0.89 = 56.782 kg

= 2 x 1.20 x (25.70 / 0.17 + 1) x 0.89 = 243.786 kg
20mm dia. 12 nos. on sides

= 2 x 6 x 15.95 x 2.48 = 474.672 kg
Distribution reinforcement
= 2 x 25.70 x (01.20 / 0.15 + 1) x 0.62 = 286.812 kg
12mm dia. 2 legged stirrups @ 200mm c/c

= 2 x 2(1.4 + 0.25) x (15.95 / 0.20 +1)x0.89 = 474.326 kg
Reinforcement in deck slab cantilever in longitudinal

direction
Total reinforcement in end diaphragms = 1574.238 kg

Middle Diaphragms

= 2 x 1.50 x (15.950 / 0.085 + 1) x 1.58 = 894.187 kg
16mm dia. 6nos. @ bottom

= 3 x 6 x 15.95 x 1.58 = 453.618 kg

= 2 x 1.50 x (15.950 / 0.085 + 1) x 0.89 = 503.688 kg
16mm dia. 4nos. @ top

= 3 x 4 x 15.95 x 1.58 = 302.412 kg
Distribution reinforcement
12mm dia. 8 nos. on sides

= 3 x 8 x 15.95 x 0.89 =340.692 kg

= 2 x 15.95 x (1.50 / 0.15 + 1) x 0.62 = 217.558 kg
12mm dia. 2 legged stirrups @ 200mm c/c

=2x2 (1.4 + 0.25) x (15.95 / 0.20 + 1) x 0.89 = 474.326 kg
Total reinforcement in deck slab = 13107.459 kg
Total reinforcement for middle diaphragms = 1571.048kg
Cost of reinforcement for deck slab

= 13107.459 x 50.76 = Rs. 6,65,334.61
87
Table 3: Cost comparison of steel and PSC girders
Sl.No
1
2
3
Description of Item of Work

Main girder & other components
Cost of the Deck slab
Total cost
Cost in STEEL composite girder

Rs. 1,41,06,890.00
Rs. 11,14,112.44
Rs. 1,52,21,002.53
Total cost of the complete deck slab = Rs. 10,25,057.66
Cost in PSC composite girder

Rs.75,48,770.18
Rs. 10,25,057.66
Rs. 85,73,827.18
5) Since the cost difference is so much high, the option

for pre stressed composite girder can be chosen
wherever traffic blocks are easily available like
Lakadikapool bridge near Hyderabad station.
Total cost of the complete PSC composite girder

= Rs. 85,73,827.18
6) The time of construction of PSC girder is generally

more than the steel composite girder, but the same
need not be taken into account in the construction of
ROBs, as the construction of approaches will take
much more time.
Cost Comparison
Graphical representation of costs of both steel and PSC
composite girders is shown in fig.1.
REFERENCES
Rs. 1,60,00,000.00
Rs. 1,40,00,000.00
[1]
Raina, V.K. (1991), Concrete bridge practice, analysis,

design and economics, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co,
New Delhi.
[2] Krishna Raju, N. (2004), Prestressed concrete, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co, New Delhi.
[3] Krishna Raju, N. (1996), Design of bridges, Oxford &
IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, Delhi.
[4] Edoardo Cosenza and Riccardo Zandonini (1996),
Composite Construction, Volume 6, Structural
Engineering Hand book.
[5] Structural Engineering Research Centre (1976), Design
Tables for concrete bridge deck slabs, Roorkee, India.
[6] Ivan Viest, M., Fountain, R.S. and Singleton R.C. (1958),
Composite Construction in steel and concrete for bridges
and buildings, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York.
[7] Narayanan, R., Al-Amery, R. I. M., and Roberts, T.M.
(1989). Shear strength of composite plate girders with
rectangular web cut-outs, Journal on Constructional Steel
Research, 12, 151-166.
[8] Hirst, M. J. S., and Yeo, M. F. (1980). The analysis of
composite beams using standard finite element programs,
Journal on Computers & Structures, 11, 233-237.
[9] Salari, M. R., Spacone, E., Shing, B., and Grangopol, D.
M. (1998) Nonlinear analysis of composite beams with
deformable shear connectors, Journal on Structural
Engineering, 124, 1148-1158.
[10] Baskar, K., Shanmugam, N. E., and Thevendran, V.
(2002) Finite-element analysis of steel concrete
composite plate girder. Journal on Structural Engineering,
128(9), 1158-1168
Rs. 1,20,00,000.00
Rs. 1,00,00,000.00
Rs. 80,00,000.00
Rs. 60,00,000.00
Rs. 40,00,000.00
Rs. 20,00,000.00
Rs. 0.00
Main girder
Cost in STEEL composite girder
Deck slab
Overall cost
Cost in PSC composite girder
Fig. 1: Graphical representation of the cost comparison
CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM STUDY

Following are the conclusions drawn out from the study.
1) The study shows that the direct cost required for steel
composite girder is 86.88% higher than the pre
stressed concrete composite girders.
2) Cost of deck slab of steel composite girder is higher
by 8.69% than deck slab cost of PSC composite girder
which is marginal.Remaining all other costs of various
components remains same with marginal difference
for both type of super structure.
3) On the whole cost of steel composite girder bridge is
77.53% more than that of PSC composite bridge,
considering girder and deck slab only.
4) It can be seen that the major difference of cost in the
construction of ROB is in the type of main girder
used. Steel composite girders are definitely more
costlier than PSC composite girders.
88

Effect of a Member on Global Performance of a Structure

A Case Study on 5 Storey RC Frame
Anthugari Vimala1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
1
PhD Scholar, 2Professor, Head
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
Email: 1vimala.a@research.iiit.ac.in, 2ramancharla@iiit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
The overall capacity of a structure depends on the strength and deformation capacity of the individual
components of the structure. This paper deals with the prediction of effect of a member on global performance of
the structure. The performance of a 5 storey RC frame, designed for Indian standard codes has been presented.
Non linear pushover analysis is used to draw the capacity curve. During the pushover analysis when the
structure becomes unstable, the failed members are identified. In the present study, end columns of the bottom
storey which exists in failed members are strengthened by increasing the longitudinal reinforcement, increasing
the c/s area and reducing the shear reinforcement spacing. Increase of longitudinal reinforcement or decrease of
shear reinforcement spacing not effected much the strength capacity, but the ductility is increased in both the
cases. Increasing the c/s area of two columns increased the strength and stiffness of the frame, but the ductility is
increased up to a certain limit and then decreased. Parametric study also done for individual column
performance with same geometric and material properties as it exists in the frame. The performance of
individual column is completely different with frame performance though the geometric and material properties
are same this is because of the frame action where redistribution of forces takes place when the member fails in
the frame.
Keywords pushover analysis, strength, stiffness, ductility
effect of two end bottom storey columns on overall
performance of the frame, the two end columns
geometrical properties are changed and pushover analysis
is performed for each case. The study is performed to
understand the changes in strength, stiffness and ductility
of the frame. The parametric study is carried out for
individual column also. The individual column is
modeled with the similar end conditions of the bottom
storey columns.
INTRODUCTION
In last few decades, many research efforts have focused
on developing simple procedures for the approximate
estimation of the inelastic performance of buildings under
seismic excitation, in order to avoid the significant
computational cost of an accurate inelastic dynamic
analysis. As a result of these efforts, the idea of pushover
analysis has been born. The pushover analysis evaluates
two aspects, the performance of a structure during seismic
event, and the strength/capacity of the structure. Although
many existing building codes can provide a reliable
indication of actual performance of individual structural
elements, it is out of their scope to describe the expected
performance of a designed structure as a whole, under
large forces or large displacements. The present study is
carried out to understand the strength capacity of a
structure as a whole if the geometrical properties of a
failed member are modified. A five story structure is
considered and designed as per Indian Standard codes and
the structure has been idealized as a 2D frame and
capacity of the frame is evaluated by pushover analysis
using the tool SAP2000. Plastic hinge is used to represent
the failure mode in the beams and columns when the
member yields. Initially the designed 2D frame is
subjected to pushover analysis, at the end of the pushover
analysis bottom story columns are failed. To study the
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the last two decades, significant research has been
carried out to understand the seismic behaviour of RC
structures. Understanding the behaviour of vertical
members(columns) during any seismic event is very
essential, because failure of these members leads to the
total collapse of the structure. In 1995, Qingxiang Wang
et al experimentally investigated the behaviour of 48 RC
columns under monotonic and cyclic loading. This study
was towards the factors which affect the ductility of RC
columns. It was observed that For the same axial load
ratio and stirrup volume ratio, the ductility of the high
strength concrete column is less than that for the normal
strength concrete column and the high strength concrete
column can carry a greater lateral load. For a high axial
load ratio, the effect of the stirrup ratio on the ductility
89
2. Immediate occupancy : The structure will be safe to

occupy after the earthquake.
becomes weak. The response of bare RC frame designed

for three different ductility levels (FH, FM and FML) as
per the provisions in EC8, was investigated by Yong Lu
et al(2001). The experimental observations suggest that
frames designed for high ductility are likely to attract
more extensive damage than those designed for lower
ductility, due to large yield excursion. the medium
ductility design frame, for which the design q-factor and
overall ductility requirement were both in the order of 3
4, demonstrated most satisfactory performance with
reduced overall damage and a good hysteretic behaviour
under a comparable base motion. In practice all the RC
framed structures are provided with infill walls in
between beams and columns.When damage or
serviceability limit states are considered, the effects of
infills are often so dominant, that the Ductility Class for
which the bare frame was designed plays a minor role in
the response during the seismic event and it depends on
the characteristics of the infill panels. In 2011, M.
Mohammadi et al investigated experimentally infilled
frames behavior under cyclic loading. By providing
sliding layers in the infill, infill remained intact up to
7.1% story drift. Deterioration in stiffness and strength of
this specimen was almost negligible. Based on the results,
the fused infills were five times more ductile than regular
infill panels. The curvature ductility factor of RC columns
depends mainly on the axial force, the transverse
reinforcement (quantity and pattern) and the material
properties. To this end an investigation was carried out by
C.G Trezos(1996) to study the characteristics of curvature
ductility of RC clumns. It was found that the ductility is
more scattered for higher axial forces and for higher
confining reinforcement. High-strength concrete (HSC) is
increasingly used for the construction of tall buildings.
This is because the use of HSC can reduce the dimensions
of the structural members and hence save space. The
potentially brittle behaviour of HSC members has been a
major concern of structural engineers. By nonlinear
moment_curvature analysis, a comprehensive parametric
study was carried out by J.C.M. Ho et al (2010) to
investigated the effect of confining pressure on the
flexural ductility of HSC columns. The analytical results
reveal that the addition of confinement would enhance the
flexural ductility of columns by increasing the balanced
steel ratio and balanced axial load level. Prediction of the
structural response of reinforced concrete buildings
during a seismic event is very essential to estimate in
advance whether the structure can be used after the event
or not and also to know what extent it is safe during the
event. The behavior of each structural member and of the
structure on the whole, even beyond the elastic field, must
be described accurately when the structure is subjected to
a particular seismic event. FEMA 356 defines the
performance levels of a structure at several stages:
1. Linear limit
3. Damage control range : A damage state between life

safety
and
immediate
occupancy performance level.
4. Life safety level
: Structure is damaged but

retains a margin against onset
of partial or total collapse.
5. Limited safety range
: A damage state between

collapse prevention and life
safety performance level.
6. Collapse prevention
: The structure continues to

support gravity loads but
retains no margin against
collapse.
7. Collapsed
: collapsed.
The correlation between FEMA performance levels and

the values of few damage indexes has been studied and
some polynomial equations have been proposed by K.
Arjomandi et al(2009). When the structural behavior is
determined by steel yielding, the concrete damage indexes
alone cannot give a real description of the performance of
the structure. Roberto Scotta et al (2009) proposed
specific index, named steel damage index, to measure
the plastic strain development in steel. The theory of
damage mechanics was used to describe the materials
behavior and the fiber approach was adopted to model the
structural behavior. Damage indicators such as crack
width, concrete spalling, core crushing, and permanent
deformations depend on strains of concrete core and steel
rebars of plastic hinges. Ashkan Sharifi et al(2012)
proposed the bounds for ductility damage index for
different performance levels. Through numerical analyses
of RC columns under cyclic loading, for different levels
of ductility demands, concrete core and rebar strains are
measured. The correlation among calculated strains and
ductility demands are used to establish the bounds for
ductility damage index for different performance levels.
In numerical analysis to predict the behavior of the
structure, Damage mechanics material constitutive laws
can be used efficiently. Frdric Lgeron et al(2005),
proposed a method to predict the behavior of different
material under monotonic, cyclic and earthquake type
loading by using material constitutive laws to define the
damage stat of the material. The author also discussed
how the mesh size in numerical modeling effect the
results. Mehmet Selim Gunay and Haluk Sucuoglu(2010)
proposed a linear-elastic response spectrum analysis
procedure for the seismic performance assessment of the
existing buildings. The procedure is mainly based on
identifying those structural members that are expected to
respond in the inelastic range and reducing their
stiffnesses in a single global iteration step. The
performance of a existing building was studied by
: The
structure
response
restricted to linear limit.
90
identifying the modal parameters by J. Proenca et al

(2004). The building was modelled using a 3D finite
element model, with frame elements representing beams
and columns. The external and internal masonry infill
panels were modelled using a pair of diagonal frame
elements, the storey slabs were represented by equivalent
beams and modelled as rigid diaphragms. Using non
linear static analysis and static dynamic analysis the
performance points of the structure was determined and
the damage pattern in the structure was observed. During
any seismic event the structure should have sufficient
ductility to resist structural collapse after the yield
strength of the material has been achieved. Ductile
behaviour in a structure can be achieved through the use
of plastic hinges positioned at appropriate locations
throughout the structural frame. The available ductility of
plastic hinges in reinforced concrete is determined from
moment-curvature relations. Monita Olivia and
Parthasarathi Mandal(2005) investigated to find the
influence of three variables i.e. concrete strength, amount
of longitudinal reinforcement and spacing of transverse
reinforcement on curvature ductility of reinforced
concrete beams. The conclusion of the study was that the
curvature ductility increases with the increase of
longitudinal reinforcement and concrete strength. On the
other hand, the spacing of transverse reinforcement does
not have any significant influence on the curvature
ductility. H. P. Hong et al(2010), focused on the
assessment of the statistics and empirical equations of the
displacement ductility demand for different earthquake
types. The results are used to develop empirical relations
for predicting the expected displacement ductility
demand.
situated in seismic zone V of IS: 18932002, with an

intensity of 0.36g ground acceleration. Material properties
are assumed to be 20 MPa for the concrete compressive
strength and 415 MPa for steel yield strength for both
longitudinal and transverse reinforcements. The building
is 15 m by 15 m in plan (Fig.1). Typical floor-to-floor
height is 3m. The interior frame is shown in Fig. 3.1
represents 2-D model of the building.
Fig. 1: Plan view of 5 storey building.
In the present study pushover analysis is used to study the

behavior of the frame for different member sizes and
variation of the longitudinal reinforcement and shear
reinforcement spacing for a particular member. For the
study the members selected were bottom storey columns.
In pushover analysis, the behavior of the structure is
characterized by a capacity curve that represents the
relationship between the base shear and the roof
displacement. And also the study is carried out to check
the individual column performance and compared with
frame performance when the same column exists in the
frame. column is modeled with same end conditions as in
the frame, and pushover analysis is performed
individually for the column. The behavior of a column
alone and behavior of frame when same column exists in
the frame are compared.
CASE STUDY
Details of the Structure
Five storey structures is considered for study, and
designed according to Indian Standard codes of practice
for plain and reinforced concrete (IS: 456) and earthquake
resistant design (IS: 1893). The building is assumed to be
Fig. 2: Elevation view and column details of 5-story frame
91
The 5-story building is 15 m in elevation. All columns are

300mm x 400 mm dimensions and the amount and
arrangement of longitudinal reinforcement in columns are
provided in figure 2 All beams are 230 mm 330 mm
and the amounts of top and bottom reinforcement for
beams are shown in mm2 in Figure 3.
properties, longitudinal and transverse steel content, and

the axial load level on the element.
Fig. 4: Forcedeformation relationship of a typical plastic

hinge.
SAP2000 provides default-hinge properties and

recommends PMM hinges for columns and M3 hinges for
beams. Once the structure is modeled with section
properties, steel content and the loads on it, default hinges
are assigned to the elements. Hinges can be assigned at
any number of locations (potential yielding points) along
the span of the frame element as well as at element ends.
As the column axial load changes under lateral loading,
there is also a coupled P-M2-M3 (PMM) hinge which
yields based on the interaction of axial force and bending
moments at the hinge location. Also, more than one type
of hinge can be assigned at the same location of a frame
element. The structure is subjected to incremental lateral
forces with uniform distribution along the height and the
base shear versus roof displacement diagram is plotted
(capacity or pushover curve).
Fig. 3: Longitudinal reinforcement in beams (mm2) for 5

storey frame.
Modeling Approach
Since there is no torsional effect in the selected structures,
two-dimensional (2-D) modeling is employed. A twodimensional model of each structure is created in
SAP2000 to carry out nonlinear static analysis. Beam and
column elements are modeled as nonlinear frame
elements with lumped plasticity by defining plastic hinges
at both ends of the beams and columns. SAP2000
implements the plastic hinge properties described in
FEMA-356 and ATC-40. FEMA-356 or ATC-40 provides
nonlinear hinge properties for a wide range of RC beams
and columns. SAP2000 aims to cover the common range
of practice for the default-hinge properties.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

First the analysis is carried out with initial designed
details for all columns and beams as shown in figure 2
and 3. The pushover curve obtained for initial design
condition is shown in figure 5 with 1% steel. For the
initial condition, the ultimate strength of the frame is
211.15 kN at a displacement of 16.5 cm. and ductility at
ultimate strength is 5.8. At the end of the pushover
analysis, all bottom storey columns have failed and
strength carrying capacity dropped to 20% of ultimate
strength and reached to point E(figure 4). To increase the
performance of the frame, the two failed end columns of
bottom storey, 1 and 16 are strengthened by increasing
longitudinal reinforcement from 1% to 2.6% in 6 steps,
and pushover analysis is repeated for each case. When the
reinforcement is increased by 30%, the ultimate strength
of the frame is dropped by 6% and ductility increase by
10%. The structure attained unstable state at a
displacement of 22 cm which is less than the initial state
of structure. So increase of 30% of longitudinal
reinforcement is not shown good performance of the
frame when compared to the initial condition. When
reinforcement is increase to 67%, the strength increased is
only 1.4% but the ductility is increased by 17% at
ultimate strength. For this case, the frame attained
As shown in Figure 4, five points labeled A, B, C, D, and

E define the forcedeformation behavior of a plastic
hinge. Point A corresponds to unloaded condition and
point B represents yielding of the element. The ordinate at
C corresponds to nominal strength and abscissa at C
corresponds to the deformation at which significant
strength degradation begins. The drop from C to D
represents the initial failure of the element and resistance
to lateral loads beyond point C is usually unreliable. The
residual resistance from D to E allows the frame elements
to sustain gravity loads. Beyond point E, the maximum
deformation capacity, gravity load can no longer be
sustained. The values assigned to each of these points
vary depending on the type of element, material
92

Table 1: Effect of longitudinal reinforcement of two columns
Effect of longitudinal reinforcement of end columns(300X400) of ground storey on strength and ductility of frame
Ductility at
steel used
Ultimate
Stiffness of
Ductility at 80% of
Ductility at 60%of
Ultimate
in %
strength(kN)
frame (kN/m)
Ultimate strength
Ultimate strength
strength
1
211.156
4806.41
5.8
7.2
NO_CONV
1.34
205.874
4806.41
6.3
7.3
NO_CONV
1.67
214.092
4806.41
6.8
8.8
NO_CONV
2
222.74
4806.41
7.5
NO_CONV
2.34
228.546
4806.41
8
NO_CONV
2.68
236.03
4806.41
8.3
NO_CONV
unstable state at a displacement of 32 cm which is more
than the initial condition. When the reinforcement is
increased 100%, i.e provided twice of the initial design
value, strength is increased only 5% and the structure
attained unstable state at a displacement of 21cm which is
less than the initial condition. When steel increased
further as 2.3% and 2.6%, very little increase in strength
and ductility is observed, but the structure attained
unstable state at ultimate strength itself. Results shows
that by increasing the longitudinal reinforcement from 1%
to 2.67%, the increase in strength is only about 10%,
because the strength mainly depends on c/s area and grade
of concrete. Table 1 represents the strength, ductility and
stiffness variation of the structure with increase of
reinforcement.
yielded at 2.9 cm but when the spacing of two columns is

reduced to 200mm, the structure yielded at 2.5cm. From
the results it is observed that shear reinforcement spacing
of two bottom storey columns is not increasing the overall
strength of the frame and it is not showing good
performance of the frame. The reason for this is that when
these two columns are strengthened in shear capacity and
flexure capacity, other weaker members are failed and
overall strength is reduced and unstable state is reached at
lesser displacement. Ductility of the structure is calculated
as the ratio of ultimate displacement to yield
displacement, as the yield displacement is reduced the
ductility is increased for lesser spacing of shear
reinforcement. Shear reinforcement spacing is not
effected the initial stiffness of the frame. Table 2
represents the variation of strength, stiffness and ductility
of the frame with variation of shear reinforcement
spacing.
Base shear Vs Roof displacement for c/s 300x400
250
200
Base shear Vs Roof displacement for c/s 300x400 with 1% steel
150
200
100
steel 1%
steel 1.3%
steel 1.67%
steel 2.0%
steel 2.3%
steel 2.6%
50
0
0
Base shear(kN)
Base shear(kN)
250
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
150
100
225 c/c
200 c/c
175 c/c
150 c/c
100 c/c
75 c/c
350
50
Fig. 5: Behavior of the structure under variation of

longitudinal reinforcement of columns 1 and 16
0
0
Figure 6. represents the pushover curves with variation of

the shear reinforcement spacing of failed bottom storey
columns 1 and 16. The curve with 225 mm spacing is the
initial design spacing curve. The spacing is reduced from
225 mm to 75 mm in six steps. When the spacing reduced
to 200 mm, ultimate strength is reduced by 8% and
further decrease of spacing has no effect on strength.
Other than the initial design spacing, for all the cases, the
structure attained unstable state at a displacement of
22cm. For initial designed spacing, 225 mm the structure
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
Fig. 6: Behavior of the structure under variation of shear

reinforcement of columns 1 and 16
Figure 7 shows the behavior of the frame for different

cross sections of columns, 1 and 16. For every increased
step of cross section area, the stiffness of the frame is
increased. When the c/s area of two columns is increased
by 33% i.e 400x400mm, the ultimate strength is dropped
slightly and structure attained unstable situation at a
93
Table 2: Effect of shear reinforcement spacing of two columns
Effect of shear reinforcement of end columns(300X400) of ground storey on strength and ductility of frame
Ductility at
Ductility at 80%
Ductility at
lateral ties size
Ultimate
Stiffness of frame
Ultimate
of Ultimate
60%of Ultimate
and spacing
strength(kN)
(kN/m)
strength
strength
strength
#8@225 C/C
211.156
4806.41
5.9
7.2
NO_CONV
#8@200 C/C
194.307
4806.41
6.5
8.6
NO_CONV
#8@175 C/C
194.307
4806.41
6.5
8.6
NO_CONV
#8@150 C/C
195.981
4806.41
6.5
8.6
NO_CONV
#8@100 C/C
195.981
4806.41
6.5
8.7
NO_CONV
#8@75 C/C
195.981
4806.41
6.5
8.7
NO_CONV
Table 3: Effect of c/s area of the two columns
Effect of C/S area of end columns with 1% of longitudinal reinforcement of ground storey on strength
and ductility of frame
Ductility at 80%
Ductility at
Ultimate
Stiffness of frame
Ductility at
C/S area
of Ultimate
60%of Ultimate
strength(kN)
(kN/m)
Ultimate strength
strength
strength
300 x 400
211.156
4806.41
5.9
7.2
NO_CONV
400 x 400
209.468
5004.16
6
8
NO_CONV
400 x 500
236.924
5438.21
7.8
9.9
NO_CONV
500 x 500
261.54
5699.41
8.3
10.5
NO_CONV
500 x 600
284.344
6231.5
7
NO_CONV
NO_CONV
displacement of 22cm, which shows the poor performance
when compared with initial designed case i.e 300x400mm
cross section. When the column sizes increased to
500x500mm, the structure shows good performance.
Ductility of the frame is increased upto 500x500mm cross
section area, behind this, when the area changed to
500x600mm, ductility is reduced and the structure
attained unstable state at smaller displacement. This
shows that by increasing the area of the member,
increases the strength and stiffness, but it not compulsory
that gives good performance to the structure. Results
shown that there is a limit to increase the c/s area of the
members, if the c/s area is increased without proper
assessment may lead to the sudden failure of the structure.
Table 3 shows the variation of strength, ductility and
stiffness of the frame.
300
Pushover analysis is performed for individual column for

all the conditions as mentioned in Figure 5, Figure6 and
Figure 7. The column is modeled in SAP2000,
considering the end conditions as in the frame of bottom
storey columns. Bottom end of the column is fixed and
top end translation and rotation is released in x and y
directions and restrained in z direction as shown in figure
8. Figure 9 shows the behavior of frame and column for
different percentage of longitudinal reinforcement. When
the pushover analysis is performed for column alone,
there is no changes in strength or displacement for change
of longitudinal reinforcement, because the strength
depends on c/s area and grade of concrete. But in the
frame, there is little variation because of frame action i.e
redistribution of the forces among all the members if one
member is failed. In case of column alone, concrete is
failed well before the reinforcement is yielded. The
ultimate strength of column with 1% steel is 130 kN,
when the same columns are existing in the frame with 1%
reinforcement, the ultimate strength of the frame is 211.15
Base shear(kN)
250
200
150
100
300X400
400X400
400X500
500X500
500X600
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
350
Fig. 7: Behavior of the structure under variation of cross

section of columns 1 and 16
Fig. 8: Column model in SAP2000
94

Base shear Vs Roof displacement for c/s 300x400
250
Base shear(kN)
200
150
100
steel 1%
steel 1.3%
steel 1.67%
steel 2.0%
steel 2.3%
steel 2.6%
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
350
Fig. 9: Comparison of Behavior of frame and Behavior of column with variation of longitudinal reinforcement
250
Base shear(kN)
200
150
100
225 c/c
200 c/c
175 c/c
150 c/c
100 c/c
75 c/c
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
Fig. 10: Comparison of Behavior of frame and Behavior of column with variation of shear reinforcement spacing
300
Base shear(kN)
250
200
150
100
300X400
400X400
400X500
500X500
500X600
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
Displacement(mm)
250
300
350
Fig. 11: Behavior of frame Behavior of column with cross section variation
95
kN. The results shows that there is lot of difference in the

behavior of column alone and the frame when the same
column exists in the frame.
REFERENCES
[1] FEMA-356 Prestandard and commentary for the seismic
rehabilitation of buildings, Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington, DC (2000)
Figure 10 represents the behavior of the frame and

column alone for different shear reinforcement. The
ultimate strength of column is constant, it is not changed
with shear reinforcement spacing, because the strength
depends on c/s area and grade of concrete. The frame
carries higher strength and resist higher displacements
compared to column alone.
[2] Sudhir K. Jain, Earthquake Engineering: Problems and

Prospects, Indian Concrete Journal, Vol.68, No.11,
November 1994
[3] Lai S, Will G, Otani S. Model for inelastic biaxial bending

of concrete members. ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering 1984; 110:25632584.
[4] Spacone E, Filippou FC, Taucer FF. Fiber beam-column
Figure 11 represents the behavior of frame and column

for different cross sections of column. When the cross
section is increased for column, the strength carrying
capacity of the column is higher than the frame though the
same column is used in the frame at bottom storey. When
the column 500x500mm is used, for column alone the
ultimate strength is 360 kN, but, when the same column
exists in the frame the ultimate strength of the frame is
260 kN. The results shows that the behavior of column
alone is not comparable with the behavior of the frame
when the same column exists in the frame.
model for nonlinear analysis of R/C frames. I:

formulation. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 1996; 25:711725.
[5] Spacone E, Filippou FC, Taucer FF. Fiber beam-column

model for nonlinear analysis of R/C frames. II:
applications. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 1996; 25:727742.
[6] K. Arjomandi, H. Estekanchi, and A. Vafai. Correlation

Between Structural Performance Levels and Damage
Indexes in Steel Frames Subjected to Earthquakes.
Transaction A: Civil Engineering Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 147155, Sharif University of Technology, April 2009
CONCLUSIONS
[7] Frdric Lgeron, M.ASCE; Patrick Paultre, M.ASCE;

and Jacky Mazars, M.ASCE. Damage Mechanics
Modeling of Nonlinear Seismic Behavior of Concrete
Structures. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 131,
No. 6, June 1, 2005. ASCE.
Static pushover analysis is an attempt to understand the

real nonlinear strength of the structure. The non linear
behavior of a structure depends on strength and
deformation capacity of each member. The effect of two
end columns on overall nonlinear behavior of a 2D frame
have been studied and the main conclusions can be drawn
as follows:
[8] Yong Lu, Hong Hao, P.G. Carydis, H. Mouzakis. Seismic

performance of RC frames designed for three different
ductility levels. Engineering Structures 23 (2001) 537547
[9] M. Mohammadi, V. Akrami2, and R. Mohammadi-Ghazi.

Methods to Improve Infilled Frame Ductility. Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 137, No. 6, June 1, 2011.
ASCE
1. The increase of longitudinal reinforcement is not

showing much effect on strength and ductility of
frame. 34% increase of reinforcement increases only
5%of ultimate strength and about 10% of ductility at
ultimate
strength.
Increase
of
longitudinal
reinforcement behind 1.67% shown early unstable
situation of the structure. It has no effect on stiffness.
[10] K.A.
Cashell, A.Y. Elghazouli, B.A. Izzuddin.

Experimental and analytical assessment of ductility in
lightly reinforced concrete members. Engineering
Structures 32 (2010) 2729_2743
[11] Qingxiang Wang, Guofan Zhao, Liyan Lin. Ductility of
2. Decrease of shear reinforcement spacing not shown

any effect on strength but ductility is increased at
ultimate strength and at 80% of ultimate strength by
10%. but, when the spacing is reduced behind 200
mm there is no effect on strength and ductility, it is
constant. it has no effect on stiffness.
high strength reinforced concrete columns. Nuclear

Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 75-81.
[12] A.J. Kappos, M.K. Chryssanthopoulos, C. Dymiotis.

Uncertainty analysis of strength and ductility of confined
reinforced concrete members. Engineering Structures 21
(1999) 195208
[13] C. G. Trezos. Reliability considerations on the
3. Increase of c/s area of two end columns of bottom

storey increased the stiffness of the frame and strength
of the frame. But the ductility increased to certain
limit and after further increase of c/s area it has
decreased.
confinement of R C columns for ductility. Soil Dynamics

and Earthquake Engineering 16 (1997).
[14] J.C.M. Ho, J.Y.K. Lam, A.K.H. Kwan. Effectiveness of

adding confinement for ductility improvement of highstrength concrete columns. Engineering Structures 32
(2010) 714_725
4. The individual column performance is completely

different with the frame performance, when same
column exists in the frame.
96

Damage Based Life of Heritage Structures in Seismic Environment:

A Case Study on Golkonda Fort
Vrushali Kamalakar1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
1
Assistant Professor, Matrushri College of Engineering, Hyderabad.
Professor, Head, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad.
Email: 1vrushali6@gmail.com, 2ramancharla@iiit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
The earthquake resistant design of structures according to the existing design philosophy aims to ensure that
during their lifetime, the structures resist the maximum possible earthquake without collapse. This philosophy
ignores the fact that for the allowable damage at the end of the design life, it is necessary to account for the
seismicity of the area in a comprehensive manner i.e., in terms of magnitudes with proper spatial distributions
around the site. It is also necessary to estimate damage due to each of these events and also cumulative damage
till date. Such a procedure is proposed in the paper and it is applied to heritage structures which stand for
longer duration compared to ordinary buildings.
As a case study, the proposed methodology is used to evaluate damage to Golkonda Fort located in Zone II
according to IS 1893-2002. Proposed approach is based on the estimation of Power spectral density function
(PSDF) of earthquakes already occurred and then estimation of damage to the structure during each of these
events. Golkonda Fort is modeled using Applied Element Method (AEM). Pushover analysis of the AEM model is
also carried out. The damage computed from the proposed approach is plotted on the fragility curve obtained
from the push over analysis for comparison.
Keywords Golkonda Fort, damage, Applied Element Method, earthquake
vulnerability of the infrastructure to earthquakes. The
Latur earthquake of 1993 and the Bhuj earthquake of
2001 which caused extensive damage to properties further
highlighted the need to focus upon long-term seismic
mitigation and preparedness in order to reduce the
economic losses due to earthquakes.
INTRODUCTION
Heritage structures are masterpieces of our ancestors
creative genius, bearing testimony to cultural traditions of
past civilizations and illustrating prominent stages in
human history with works of outstanding universal
significance. In spite of international efforts natural
hazards continue to pose a significant threat to these
structures in the new millennium, the deterioration or
destruction of cultural heritage sites constitute a harmful
loss to humanity as such sites represent unique and
irreplaceable properties of great value to human legacy.
India a country of rich cultural heritage has innumerable
heritage sites which are getting lost because of neglect
and also because of lack of awareness pertaining to
safeguarding its past glory. The following paragraphs
explain in detail the damage caused to various heritage
structures in India due to earthquakes and other induced
factors.
The 26 January Bhuj Earthquake was the most

devastating one which scaled very high in terms of loss of
property. This earthquake is the first major earthquake to
hit an urban area of India in the last 50 yrs. Many heritage
structures in Ahmedabad, Kutch, Bhuj, Anjar and Bachau
and surrounding villages were severely affected during
this quake. A 600 year old monument Jhulta Minara in
Ahmedabad was among the dozens of ancient monuments
which partially collapsed or were damaged during the
quake (fig 1). In Bhuj, the Raolakha Chhatri was
constructed in the 18th Century and survived the great
1819 Kachchh Earthquake, but succumbed to the 2001
Earthquake. It was the oldest, largest and most elaborate
of these cremation ground memorials to past Maharajas
(fig 2). However, the September 1993 earthquake that
struck Maharashtra State in Central West India, the whole
Marathwada region has a long history stretching from
prehistoric times` As a result; the region is rich in
numerous heritage structures such as forts, temples, tanks,
DAMAGE TO HERITAGE STRUCTURES IN

INDIA DUE TO EARTHQUAKES
In the span of last 15 years, India has experienced six
earthquakes of moderate intensity. Although moderate in
intensity, these earthquakes caused considerably high
degree of losses to property, which highlights the
97
caves, and walls etc. which are surviving evidences of

various time periods.
construction (Parihansapura). Some have been partly reassembled by the Archaeological Survey of India (Shiva
and Naranag) (fig 3). An exceptional few remain
apparently in the state they were left following earthquake
shaking (Sugandhesa, Payar). A comprehensive list of all
the heritage structures in India is prepared. The location
of these structures on the zonation map of India along
with the fault lines is shown in Fig 4.
Fig 1: Jhulta Minara Ahmedabad
Fig. 4: Location of Heritage Structures on Zonation Map of

India along with the fault lines
SEISMICITY OF INDIA
Indian Subcontinent is one of the seismically active
regions of the world. Indian plate is moving northward at
about 5 centimeters per year and in doing so, collides with
the Eurasian Plate. Upon the Eurasian Plate lie the Tibet
plateau & central Asia. Due to this mammoth collision,
the Himalayas are thrust higher and many earthquakes are
generated in this process. This is the cause of earthquakes
from the Himalayas to the Arakan Yoma. Himalayan
region is one of the rare sites of continent to continent
collision and also tectonically very active belt. The same
process, involving the Indian Plate and the Burmese
Micro-plate results in earthquakes in the Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. Sometimes earthquakes of different
magnitudes occur within the Indian Plate, in the peninsula
and in adjoining parts of the Arabian Sea or the Bay of
Bengal. These arise due to localized systems of forces in
the crust sometimes associated with ancient geological
structures such as in the Rann of Kachchh.
Fig. 2: Roulakha Chatris Bhuj
The seismicity of India can be mainly divided into 4

groups: Himalayan Region, Indo-Gangetic Plain, KutchKathiawar Region and the Peninsular India (Ref EU
Report 2003). Depending on the past earthquakes, Bureau
of Indian Standards has prepared the Seismic Zonation
map of India (IS-1893-2002), which divides the country
into 4 different zones. According to IS 1893-2002, the
whole country is divided into 4 different zones, which are
zone V, zone IV, zone III, zone II. The characteristics of
the various zones in the descending order of severity are
as follows:
Fig. 3: Shiva Temple Kashmir
All of Kashmir's early temples (constructed 750-950AD)

have survived some damage. Although not generally
recognized, it is probable that most of this damage was
initiated by earthquakes. A common feature is the loss of
the monolithic capstone roofs of temples, whereas the
walls still stand without the benefit of mortar. Examples
of tossed capstones are found at Naranag. Some temples
have subsequently been quarried for stone used in later re-
98
Damage Based Life of Heritage Structures in Seismic Environment: A Case Study on Golkonda Fort
Zone II: This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is

classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code
assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal
acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this
zone is 0.10g.
emperor Aurangazeb, who almost completely destroyed

the fort and left it in a heap of pathetic ruins.
Golconda consists of four distinct forts with a 10km long
outer wall having 87 semi circular bastions; some still
mounted with cannons, eight gateways, four drawbridges
and number of royal apartments and halls, temples,
mosques, magazines, stables etc, inside. The lowest of
these is the outermost enclosure into which we enter by
the 'Fateh Darwaza' (Victory gate, so called after
Aurangzeb's triumphant army marched in through this
gate) studded with giant iron spikes ( to prevent elephants
from battering them down) near the south-eastern corner.
At Fateh Darwaza can be experienced the fantastic
acoustical effects, characteristic of the engineering
marvels at Golconda. A hand clap at a certain point below
the dome at the entrance reverberates and can be heard
clearly at the 'Bala Hisar' pavilion, the highest point
almost a kilometre away. This acted as the warning note
to residents in case of danger though now it is a mere
amusing diversion to visitors.
Zone III: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of

Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone. This
zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which
is liable to MSK VII. The IS code assigns zone factor of
0.16 for Zone-3.
Zone IV: This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone
and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns
zone factor of 0.24 for Zone-4. The Indo-Gangetic basin
and the capital of the country (Delhi, Jammu) fall in
Zone 4.
Zone V: It is the most earthquake prone zone in the
country. It covers the area with the highest risk zone that
suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The
IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone-5. The zone
factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) peak
horizontal ground accelerations of 0.36 g that may be
generated during MCE level earthquake in this zone. It is
referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state
of Kashmir, Punjab, the western and central Himalayas,
the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in
this zone.
Of the great gateways, the Balahisar Darwaza is the most

impressive. Mythical beasts and lions on stucco panels of
the spandrels provide decoration on this defence portal.
From the Balahisar Darwaza starts the uphill ascent of
some 380 uneven stone steps.The main structure of the
fort is laid out in a sequence of enclosures that holds the
public and administrative structures to the royal
residences and halls. The mortuary baths lie to the right of
the portico. The baths were meant for the deceased
royalty and harem ladies who were given the ritualistic
bath before burial outside the Banjara Gate. Nagina Bagh,
now in complete ruins, lies within an enclosure.
A CASE STUDY ON GOLKONDA FORT

As a case study, the proposed methodology is used to
evaluate damage to Golkonda Fort located in Hyderabad;
Andhra Pradesh which comes in Zone II according to IS
1893-2002. Golconda fort is one of the most magnificent
fortress complexes in India which lies on the western
outskirts around 11km from Hyderabad, the capital of the
state of Andhra Pradesh (fig1.6). The history of Golconda
Fort dates back to the early 13th century, when this south
eastern part of the country was ruled by the Kakatiyas.
The bulk of the ruins of this fort, date from the time of the
Qutub Shahi kings, who had ruled this area in the 16th
and 17th century. The fortress is built on a granite hill 120
metres high, surrounded by massive crenellated ramparts.
The offices of Akanna and Madanna, two important

Hindu officials in the Qutab Shahi court, are further up.
The large iron weights, half buried in the ground, are
curious relics of the past. Ruins of the Ambar Khana
(granary 1642) and Bari Baoli (step well) are close to the
upper terrace. One can also see a Hindu temple
(Madanna's) belonging to the Kakatiya period carved out
of a huge boulder. It has colorful murals of the Goddess
Kali on the white-painted facade.
Another important structure is the mosque built by
Taramati. As one clambers up and down the boulders
through narrow patches and uneven steps we can see
unusual clay pipes fitted into the wall planks - evidence of
an efficient water supply arrangement to the uphill
residential area. Prominent corner minarets distinguish the
small mosque (1518) built by Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah.
The courtyard extend up to the ramparts providing
spectacular views of the landscape below, for miles. Close
to the mosque lies the small Rama Mandir under the
boulders. Ram Das, a revenue official jailed by Abul
Hasan Tana Shah for misusing state funds, carved images
of Rama, Lakshman and Hanuman on the rock surface in
Shepherd's Hill or 'Golla Konda', as it is known in Telugu,

has an interesting story behind it. In 1143, on the rocky
hill called 'Mangalavaram', a shepherd boy came across
an idol. This was conveyed to the Kakatiya king, who was
ruling at that time. The king got a mud fort constructed
around the holy spot and nearly 200 years later Bahamini
rulers (1364) took possession of the fort. From 1507 over
a period of 62 years the mud fort was expanded by the the
first three Qutub Shahi kings into a massive fort of
granite, extending around 5km in circumference, which
has been a silent witness to many historic events. The
illustrious rule of the Qutub Shahis at Golconda ended in
1687, with the conquest of the fort by the Mughal
99
the cell. The ascent of 380 steps finally culminates at the

Balahisar Baradari, a wind-swept pavilion, twelve-arched,
triple storeyed structure used as a durbar hall. It is divided
by substantial piers into vaulted bays, a raised chamber
with triple arches opens off the rear wall. On the
uppermost terrace stands a stone throne. A pavilion, far
away in the hills, is believed to have housed Taramati,
Abul Hasan's paramour. The Baradari shows yet another
engineering marvel - natural air-conditioning provided by
a gap in the double walls which suck the air and releases
it with accumulated pressure in the chambers.
Steep narrow steps descend to the zenana quarters - Rani
Mahal. These palaces, built on massive platforms, had
high ceilings and walls covered with decorative niches,
alcoves and cornices, essentially Persian in design. The
tall wooden columns, now lost, reveal the bare structure
of the triple vaulted hall. Delicate arabesques in the
roundels above the side arches constitute the elegant
ornamentation on stucco. The Rani Mahal in its hey-days
contained a world of luxury envied by the grand Mughals
themselves. There is also supposed to be secret
underground tunnel leading from the 'Durbar Hall' to one
of the palaces at the foot of the hill.
at the tail end of the frequency range of the earthquake

ground motion; therefore the linear and nonlinear
responses are overlapping with the amplitude of the
nonlinear response being lower than the amplitude of the
linear response. When the Linear analysis of the structure
is carried out subjecting it to Elcentro earthquake, the
response of the structure at the above 3 mentioned points
are as observed in the figure. From the time domain we
know the points where the peaks are occurring in both the
ground motion record and the response of the structure by
subjecting it to the ground motion record. When we
convert the time domain to frequency domain we get to
know the predominant frequency range of both the ground
motion record and the responses. Whenever the structure's
frequency falls into the predominant frequency of the
ground motion record, maximum strength degradation to
the structure is observed. Similarly for the nonlinear
analysis, the responses are computed and results for both
Linear and Non-Linear Analysis are plotted in the same
graph for comparison.
MODELING OF STRUCTURE
Applied element method is a discrete method in which the
elements are connected by pair of normal and shear
springs which are distributed around the element edges.
These springs represents the stresses and deformations of
the studied element. The elements motion is rigid body
motion and the internal deformations are taken by the
springs only. Golkonda Fort is modeled as both 2D and
3D structure in AEM refer fig 5. Given below are the
element properties and material properties in both 2D and
3D structure. The geometry and material details of
structure are taken from Vrushali (2013).
Fig. 5: Heritage Structure selected for the case studyGolkonda Fort and its AEM model
SELECTION OF GROUND MOTION

In this analysis, Elcentro ground motion is considered.
The ground motion record and its Fourier amplitude
spectrum are shown in fig 6. This ground motion is
applied to the structure for analysis, and its response is
computed at 3 different points (E1, E2, and E3) for both
Linear and Non-Linear Analysis. The responses from both
linear and non-linear analysis are plotted in the same plot
for comparison for each element. The response shown in
the green dotted lines is the Non-linear response and the
one shown in blue lines is the linear response refer figure
7. For El-Centro ground motion the predominant
frequency lies between 1.15-2.2, whereas the structural
frequency with the assumed material properties is
computed as 0.57 which falls outside the frequency range
of the earthquake ground motion. When we compare the
results we find a sharp peak in the linear responses,
because of the amplification of the ground motion due to
the presence of the hill. The structure frequency is falling
Fig. 6: Heritage Structure selected for the case studyGolkonda Fort
PUSH OVER ANALYSIS

As per FEMA 356: 2000 and ATC 40, Pushover analysis
is a static, nonlinear procedure using simplified nonlinear
100
Damage Based Life of Heritage Structures in Seismic Environment: A Case Study on Golkonda Fort
technique. It is an incremental static analysis used to

determine the force-displacement relationship, or the
capacity curve, for a structure. The analysis involves
applying horizontal loads, in a prescribed pattern, to the
structure incrementally; pushing the structure and plotting
the total applied lateral force and associated lateral
displacement at each increment, until the structure
achieve collapse condition.
The static pushover analysis is becoming a popular tool
for seismic performance evaluation of existing and new
structures. The expectation is that the pushover analysis
will provide adequate information on seismic demands
imposed by the design ground motion on the structural
system and its components. The pushover analysis of a
structure is a static non-linear analysis under permanent
vertical loads and gradually increasing lateral loads. The
equivalent static lateral loads approximately represent
earthquake induced forces. A plot of the total base shear
versus roof displacement in a structure is obtained by this
analysis that would indicate any premature failure or
weakness.
The existing buildings can become seismically deficient
since seismic design code requirements are constantly
upgraded and advancement in engineering knowledge.
Further, Indian buildings built over past two decades are
seismically deficient because of lack of awareness
regarding seismic behavior of structures. The widespread
damage to buildings during earthquakes is exposed in the
construction practices being adopted around the world,
and generated a great demand for seismic evaluation and
retrofitting of existing buildings.
Now to get the load vs displacement curve for a structure,
the structure is pushed using either load control or
displacement control. In this analysis we used
displacement control till complete collapse of the
structure. The load vs displacement plot is shown in
figure 8. The stiffness of the structure getting reduced
when the first crack starts or the first spring fails. The
spring fails when the principle stress exceeds the limited
value. When the structure reaches the peak load value in
the load vs displacement curve, it starts coming down for
further increase in the displacement.
From figure 9 we can estimate the amount of damage to

the Golkonda Fort for the given ground motion PGA
value.
Fig. 9: Fragility Curve generated for Golkonda Fort
CONCLUSIONS
Linear and Non-Linear analysis of the 3D model is
carried out. As the time history responses of the linear and
non-linear analysis don't give us the range of predominant
frequencies, the responses are converted to Fourier
amplitude spectrums to know the range of predominant
frequencies in the structure. The linear response of the
structure shows the range of predominant frequencies as
to be in 15-20 range. When the system is analyzed in the
nonlinear fashion, there is a shift in the predominant
frequency range which is shifted to 0-5. The reason for
the above shift being, as the structure continues to vibrate
after the yield point, there is a decrease in the stiffness of
the structure which increases its time period and in turn
decreases its frequencies. So this is a clear indication of
the onset of damage in the structure.
When Golconda fort is subjected to all these individual
ground motions we observe that since the structure is built
on top of a granite hill, the ground motion is amplified at
the first response point which is observed as a peak in the
spectrum. Since the structure does not fall in the
predominant frequency range of the assumed ground
motions, the damage to the structure is very less.
REFERENCES
FRAGILITY ANALYSIS
Now the area under the load vs displacement curve is the
total energy dissipated in the structure. We calculated
elastic and inelastic energy of the structure at each and
every displacement. The damage parameter is denoted as
the ratio of inelastic energy to the total energy of the
structure. The displacement values can be converted to
spectral displacement and then converted to spectral
acceleration values using 4(SD)/T2. Where SD=spectral
displacement and T=time period. Figure 9 gives the
damage curve for different PGA values of ground motion.
[1]
[2]
[3]
101
Trifunac, M.D. and A.G. Brady, A study on the duration

of strong earthquake ground motion, Bull. Seism. Soc.
Amer., 65, 581-626, 1975.
Trifunac, M.D. and A.G.Brady, Correlation of Peak
acceleration, velocity and Displacement with earthquake
magnitude, distance and site conditions, Earthq. Eng.
Struct. Dyn., 4, 455-471, 1976.
Todorovska, M.I., Comparison of response spectrum
amplitudes from earthquakes with a lognormally and
exponentially distributed return period, Soil Dyn. Earthq.
Eng., 13, 97-116, 1994.
[4]
[5]
[6]
Park, Y.J. and A.H.S. Ang, Mechanistic seismic damage

model for reinforced concrete, J.Struct. Eng. Div., Proc.
ASCE, 111(ST4), 722-739, 1985.
Tagel-Din Hatem, A New Efficient Method for
Nonlinear, Large Deformation and Collapse Analysis of
Structures, Ph.D Thesis, Civil Engg. Dept., University of
Tokyo, September, 1998.
Tagel-Din Hatem and Kimiro Meguro., Applied Element
Method for Simulation of Nonlinear Materials: Theory
and Application for RC Structures, Structural
Eng./Earthquake Eng., JSCE, Vol 17, No.2, 2000.
[7]
[8]
[9]
102
Vere-Jones, D, Stochastic models for earthquake

occurrence, J. Roy.Statistical Soc., 32(1), 1-45, 1985.
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar, Damage based life of
structures in seismic environment, M.Tech Thesis, Civil
Engg. Dept., Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, June,
1997.
Vrushali Kamalakar and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar,
Damaged Base Life of Historical Constructions in
Seismic Environment, European Journal of Scientific
Research, Vol.35, Issue No. 2, 2009.


Allasab Gudihal1 and T.H. Sadashiva Murthy2
1
Post Graduate Student, 2Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysore, India
ABSTRACT
Many buildings in the present scenario have irregular configurations both in plan and elevation. In case of
devastating earthquakes, it is necessary to identify the performance of the structures to withstand against
disaster for both new and existing one. In recent years, it has become a common practice in growing cities
located in mountainous regions to undertake the construction of buildings of considerable height and large base
areas on slope terrains. Hill buildings are different from those in plains; they are very irregular and
unsymmetrical in horizontal and vertical planes, and torsionally coupled. Hence, they are susceptible to severe
damage when affected by earthquake ground motion. It was found that the step back set back buildings is found
to be more suitable on sloping ground, as most of hill buildings fall under vertical geometric irregularity.
Criteria and limits specified for vertical irregularities as defined by different codes of practice and types of
different geometric configurations used are discussed. This paper summarizes the research works carried out
regarding effect of vertical irregularity on buildings when subjected to seismic loads.
Keywords Seismic performance, Sloping ground, Vertical irregularities, Dynamic characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
Irregular buildings constitute a large portion of the
modern urban infrastructure. The group of people
involved in constructing the building facilities, including
owner, architect, structural engineer, contractor and local
authorities, contribute to the overall planning, selection of
structural system, and to its configuration. This may lead
to building structures with irregular distributions in their
mass, stiffness and strength along the height of building.
When such buildings are located in a high seismic zone,
the structural engineers role becomes more challenging.
Therefore, the structural engineer needs to have a
thorough understanding of the seismic response of
irregular structures. In recent past, several studies have
been carried out to evaluate the response of irregular
buildings. During earthquake, torsionally coupled &
irregular buildings in hilly areas suffer more damage.
Dynamic characteristics of hill buildings are somewhat
different than the buildings on flat ground. Torsional
effect of such buildings is demanded for having the
difference stiffness and mass along horizontal and vertical
plane during earthquake ground motion. Short column of
RC frame building suffer damage because of attracting
more forces during earthquake. And also architectural
buildings which are irregular in plan and elevation suffer
more. This paper is an attempt to summarize the work that
has been already done pertaining to the seismic response
of vertically irregular building frames.
Design Code Perspective on Vertical Geometric

Irregularity
In the earlier versions of IS 1893 (BIS, 1962, 1966, 1970,
1975, 1984), there was no mention of vertical irregularity
in building frames. However, in the recent version of IS
1893 (Part 1)-2002 (BIS, 2002), irregular configuration of
buildings has been defined explicitly. They are: stiffness
irregularity (soft story), mass irregularity, vertical
geometric irregularity (set-back), in-plane discontinuity in
lateral-force-resisting vertical elements, and discontinuity
in capacity (weak story). National Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Program (NEHRP) code (BSSC, 2003) has
classifications of vertical irregularities similar to those
described in IS 1893 (Part 1)-2002 (BIS, 2002) as shown
in table 1. As per this code, a structure is defined to be
irregular if the ratio of one of the quantities (such as mass,
stiffness or strength) between adjacent stories exceeds a
minimum prescribed value. These values (such as 70-80%
for soft story, 80% for weak story, and 150% for set-back
structures) and the criteria that define the irregularities
have been assigned by judgment. Further, various
building codes suggest dynamic analysis (which can be
elastic time history analysis or elastic response spectrum
analysis) to come up with design lateral force distribution
for irregular structures rather than using equivalent lateral
force (ELF) procedures.
The stepped building form is recognized by several design
codes, such as IS 1893:2002 and ASCE 7:2005, as a
103
Fig. 1: Showing irregularity limits as per IS: 1893:2002.

Table 1: Irregularity limits prescribed by different codes
Type of irregularity
Mass
Stiffness
ECB 2004
Should not reduce
abruptly
Si < 0.7Si+1 or Si <
0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
IS 1893:2002
Mi < 2Ma
ASCE 07:2005
Mi < 1.5Ma
UBC 1997
Mi < 1.5Ma

0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
Si < 0.8Si+1

0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
Si < 0.8Si+1
Rd < 0.3 Tw at any

level
SBi <1.5SBa

0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
0.8(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
0.7(Si+1 +Si+2 + Si+3)
SBi <1.3SBa
Soft storey
Weak storey
Setback irregularity
typical form of vertical geometric irregularity that merits

special design consideration. As per IS 1893:2002, such
building forms are to be treated as vertically irregular as
shown in Fig 1. As per ASCE 7:2005, when the
horizontal dimension of the building in any story (Li) is
more than 130% of that in an adjacent story (LiC1) this
building will be considered as vertically irregular as
shown in Fig 2. Evidently, the codes consider the ratio of
geometric lateral dimension of one storey of a building to
the other storey as a parameter to define vertical
geometric irregularity.
Fig. 2: Showing irregularity limits as per ASCE 7: 2005.
SBi <1.3SBa
This does not account for the offsets in the other floors.
Also, the definitions of vertical geometric irregularity in
design codes do not account for gradual variation in
irregularity. Moreover, they treat all kinds of
geometrically irregular buildings as one category. Table 1
shows different code limits for vertical irregularity
REVIEW OF RESEARCH WORKS REGARDING
VERTICAL GEOMETRIC IRREGULARITIES
B.G. Birajdar and S.S. Nalawade (2004) carried out
seismic analyses on 24 RC buildings with three different
configurations like, Step back building, Step back Set
back building and Set back building as shown in Fig 3-5.
3 D analysis including torsional effect has been carried
out by using response spectrum method. The dynamic
response properties i.e. fundamental time period, top
storey displacement and, the base shear action induced in
columns were studied with reference to the suitability of a
building configuration on sloping ground. It is observed
that Step back Set back buildings are found to be more
suitable on sloping ground.
104
formula results in an accurate estimate of the fundamental

period, even for three dimensional building models.
C. V. R. Murty et al. (2012) studied the damages occurred
during Sikkim earthquake in 2011. The earthquake near
the Nepal-Sikkim border on 18 September 2011 (18:10
local time) (re) emphasized many lessons on technical,
techno-legal and techno-financial systems related to
development of built-environment in the region. From
their study, it was observed that there were insufficient
precautions in land slide potential assessment of hill
slopes and the RC structures were not designed for
earthquake resistance.
Fig. 3: Step back building
A.R. Vijaya Narayanan et al. (2012) observed that RC

frame buildings in the Himalayan region are constructed
without even designing them for gravity loads. Many
features of these buildings render them vulnerable to
lateral shaking, including column bases rest on ground at
different heights and half brick masonry infill walls
distributed irregularly in plan within each storey. This
paper presented results of nonlinear analyses performed
on typical buildings on steep hill slopes with two possible
types of column base connectivity-one as column bases
fixed and other one is roller support except lower two
columns fixed to ground. It was found that RC buildings
with large plan size vulnerable to strong seismic shaking.
The bending moment, shear force and axial force
variations are studied and critical portions of hill
buildings observed.
Fig. 4: Step back Set back building
Fig. 5: Set back building
Pradip Sarkar et al. (2010) studied `Stepped building'

frames, with vertical geometric irregularity, The authors
have proposed a new method of quantifying irregularity in
such building frames, accounting for dynamic
characteristics (mass and stiffness). The proposed
`regularity index' provides a basis for assessing the degree
of irregularities in a stepped building frame. They also
proposed a modification factor for the empirical formula
for estimating fundamental time period for stepped
building frames. The proposed equation for fundamental
time periods is expressed as a function of the regularity
index. It had been validated for various types of stepped
irregular frames. A measure of vertical irregularity,
suitable for stepped buildings, called `regularity index', is
proposed, accounting for the changes in mass and
stiffness along the height of the building. This is simple in
concept, and is shown to perform better than existing
measures. An empirical formula (modification of the
existing code formula for regular RC framed building) is
proposed to calculate the fundamental time period of
stepped building, as a function of regularity index. This
has been validated by free vibration analysis, performed
on 78 stepped frames. A case study of an existing stepped
building located at New Delhi demonstrates that the
proposed correction to the code specified empirical
Tian Chunyu et al. (2012) conducted Shake Table test on

an office building of 30 storey with very irregular plan
and elevation having a height of 112.4m as shown in Fig
6. Shaking table test was carried out on the structure to
investigate its seismic performance. A 1/20 scaled test
model was designed and built, then tested on the shake
table of China Academy of Building Research under
small, moderate and large earthquake levels. Test results
show that main seismic performance objectives of the
structure can be achieved. However, the irregularities lead
to some severe damage under strong earthquakes.
105
Fig. 6
Based on the research results some suggestions were

proposed to contribute favorable effect on the seismic
capacity of the structure, the structural irregularities,
including plan reduction, little top tower and uncontinous
columns, cause some obvious damage under large
earthquakes. The little top tower has obvious whipping
effect and in the structure design some measures had be
taken to ensure its safety. It was suggested to strengthen
the internal corner joint at 7th, 15th and 23rd storey and
the corner column-brace joint at 11th storey by adding
steel shape in beam and columns around the joint, and
adding reinforcement in the floor slab connected to these
joints
upon types of structural irregularities. It seems to be more

works required on hill buildings and vertical irregularities.
Ravikumar C M et al. (2012) made an attempt to study

two kinds of irregularities in the building models namely
plan irregularity with geometric and diaphragm
discontinuity and vertical irregularity with setback and
sloping ground. These irregularities are created as per
clause 7.1 of IS 1893 (part1)2002 code. In order to
identify the most vulnerable building among the models
considered, the various analytical approaches are
performed to identify the seismic demands in both linear
and nonlinear way. It was also examined that the effect of
three different lateral load patterns on the performance of
various irregular buildings in pushover analysis using
ETABS 6.0. This study creates awareness about seismic
vulnerability concept on practicing engineers. The work
conclude that (i) The equivalent static method doesnt
consider the irregular effects in the building (ii) In
pushover analysis the codal type of vertical distribution of
lateral force was found more detrimental in low rise
models (iii) The performances of all the models except
sloping ground are lies in between life safety and collapse
prevention. This shows the buildings resting on sloping
ground are more vulnerable to earthquake than rest of the
models and capacity of the buildings may be significant
but the seismic demand varies with respect to the
configurations.
[1]
Rayyan-Ul-Hasan Siddiqui and H.S.Vidyadhar (2013)

studied the mechanism for failure of multistorey buildings
on levelled and sloped ground using ETABS 9.7. They
were concentrated on structural behavior of RC building
with and without infill walls and shear walls and also
behavior of building on levelled and sloped ground. The
results were obtained in forms of storey displacements
and base shear. The analysis is carried base on Indian
standards using equivalent static, response spectrum and
pushover analysis. The work concludes that the sloping
ground buildings possesses relatively more maximum
displacements and shear forces which may give rise to
critical situations than the buildings on leveled ground.
SUMMARY
The main focus of the earlier research works was to vary

the mass, stiffness and geometric configurations of
buildings. It is also suggested suitable configuration for
hill buildings. Many works were carried out on shake
table test on irregular buildings and comparative studies
on methods of analysis such as Response spectrum
analysis and Pushover analysis using softwares ETABS
and SAP
REFERENCES
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
B.G. Birajdar, S.S. Nalawade., Seismic Analysis of

Buildings Resting on Sloping Ground, 13th WCEE
Vancouver, B.C., Canada August 1-6, 2004 Paper No.
1472.
Devesh P. Soni and Bharat B. Mistry., Qualitative
Review of Seismic Response of Vertical Irregular
Building Frames, ISET Journal of Earthquake
Technology, Technical Note, Vol. 43, No. 4, December
2006, pp. 121-132
Pradip Sarkar, A. Meher Prasad, Devdas Menon. Vertical
geometric irregularity in stepped building frames, Eng
Struct 2010;32:2175-2182.
A.R. Vijaya Narayanan, Rupen Goswami and C.V.R.
Murty., Performance of RC Buildings along Hill Slopes
of Himalayas during 2011 Sikkim Earthquake. 15th
WCEE LISBOA 2012.
Tian ChunyuLiu JunjinZhangHongCao Jinzhe.,

Experimental study on seismic behavior of an Irregular
high-rise building, China Academy of Building Research,
Beijing, 15th WCEE LISBOA 2012.
[6] C. V. R. Murty, Arun Menon, Rupen Goswami, A. R.
Vijaya Narayanan, S. R. Gandhi, K. N. Satyanarayana, S.
T. G. Raghukanth., Observations from Damages
Sustained in India during 2011 (India-Nepal) Sikkim
Earthquake, 15th WCEE LISBOA 2012.
[7] S.Varadharajan, V.K.Sehgal and Babita Saini,. Review of
different Structural irregularities in buildings. Journal of
Structural Engineering Vol.39, No.5, Dec 2012-Jan 2013
pp.538-563.
[8] Rayyan-Ul-Hasan Siddiqui and H. S. Vidyadhara.,
Seismic Analysis of Earthquake Resistant Multi Bay
Multi Storeyed 3D - RC Frame, International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 2 Issue
10, October 2013, ISSN: 2278-0181
[9] Dr. Sanjaya Kumar Patro, Susanta Banerjee, Debasnana
Jena, Sourav Kumar Das., A Review on Seismic Analysis
Of a Building on sloping ground, IJERT Vol. 2 Issue 10,
October 2013
[10] IS 1893 (part 1) 2002. Indian standard criteria for
earthquake resistant design of structures. New Delhi:
Bureau of Indian Standards; 2002.
[11] ASCE 7. Minimum design loads for buildings and other
structures. American Society of Civil Engineers; 2005.
The presence of structural irregularity changes the seismic

response and change in the seismic response depends
106


Rajesh Kodurupaka
M.Tech (Structures) Student, Prasad Engineering College, Siddipet Road, Jangaon, Warangal (Dist.) Andhra Pradesh.
Email: rajesh.vitsce@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Bridges are lifeline structures they act, as an important link in surface transportation network and failure
of bridges during a seismic event will seriously hamper the relief and rehabilitation work. The behavior of
isolated R.C.C bridges to seismic excitation is presented. The review includes the literature on theoretical
aspects of seismic isolation, parametric behaviour of base-isolated bridges and experimental studies to
verify some of the theoretical findings. A brief review of the earlier and current base isolation devices,
proposed or implemented, is given, and aspects for future research in the area of isolation of bridges are
included.
There are many cases of damage of bridges in the past earthquakes all over the world. Due to their
structural simplicity, bridges are particularly vulnerable to damage and even collapse when subjected to
earthquakes. The fundamental period of vibration of a majority of bridges is in the range of 0.2 to 1.2
second. In this range, the structural response is high because it is close to the predominant periods of
earthquake-induced ground motions. The seismic forces on the bridges can be reduced if the fundamental
period of the bridge is lengthened or the energy dissipating capability is increased. Therefore, the seismic
isolation is a promising alternative for earthquake-resistant design of bridges. Considerable efforts have
been made in the past two decades to develop improved seismic isolation design procedure for new
bridges and comprehensive retrofit guidelines for existing bridges. One of the goals of the seismic
isolation is to shift the fundamental frequency of a structure away from the dominant frequencies of
earthquake ground motion and fundamental frequency of the fixed base superstructure. The other purpose
of an isolation system is to provide an additional means of energy dissipation, thereby reducing the
transmitted acceleration into the superstructure. The suitability of a particular arrangement and type of
isolation system will depend on many factors including the span, number of continuous spans, and
seismicity of the region, frequencies of vibration of the relatively severe components of the earthquake,
maintenance and replacement facilities.
Keywords Bridge, elastomeric Bearings, seismic, base isolation.
INTRODUCTION
Seismic isolation is an old design idea, proposing the
decoupling of a structure or part of it, or even of
equipment placed in the structure, from the damaging
effects of ground accelerations. One of the goals of the
seismic isolation is to shift the fundamental frequency of
a structure away from the dominant frequencies of
earthquake ground motion and fundamental frequency of
the fixed base superstructure. The other purpose of an
isolation system is to provide an additional means of
energy dissipation, thereby reducing the transmitted
acceleration into the superstructure. This innovative
design approach aims mainly at the isolation of a structure
from the supporting ground, generally in the horizontal
direction, in order to reduce the transmission of the
earthquake motion to the structure. A variety of isolation
devices including elastomeric bearings (with and without
lead core), frictional/sliding bearings and roller bearings
have been developed and used practically for aseismic

design of buildings during last 20 years in many new
buildings in countries like USA, Japan, UK, Italy, New
Zealand etc. The detailed review of earlier and recent
works on base isolation systems and their applications to
buildings had been widely reported by Kelly (1986),
Buckle and Mayes (1990) and Jangid and Datta (1995).
Bridges are lifeline structures. They act, as an important
link in surface transportation network and failure of
bridges during a seismic event will seriously hamper the
relief and rehabilitation work. There are many cases of
damage of bridges in the past earthquakes all over the
world. Due to their structural simplicity, bridges are
particularly vulnerable to damage and even collapse when
subjected to earthquakes. The fundamental period of
vibration of a majority of bridges is in the range of 0.2 to
1.2 second. In this range, the structural response is high
because it is close to the predominant periods of
107
earthquake-induced ground motions. For very rigid

structures like normal bridges with short piers and
abutments the time period is often extremely small. For
such structures the response is almost the same as the
ground acceleration. The seismic forces on the bridges
can be reduced if the fundamental period of the bridge is
lengthened or the energy dissipating capability is
increased. Therefore, the seismic isolation is promising
alternative for earthquake-resistant design of bridges.
Figure 1 shows a typical isolated multi-span continuous
deck bridge in which special isolation devices are used in
place of conventional bridge bearings. These bearings
protect the substructure by restricting the transmission of
horizontal acceleration and dissipating the seismic energy
through damping. Considerable efforts have been made in
the past two decades to develop improved seismic
isolation design procedure for new bridges and
comprehensive retrofit guidelines for existing bridges.
The suitability of a particular arrangement and type of
isolation system will depend on many factors including
the span, number of continuous spans, and seismicity of
the region, frequencies of vibration of the relatively
severe components of the earthquake, maintenance and
replacement facilities.
Structural Behaviour Under Seismic Actions
The seismic design philosophy relies on providing
sufficient ductility to the structure by which the structure
can dissipate seismic energy. The structural ductility
essentially comes from the member ductility wherein the
latter is achieved in the form of inelastic rotations. In
reinforced concrete members, the inelastic rotations
spread over definite regions called as plastic hinges.
During inelastic deformations, the actual material
properties are beyond elastic range and hence damages in
these regions are obvious. The plastic hinges are
expected locations where the structural damage can be
allowed to occur due to inelastic actions involving large
deformations. Hence, in seismic design, the damages in
the form of plastic hinges are accepted to be formed in
beams rather than in columns. Mechanism with beam
yielding is characteristic of strong-column-weak beam
behaviour in which the imposed inelastic rotational
demands can be achieved reasonably well through proper
detailing practice in beams. Therefore, in this mode of
behavior, it is possible for the structure to attain the
desired inelastic response and ductility. On the other
hand, if plastic hinges are allowed to form in columns, the
inelastic rotational demands imposed are very high that it
is very form in columns, the inelastic rotational demands
imposed are very high that it is very difficult to be catered
with any possible detailing. The mechanism with such a
feature is called column yielding or storey mechanism.
One of the basic requirements of design is that the
columns above and below the joint should have sufficient
flexural strength when the adjoining beams develop
flexural overstrength at their plastic hinges. This column

to beam flexural strength ratio is an important parameter
to ensure that possible hinging occurs in beams rather
than in columns.
Fig. 1: Seismically continuous span bridge isolated bridge.
An updated state-of-the-art-review on seismically isolated

bridges against earthquake excitation is presented herein.
The review briefly covers the characteristics of base
isolation devices as such, but puts most emphasis on the
theoretical and parametric studies conducted to
understand the behaviour of seismically isolated bridges
with an indication of their range of applicability and some
assessment of their development as backed by the
research. The systems presented here are passive control
systems but the work related to active and hybrid control
of bridges is also summarized. The results of some
important experimental tests are also included.
SEISMIC ISOLATION SYSTEMS
There are two basic types of isolation systems i.e.
elastomeric bearings and sliding bearings. The
elastomeric bearings with low horizontal stiffness shift
fundamental time period of the structure to avoid
resonance with the excitations. The sliding isolation
system is based on the concept of sliding friction. An
isolation system should be able to support a structure
while providing additional horizontal flexibility and
energy dissipation. The three functions could be
concentrated into a single device or could be provided by
means of different components. Various parameters to be
considered in the choice of an isolation system, apart from
its general ability of shifting the vibration period and
adding damping to the structure are: (i) deformability
under frequent quasi-static load (i.e. initial stiffness),
(ii) yielding force and displacement, (iii) capacity of selfcentring after deformation and (iv) the vertical stiffness.
Elastomeric Bearings
The laminated rubber bearing (LRB) is most commonly
used base isolation system. The basic components of LRB
system are steel and rubber plates built in the alternate
layers as shown in Figure 2(a). The dominant features of
LRB system are the parallel action of linear spring and
damping. Generally, the LRB system exhibits highdamping capacity, horizontal flexibility and high vertical
stiffness. The damping constant of the system varies
considerably with the strain.
108
movement as well as protecting the bridge from dynamic

loads by increasing the fundamental period and
dissipating the seismic energy by hysteretic damping. In
order to demonstrate the effectiveness of seismic isolation
a three-span continuous deck bridge made of reinforced
concrete is considered. The properties of the bridge deck
and piers are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Properties of the bridge deck and piers
Properties
Cross-sectional area (m2)
Moment of inertia as (m4)
Youngs modules of
elasticity (m2)
Mass density (kg/m3)
Length/height (m)
(a) LRB System
Deck
3.57
2.08
Piers
4.09
0.64
20.67x 109 20.0067 x 109

2.4x 103
3@30 = 90
2.4x 103
8
(b) Lead-rubber bearing.

Fig. 2: Elastomeric isolation bearings
The second category of elastomeric bearings is lead rubber bearings (Robinson, 1982) as shown in Figure
2(b). This system provides the combined features of
vertical load support, horizontal flexibility, restoring force
and damping in a single unit. These bearings are similar
to the laminated rubber bearing but a central lead core is
used to provide an additional means of energy dissipation.
These bearings are widely used in New Zealand and also
referred as N-Z system. The energy absorbing capacity by
the lead core reduces the lateral displacements of the
isolator. Generally, the lead yields at a relatively low
stress of about 10 MPa in shear and behaves
approximately as an elasto-plastic solid. The interrelated
simultaneous process of recovery, recrystallization and
grain growth is continuously restoring the mechanical
properties of the lead. The lead has good fatigue
properties during cyclic loading at plastic strains and is
also readily available at high purity of 99.9 per cent
required for its predictable mechanical properties. The
lead-rubber bearings behave essentially as hysteretic
damper device and widely studied in the past by Kelly et
al. (1972, 1977) and Skinner et al. (1975).
SEISMIC ISOLATION OF RCC BRIDGES
In bridges, the base isolation devices can rather easily
incorporated by replacing the conventional bridge
bearings by isolation bearings. Base isolation bearings
serves the dual purpose of providing for thermal
Fig. 3: Mathematical modelling of isolated bridges
These properties correspond to the bridge studied by

Wang et al. (1998) using a sliding isolation system. The
bridge is modelled as shown in Figure 3(a) as a discrete
model. It is to be noted that the bridge is also modelled as
shown in Figure 3(b) in the past in which the deck is
assumed to be rigid. The fundamental time period of the
piers is about 0.1 sec and the corresponding time period
of the non-isolated bridge works out to be 0.5 sec in both
longitudinal and transverse directions. The damping in the
deck and piers is taken as 5% of the critical in all modes
of vibration. In addition, the number of elements
considered in the bridge deck and piers are 10 and 5,
respectively. Response quantities of interest for the bridge
system under consideration (in both longitudinal and
transverse directions) are the base shear in the piers and
the relative displacement of the elastomeric bearings at
the abutment. The pier base shear is directly proportional
109
to the forces exerted in the bridge system due to

earthquake ground motion. On the other hand, the relative
displacements of the isolation bearing are crucial from the
design point of view of isolation system and separation
joints at the abutment level.
In Figures 4, the time variation of the base shear in the
pier and relative displacement of the bearings of the
bridge isolated by the LRB, N-Z and FPS is shown. The
LRB system is designed to provide isolation period of 2
sec (based on rigid deck and pier condition) and 10
percent damping ratio. The isolation period for the N-Z
and the FPS system is taken as 2.5 sec. The yield strength
of the N-Z system is taken as 5 percent of deck weight
and the friction coefficient of FPS system is considered as
0.05. The system is subjected to Kobe, 1995 earthquake
ground motion in the longitudinal and transverse
directions. The base shear in the piers is significantly
reduced (about 80 to 90%) for the isolated system as
compared to the non-isolated system in the both directions
of the bridge. This indicates that the isolation systems are
quite effective in reducing the earthquake response of the
bridge system. The maximum peak displacement of the
bearing is 32.87, 27.65 and 31.50 for LRB, N-Z and FPS
system, respectively in the longitudinal direction of the
bridge.
devices and response characteristics of structural models

isolated by different isolators in the past. Kelly et al.
(1985) and Buckle and Kelly (1986) studied quarter-scale
models of straight and skewed bridge decks mounted on
plain and lead -filled elastomeric bearings subjected to
earthquake ground motion using the shaking table. The
deck response was compared to determine the
effectiveness of mechanical energy dissipaters in base
isolation systems and the mode of failure of base-isolated
bridges. The control of translational and provide examples
of seismic retrofitting by means of reducing the forces by
de-tuning, absorbing energy, providing ductility, limiting
travel and strengthening. The Sacramento River Bridge at
Rio Vista, California had been retrofitted using seismic
isolation (Abbas et al., 1996). The retrofit of the bridge
consists of seismic isolation of the bridge deck in the steel
truss approach spans, and use of passive energy
dissipaters at the tower column base connections.
Extensive non-linear dynamic time history analyses were
also performed to evaluate the performance of the
isolation and energy dissipation systems.
The seismic upgrading of a motorway overpass bridge,
situated in Chalastra just outside Thessaloniki, Greece,
130-m-long, six-span pre-stressed bridge of the Gerber
type resting on five-reinforced concrete piers and two
reinforced concrete abutments was done. The retrofitting
was carried out by replacing the existing steel bearings
with elastomeric ones of high damping (15%) each with
varying height each, so that the required resistance in the
system pier -cup-piles for gravity loading and earthquake
would be less than the available one (Penelis et al., 1988).
A seismic retrofit strategy was developed for the Poplar
Street Bridge over the Mississippi River at St. Louis for
the Missouri Department of Transportation (Capron,
1999). The 660 m long structure consists of two parallel
five-span continuous roadways with an orthotropic steel
plate deck and variable depth steel box girder. The
seismic evaluation considered three levels of design
earthquakes and identified deficiencies in the bearings,
reinforcement splices in the columns and piers, and one
foundation. The retrofit strategy included adding force
transmitters or dampers to the existing expansion bearing
piers, adding transverse shear blocks to the beam seats
etc.
Fig. 4: Time variation of base shear and bearing

displacement of the bridge isolated by FPS system under
Kobe, 1995 earthquake motion.
3.1 Experimental Study

A number of experimental studies have been reported on
the load deformation behaviour of different isolation
The I-40 Mississippi River bridge, was built in the late

1960s has a total length of 5.3 km situated at the
southeastern edge of the New Madrid seismic zone. The
Arkansas and Tennessee Departments of Transportation
conducted retrofitting of the bridge where existing
bearings were replaced by friction pendulum bearings.
The overall construction cost and the extent of retrofit
work was significantly reduced by switching from the
existing bearings to the isolation bearings (Imbsen et al.,
1999).
110
A high-damping rubber bearing had been used in a largescale pedestrian bridge spanning over railway lines in the
Shizouka City (Higashi-Shizouka pedestrian bridge) for
more flexibility of the structure and greatly reducing the
power of earthquakes and, consequently, enhances
resistance against shock (Iwata et al., 2000). The safety of
the bridge structure was confirmed through non-linear
dynamic analysis, as well as through a hybrid earthquakeloading test (pseudo-dynamic test).
A six-span continuous pre-stressed concrete twin cell box
girder bridge has an overall length of 244.8 m, Yama-age
bridge situated on National Highway number 294 in Japan
Tochigi, is the first bridge in Japan, which is base-isolated
with high damping rubber bearings (Chaudhary 2001).
This bridge performed very well during 1995 Kobe
earthquake.
Active and Hybrid Control Strategy for Bridges
Apart from the passive control of the bridge structures,
there had been studies for active and hybrid control
strategies for better earthquake protection bridges.
Nagarajaiah et al. (1992) developed a control algorithm
for friction controllable sliding isolation system for
bridges including the effects of stick-slip phases. The
developed algorithm is used to verify the accuracy of the
algorithm with continuous sliding assumption and to
establish its limits. Comparisons with experimental results
were presented and effects of stick-slip phases on the
response were also evaluated.
Reinhorn et al. (1993) presented three control algorithms
for the hybrid system applied to bridges. Two of these
algorithms are verified experimentally, and the third is
verified with an Analytical model. The results show that
the hybrid system is capable of significantly improving
the seismic response of the bridges. Yang et al. (1993)
presented a method for controlling seismically excited
bridges by using variable dampers. A simulation study
using a continuous girder bridge is conducted to examine
the effectiveness of the control algorithm in reducing the
absolute acceleration of the bridge girder and the relative
displacement between the girder and the supports.
Simulation results indicate that the performance of the
control method is excellent.
Yang et al. (1994, 1995) presented control methods for
hybrid protective systems for bridges. The control
methods are based on the theory of variable structure
system or sliding mode control. Simulation results
demonstrate that the control methods are robust with
respect to system parametric uncertainties and
performance is quite remarkable. Sensitivity studies are
conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of hybrid
protective systems and passive sliding isolators for
reducing the response of seismic-excited bridge
structures.
Fideliu (1998) presented classical optimal control strategy

with full known state for seismic response control of
cable-stayed bridge. The parameters for control strategy
are proposed based on energetic interpretation for the
optimisation index and applied to a three -dimensional
cable stayed bridge, equipped with many active devices.
The results had shown excellent performance, validating
the proposed strategy. Symans and Kelly (1998)
investigated the effectiveness of a hybrid system
containing semi-active dampers through an analytical and
computational study of the seismic response of a bridge.
The results show that such a system may prevent or
significantly reduce the structural damage during an
earthquake.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The review on the literature on the subject reveals that
works on the following areas are still inadequate and
deserve attention of future research for more
understanding of the subject and for providing definite
guidelines for design:
Investigations of effectiveness of seismic isolation for
skew rcc bridges and bridges curved in plan and
elevation.
Effect of special correlation of earthquake ground motion
on the response of seismically isolated bridges.
Earthquake response of bridges with sliding systems and
lead-rubber bearing with soil structure interaction.
Earthquake response of seismically isolated regular
bridges considering soil-water structure interaction.
Analysis and feasibility of semi-active control devices for
a seismic design of bridges.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
111
Aashto (1991). Guide specifications for seismic isolation

design, American Association of State Highway and
Transport Officials, Washington DC.
Design of bridges by IRC(Indian Road Congress):6-2002,
IRC:212000 and IRC:78-2000.
Abbas, H., Singh, S.P. and Uzarski, J. (1996). Seismic
evaluation and retrofit of
Sacramento River
BridgeatRioVista, Proceedings of the Second US
Seminar, San Francisco, UCB/CEE-STEEL-96/09, 527536.
Fideliu, P.C. (1998). Seismic response control of long
cable stayed bridges, Proc. of the Second World
Conference on Structural Control, Vol. 2, 959-964.
Braga, F., Calvi, G.M. and Pinto, P.E. (1998). Italian and
European guidelines for seismic design of isolated bridges
, Proc. of the US-Italy Workshop on Seismic Protective
Systems for Bridges, Buffalo, 3-12.
[6]
[7]
[8]
Briseghella, L., Gori, R. and Negro, P. (1989). Seismic

isolation of pier bridges, Proc. of 9th World Conference
on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. V, 621-626.
Buckle, I.G. and Kelly, J.M. (1986). Shake table studies
of base isolated bridge superstructures with energy
dissipators, Proc. of the 8th European Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 5, 55-61.
Hwang, J.S. and Chiou, J.M. (1996). An equivalent linear
model of lead-rubber seismic isolation bearings,
Engineering Structures, Vol. 18, 528-536.
[9]
Nagarajaiah, S., Feng, Q., Shinozuka, M. and Reinhorn,

A.M. (1992). Analysis of bridges with friction
controllable sliding isolation systems, Proc. of the third
Workshop on Bridge Engineering Research in Progress,
California, 243-246.
[10] Ogawa, K., Saitoh, T., Tamaki, T., Sakai, F., Nishida, T.
and Ha, D.H., (1998). Experimental study on isolation
system with friction damping for bridge structures, Proc.
of the Second World Conf. on Structural Control, Kyoto,
Japan, Vol. 2, 885-894
112


Sowjanya1 and J. Jaya Vardhan2
1
Assistant Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., G.Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool
2
B.Tech Student, Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool
ABSTRACT
As asphalt becomes more expensive and in short supply, and as the need to manage storm water runoff
increases, designers must revisit old assumptions and take a fresh look at how pavements need to work in a
sustainable environment, and how to design and specify for them. Pervious pavements are a recent addition to
the list of viable paving options, but as yet, there have been few ways to design them and to effectively predict
their performance. This article offers some help to accomplish those tasks. In many situations, pervious concrete
simply replaces an impervious surface. In other cases, the pervious concrete pavement system must be designed
to handle much more rainfall than will fall on the pavement itself. Various test were conducted on aggregate and
cement are obtained with in the specified limits. It is observed that the strength of concrete is 28.69 kg/cm2 for
28 days and may be concluded that the pervious concrete may be used at various places like parking lots,
footpaths, side drainages, curbs and for gutters.
Keywords Pervious Concrete, Storm Water, Ground Water Table
INTRODUCTION
To manage the storm water in a systematic manner.
Pervious concrete pavement is a unique and effective

means to meet growing environmental demands. By
capturing rainwater and allowing it to seep into the
ground, pervious concrete is instrumental in recharging
groundwater, reducing storm water runoff.
MIX PROPORTIONS
In pervious concrete, carefully controlled amount of water

and cementitious materials are used to create a paste that
forms a thick coating around aggregate particles. A
pervious concrete mixture contains little or no sand,
creating a substantial void content. Using sufficient paste
to coat and bind the aggregate particles together creates a
system of highly permeable, interconnected voids that
drains quickly.
While pervious concrete can be used for a surprising
number of applications, its primary use is in pavement.
This report will focus on the pavement applications of the
material, which also has been referred to as porous
concrete, permeable concrete, no-fines concrete, gapgraded concrete, and enhanced-porosity concrete.
Pervious concrete uses the same materials as conventional

concrete, with the exceptions that the fine aggregate
typically is eliminated entirely, and the size distribution
(grading) of the coarse aggregate is kept narrow, allowing
for relatively little particle packing.
Cementitious Materials
Portland cement is used for pervious concrete in our
study.
Aggregate
Fine aggregate content is limited in pervious concrete and
coarse aggregate is kept to a narrow gradation. Singlesized aggregate up to 25 mm has been used.Larger
aggregates provide a rougher surface.A/C ratios of 4.5 by
mass with rounded aggregate and angular aggregate have
been used to produce pervious concrete is considered in
laboratory studies.
Water
Objectives
The main objectives of pervious concrete are as follows:
To drain the surface water in to the ground and
ultimately to recharge the ground water table in a
shorter span of time when compared to the actual or
normal recharging of ground water.
To drain off the surface water into the nearby streams
without pollution of the water.
Water content should be tightly controlled. Water to

cementitious materials ratios of 0.36 is been used
successfully. A handful of pervious concrete formed into
a ball will not crumble or lose its void structure as the
paste flows into the spaces between the aggregates is an
indication that it has enough water content for binding
purpose. If there is less amount of water content the
aggregates will not form into a proper group and gets
separated.
113
Pervious Concrete for Stormwater Management

Runoff Control
There are a variety of controls to manage storm water
runoff from a site. These control measures may address
different aspects of runoff: storage runoff water,
infiltration of storm water to groundwater, and treatment
of the pollutants in storm water. Proper peak runoff rate
control helps prevent adverse impacts such as stream
channel scouring and bank alteration and minimizes
downstream flooding and stream bank erosion. In general,
protection from stream bank erosion requires the control
of frequent flooding events (i.e., the 2-year and smaller
storm events). These storms have the most influence on
stream channel formation. Protection from less common,
offsite flooding requires the control of storm events which
exceed stream channel bankfull capacity (i.e., the 10-year
and higher events).
Engineers may design drainage systems or other physical
structures, suc as detention and infiltration basins,
pretreatment devices, and sw manage stormwater.
Nonstructural approaches also may control or reduce
stormwater runoff. For example, by reducing the building
footprint while increasing the building height, more
grassy areas can be preserved and new impervious
surfaces can be minimized.
Nonstructural and structural Best Management Practices
(BMPs) are recognized as the most effective and practical
measures to reduce or prevent pollutants from reaching
water bodies and to control the quantity of runoff from a
site. However, storm water BMP technologies range in
their ability and effectiveness to treat specific pollutant
types. Depending on the receiving resources, the pollutant
type of concern will vary. For drinking water supplies,
inorganic compounds, volatile organic compounds,
pesticides, herbicides, and pathogens (bacteria and
viruses) are the main concern. For shellfish growing areas
and recreation areas, bacterial contamination and nutrients
are primary concerns, while temperature and pH are the
major concerns for cold water fisheries.
6. Reduced surface temperatures; minimizes the urban

heat island effect.
7. Extended pavement life due to well drained base and
reduced freeze-thaw.
8. Less lighting needed due to highly reflective
pavement surface.
9. Requires routine (quarterly) vacuum
(vacuum-assisted dry sweeper only).
sweeping
10. Requires a certified pervious concrete craftsman onsite during installation.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Laboratory Test for Cement, Coarse Aggregate and
Pervious Concrete
Brand of cement used: JSW (OPC)
Fineness of Cement Test
Table 3.1: Fineness of Cement test
Trail
No.
Weight of cement
(gm)
1
2
100
100
Weight of
residue (gm)
on IS sieve
No 9
5
7
Average
Percenta
ge
weight
retained
5%
7%
= 6%
Result Fineness of the cement is 6

Specific Gravity of Cement
Liquid used
: kerosene
Density of Liquid at room temperature
: 0.8
Weight of cement taken
: 64 gm.
Table 3.2: Specific Gravity of Cement
Volume of
S. Initial
Final
Specific
Cement (V) in
No Reading Reading
GravitG=W/V
c.c.
1
0.3
19.3
19
64/19 = 3.37
Pervious concrete has been recognized as one of the best

practices for managing storm water by EPA (Environment
Protection Agency).
Result Specific Gravity of the Cement is 3.37.
Benefits
1. Recharges groundwater.
Consistency of Cement Paste
2. Reduction in storm water infrastructure (Piping,

Catch-Basins, Ponds, Curbing, etc.).
Weight of cement taken = 400 gm
3. Suitable for cold-climate applications, maintains

recharge capacity when frozen.
4. No standing water or black ice development during
winter weather conditions.
5. Maintains traction while wet.
114
Table 3.3: Consistency of Cement paste
Trial
No
percentage
of water
Initial
Reading
Final
Reading
1
2
35
35.5
0
0
8
6
Height Not
Penetrated
[mm]
8
6
Result Standard consistency of cement is 35.5 %
Result Coefficient of permeability of pervious concrete

sample is K = 0.0219 cm/sec
Initial Setting Time & Final Setting Time

Weight of cement taken = 400gm.
Percentage Weight of water taken= 0.85 P =. 85 X 35.5 =
30.175
Where P is the normal consistency.
Weight of water taken = 30.175 x 400/100 = 121 gm.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF PERVIOUS

CONCRETE
Test observations for pervious concrete of aggregate sizes
in the ranges which are taken for study are in range of
(10mm 12.5 mm ) & (16 mm 20 mm)
Table 3.7: Compressive strength of Pervious concrete test
Table 3.4: Initial setting time and final setting time test
S.
No.
Initial
reading
Final
Reading
1
2
3
0
0
0
12
8
6
Height not
Penetrated
(mm)
12
8
6
S no
Time
(minutes)
1
2
3
30
50
70
Size in mm
150 x 150
150 x 150
150 x 150
Average load
Loads at crushing
(KN)
70
50
70
= 63.33
Stress at crushing = 63.33 x 103 = 2.815 N/mm2

22500
Result Initial setting time of cement: 70 min

Final setting time of cement: 170 min
Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate
Unit Weight of Pervious Concrete is = 1815 kg/ m3
1. Weight of dry and empty pycnometer (w1) = 599 gm.
Void Ratio & Porosity of Pervious Concrete:
2. Weight of pycnometer + coarse aggregate (w2) = 1101

gm.
a) Specific gravity of cement = 3.37
3. Weight of pycnometer + coarse aggregate + water

(w3) = 1818 gm.
Mass of cement = 1 kg = 1000 gm

Volume of cement = Vc = 1000/3.37 = 296.74 cm3
4. Weight of pycnometer + water (w4) = 1500 gm.

5. Weight of oven dry coarse aggregate sample (w5) =
500 gm.
b) Specific gravity of aggregate = 2.71

Mass of aggregate = 4.5 KG = 4500 gm
Result Specific gravity = ______ w5 ______

( W2 W1 ) - (W3 W4)
Volume of aggregate = Va = 4500/2.71 = 1660.52 cm3
= 500
= 2.71
(1101-599)(1898-1500)
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY BY
CONSTANT HEAD METHOD FOR PERVIOUS
CONCRETE
Length of the sample = L = 12.73 cm
c) Volume of cube = V = 15 x 15 x 15 = 3375 cm3

d) Volume of solids = VS = Va + Vc = 1660.52 + 296.74
= 1957.26 cm3
e) Volume of voids = V ( VA + VC )
= 3375 ( 1660.52 + 296.74 ) = 1417.74 cm3
Diameter of specimen = D = 10 cm
Area of specimen = A = 78.539 cm
Table 3.6: Coefficient of permeability using constant head

method test
S.
No.
1
2
3
Time t Head, H
(sec)
(cm )
8.40
11.59
14.10
130
130
130
Void ratio (e) = Volume of voids = 1417.74 = 0. 724

Volume of solids 1957.26
K = QL
(cm/sec)
hAt
150
0.0223
200
0.0215
250
0.0221
Average K = 0.0219
Quantity,
Q ( cm3)
Porosity (n) = e/(1+e) = 0. 724 / ( 1+ 0. 724 ) = 0.42

Various tests have been conducted on cement, coarse
aggregate and on pervious concrete. They are summerised
and are shown in the tabular form below.
The test procedure done in the laboratory is as follows.
The mix proportions are taken as mentioned above i.e.,
A/C ratios of 4.5 by mass and W/C of 0.36. First the
course aggregate and cement are mixed well without
115
adding water to it so that the aggregate can be coated with

cement as shown in the figure 1.
Table 1: Results of Tests conducted on materials
S.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
.
11
.
Test
by placing a minimum 6 ml poly sheeting at the bottom as

shown in the figure 3. It prevents the shrinking of
concrete due to evaporation of water content present in
the cement concrete mix.
Result
Fineness of Cement
Specific Gravity of Cement
Consistency of Cement
Initial setting Time Of Cement
Final Setting Time of Cement
Specific Gravity of Coarse
Aggregate
Co- efficient of Permeability by
Constant Head Method
Compressive strength of Pervious
Concrete
Unit Weight of Pervious Concrete
Void ratio of Pervious Concrete
6%
3.37
35.5%
70 min.
170 min.
2.71
Porosity of Pervious Concrete
0.42
0.0219
cm/sec
2.815
N/mm2
1815 kg/m3
0.724
Fig. 3: Setup Box Made up of Wooden
Fig. 4: Preparation of Pervious Concrete
Fig. 1: Aggregate & Cement dry Mix
Fig. 5: Curing for prepared sample
Fig. 2: Water to Cement ratio at 0.36
Later water is added and mixed properly as shown in the

figure 2. The cement concrete mix is placed in the mould
116
Fig. 6: Pervious Concrete sample
The concrete is then cured for a period of 7 days by

spraying the surface with soya bean oil. as shown in the
figure 5.
Prepared Pervious Concrete sample is tested as shown in
Figure7.
actual site conditions like usage of double ring

infiltrometer apparatus.
3. Test has been limited to pervious concrete only but
not when the pervious concrete is on the subgrade.
SCOPE FOR RESEARCH
The main drawback of pervious concrete is less
compressive strength. Efforts can be made to increase the
compressive strength of pervious concrete using suitable
admixtures, keeping in mind the financial constraint. The
other problems are making pervious concrete more
resistant in freeze and thaw conditions.
Pervious concrete and its engineering properties can also
be utilised to store water in residential communities. In
areas where compressive strength is not the primary
criteria, and there is huge runoff, pervious concrete can be
of wide use.
Fig. 7: Testing of prepared sample
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Pervious concrete is considered as best practice for storm

water management and has wide applications in areas
with huge runoff.
The idea is to demonstrate the permeability and
engineering properties and use pervious concrete
effectively in areas where its use is little known.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
LIMITATIONS
[5]
1. Test results
admixtures.
were
obtained
without
using
of
2. Permeability test is confined to constant head and

single drainage conditions only but not with respect to
117
A.M Neville Properties of Concrete.

Concrete in practice, what why and how NRMCA CIP38 Pervious Concrete.
Pervious concrete pavements by Paul D. Tennis, Michael
L. Leming, and David J. Akers.
Pervious concrete pavement assessment by Marty
Wanielista, Manoj Chopra, Storm water management
academy, University of Central Florida, Orlando.
AASHTO, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation.

Durability Studies on Pumice Light Weight Aggregate Concrete with and

without Silica Fume
N. Sivalingarao1, V. Bhasker Desai2 and B.L.P. Swami3
1
Research Scholar and Technical Assistant, Grade-I, 2Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU College of Engineering, Ananthapur
3
Professor, Co-ordinator, Research & Consultancy, Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad.
Email: 1sivalingarao@gmail.com, 2vbdesaijntu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Light weight aggregate concrete mixes can be used for high rise civil engineering structures, heavy
constructions like bridges, dams etc. In this present investigation, mix design for M20 concrete with natural
granite stone aggregate, local river sand as a fine aggregate and Ultra Tech OPC 43 grade cement as a binding
material is carried out. The normal aggregate has been replaced upto a maximum of 100 percent by naturally
available pumice aggregate by volume and the binding material cement is replaced with silica fume in various
proportions of 5%, 8%, 10%, 15% and 20% by weight.
As part of the durability studies, the temperature effect on strength is studied and the acid resistance studies on
the various light weight concrete mixes are conducted in the present investigation. Specimens of light weight
concrete are tested with and without silica fume to find out the influence of silica fume.
Keywords Light weight concrete, Pumice stone, Condensed Silica Fume, Temperature exposure, Acid
resistance.
INTRODUCTION
Brick bats or cinder or emery stone or pumice are the
innovative light weight materials used in the construction
sector. Some sources of those are brick or steel
manufacturing units. Some of them are being used by
many engineers as a filler material in construction
industry for different civil works. Emery stone is a waste
material from granite polishing units and pumice stone is
a naturally occurring volcanic based light weight
aggregate.
Advantages of Light Weight Concrete
There are many advantages of having low density. It
helps in the reduction of dead load, increases the progress
of building and lowers the haulage and handling costs.
The use of light weight concrete has made it possible to
proceed with the construction of tall and heavy structures
on soils with low bearing capacities. In framed structures
if floors and walls are made up of light weight concrete, it
would result in considerable economy. Another most
important characteristic of light weight concrete is its
relatively low thermal-conductivity.
Structural Light Weight Concrete
Structural light weight aggregate concretes are considered
as alternatives to concretes made with dense natural
aggregates because of the relatively high strength to unit
weight ratio that can be achieved.
Physical Properties of Various Light Weight

Aggregates
Light weight aggregates are available from different
sources and mostly as waste materials. Brick bats, cinder,
emery stone, pumice etc., are easily available. Cintered
fly ash aggregates are manufactured. Table.1 gives the
physical properties of various light weight aggregated.
Brief Review of Previous Work
J.B. Newman(1) has reported other reasons for choosing
light weight concrete as a construction material. It is
becoming increasingly important as more attention is
being paid to energy conservation and to the use of waste
materials to replace exhaustible natural sources. For
example, the thermal resistance of such materials
increases with the decreasing density and this ensures
considerable energy saving.
Brown BJ, Skinner M(7) reported that Pumice aggregates
combined with Portland cement and water produce a light
weight thermal and sound insulating, fire-resistant light
weight concrete for roof decks, light weight floor fills,
insulating structural floor decks, curtain wall system,
masonry blocks and a variety of other permanent
insulating applications.
Details of the Present Study
The present experimental investigation aims at the
determination of strength and durability of light weight
118
Table 1: Physical Properties of Various Light Weight Aggregates
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a
b
Name of the test conducted

Specific Gravity
Aggregate Crushing Value
Aggregate Impact Value
Abrasion Test
Flakiness Index
Elongation Index
Water Absorption
Density in Kg/m3
Loose Condition
Compacted Condition
Brick Bats
2.05
69.7%
7.4%
95.40%
5.50%
12.64%
23%
963
1098
Cinder
2.3
55%
5.2%
85.22%
5.50%
15%
23%
970
1115
Emery
2.05
37.4%
32.00%
46.60%
4.879%
13.95%
20%
959
1054
Pumice
1.14
11.73%
07%
23%
480 kg/m3
540 kg/m3
pumice aggregate concrete with and without silica fume.

The study includes the preparation of various concrete
mixes varying the proportions of light weight aggregates
in the total aggregate from 0 to 100 percent. Condensed
Silica Fume (CSF) is used as replacement to Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) in various percentages from 0 to
20. The specimens prepared are tested for compressive
strength at room temperature and after exposing to
elevated temperature (100C). The specimens are also
subjected to chemical resistance tests.
e) Condensed Silica Fume (CSF) Condensed silica

fume is an industrial waste bi-product available from
ferro silicon industries. In the present investigation, it
was obtained from M/s. V.B. Ferro Alloys Ltd.,
Rudraram, Near Hyderabad-(A.P).
f) Water Potable water has been used in this

experimental program for mixing and curing.
The details of experimental investigation conducted on

pumice light weight concrete mixes are given as follows.
Description of Constituent Materials
The main constituents used for the specimens are
(1) Normal coarse aggregates (Granite) (2) Medium light
weight aggregate (Pumice stone) (3) Fine aggregate
(sand) (4) Cement (OPC), (5) CSF, (6) Acids, (7) Water
and (8) Superplasticizer (SP-430).
a) Cement Ultra Tech ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) of 43 grade conforming to ISI standards is used
for the entire experimental investigation.
b) Fine aggregate The locally available natural river
sand is procured and is found to be conforming to
grading of zone-1. The physical properties are tested
as per the standards.
c) Conventional
Natural
Aggregate
(Granite)
Machine crushed granite aggregate of 20mm nominal
size confirming to IS 383-1970 consisting of 20mm
maximum size of aggregates has been obtained from
the local quarry. The physical properties are tested as
per the standards.
d) Pumice Stone Aggregate (PSA) Pumice stone
aggregate is available as densified lava near the
volcanic rocks. It is porous and light in weight and is
available from some of the states in Western India. In
the present investigation, broken pumice aggregate of
20mm nominal size are employed. Figs. 1 and 2 show
the conventional granite aggregate (CGA) and the

pumice stone aggregate (PSA). Table.1 gives the
properties of different light weight aggregates
including pumice.
g) Superplasticizer Superplasticizer (SP-430) of M/s.

Fosrock India Ltd., has been used to maintain more or
less medium workability throughout the experimental
investigation.
h) Acids Diluted acids H2SO4, Hcl and Na2SO4 with
5% concentration were employed for acid resistance
tests.
Combinations of Light Weight Aggregates and
Admixture
To start with mix design has been conducted for M20
concrete making use of IS method of mix design using
normal constituents of concrete. In the course of
investigation, normal granite aggregate has been replaced
by 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100% of light weight
aggregate namely pumice. In the present investigation,
OPC has been replaced by a mineral admixture (silica
fume) in equal proportions in size percentages i.e. 0, 5, 8,
10, 15, 20 by weight for the study of various properties.
All the ingredients were mixed in a pan mixer and cube
specimens of size (100mm x 100mm x 100mm) were cast.
Workability was maintained at medium level by adding
small dosages of superplasticizer. After 24 hrs. of air
drying, demoulding was carried out and the specimens
were cured till the age of 28 days and tested. Standard
procedures were adopted for mixing and casting.
119
Sufficient member of cube specimens were prepared for

conducting all the tests on various combinations.
Testing
Tables 2 and 3 give the results of compressive strength

with and without CSF at room as well as 100C
temperatures. Tables 4 and 5 give the results for 0%
CGA with 100% PSA and 60% CGA with 40% PSA
respectively. CSF is included in both cases. Tables 6 and
7 give the details of weight losses of specimens exposed
to H2 SO4, Hcl and Na2SO4 over different periods from 28
to 180 days. Various combinations of CGA with PSA are
considered. Tables 8, 9, 10 and 11 give the weight losses
for 60% CGA with 40% PSA combination with various
percentages of CSF. Compressive strength is plotted
against CSF percentage for various combinations at room
temperature in fig.3 and at 100C in fig.4.
The details of tests carried out are as follows.

Compressive Strength at Room Temperature
Average compressive strength was found at room
temperature by testing the specimens in a standard
compression testing machine by following standard
procedure for all the combinations of composites
considered in the present investigation.
Compressive Strength after Exposure to 100C
Sufficient number of specimens of various combinations
were exposed to 100C in an oven for 24 hrs. taken out,
cooled and tested for compressive strength.
Chemical Resistance
Sufficient number of specimens were exposed to acids by
immersing them in 5% solutions of H2SO4, Hcl and
Na2SO4 over periods ranging from 28 to 180 days. After
the required exposure period, the specimens were taken
out, cleaned, dried and the weight loss was determined
accurately.
Fig. 1: Conventional Granite Aggregate
Tables and Graphs
Temperature Studies
Compressive Strength of Silica Fume Pumice Concrete
at Elevated Temperature
The compressive strength results of specimens with the
various percentage replacements of natural aggregate by
pumice subjected to an elevated temperature of 100C for
24 hours (after 28 days of curing in water) are presented
in Table. Upto 40% replacement of natural aggregate by
pumice the target mean strength is achieved and the
compressive strength is observed to be 27.60 N/mm2 and
the percentage increase of strength at elevated
temperature with respect to that at room temperature is
16.31%. After 40% replacement for the higher percentage
replacement however design strength is assured.
Compressive strength is observed to be higher at an
elevated temperature when compared to compressive
strength at room temperature. The optimum percentage of
silica fume is around 10% for all percentages of pumice
added.
In addition the compressive strengths for the specimens
exposed to elevated temperature with all percentages of
pumice added in this study are found to be higher than
those at room temperature. This shows that the pumice
concrete can with stand higher temperature.
Acid Resistance of Silica Fume Pumice Concrete
Specimens of concrete cured for 28 days in normal water
are then immersed in three chemical solutions (H2SO4,
Hcl and Na2SO4) at 5% concentration for 7 days, 28 days,
90 days and 180 days. All the specimens with various
basic replacements of pumice are tested for percentage of
weight loss and the results are calculated and tabulated.
Fig. 2: Pumice Stone Aggregate
a) Na2SO4 The results of the specimens exposed to 5%

concentration of Na2SO4 indicate that there is very
less percentage of weight loss for the specimens
exposed to 7 days, 28 days, 90 days and 180 days of
immersion in base. Hence, the pumice is observed to
be much resistant towards nitrates and sulphates. It
120
may be observed that more or less there is an increase

in percentage weight loss from 0% to 100%
replacement of natural aggregate by pumice. The
weight loss marginally increases upto 20% pumice
concrete (80% natural aggregate) and afterwards it
gets decreased. Afterwards increased percentage of
pumice resists the attack of Na2SO4.
b) Hcl There is no much difference of weight between
normal specimen and specimens when they are dipped
in 5% concentrated solution of Hcl after exposure for
7 days, 28 days, 90 days and 180 days immersion in
acid like Hcl. It may be observed that there is an
increase in percentage weight loss for each
replacement from 7 days of curing to 180 days of
curing. For 100% natural aggregate weight loss is
minimum. This shows the good resistance of pumice
concrete to Hcl attack.
this combination of (60% NA+40% P), 8% silica fume

addition is the best/optimum percentage.
d) H2SO4 (with silica fume) It can be understood that
percentage loss of weight with respect to 5% addition
of silica fume with respect to any immersion period is
minimum. Besides as the immersion period is
increased from 28 days to 180 days, the increase in
percentage loss with respect to 5% addition of silica
fume is observed to be minimum when compared with
that for other percentages of silica fume. Hence for
this combination of (60% NA + 40% P), 5% silica
fume addition is the best/optimum percentage.
c) H2SO4 The results of specimens exposed to 5%

concentration of H2SO4 indicate that pumice have
poor resistance for sulphate attack.
Here the
specimens are found to loose their shapes. From the
studies, it is also seen that with the increase in pumice
percentage the percentage weight of loss for any
curing period increases. This shows that the pumice
concrete has least resistance to H2SO4 attack.
Normal Aggregate Replaced by 40% Pumice
a) With 0% Silica Fume in all Acids It may be
observed that the loss of weight is more w.r. to H2SO4
which ranges from 3.5 to 19.39 percent as when
compared to the Hcl and Na2SO4, where as in Hcl
immersion the loss of weight ranges from 3.18 to 3.72
percent. The loss of weight with respect to Na2SO4 is
3.2 to 3.49. This is observed to be very less compared
to the H2SO4 and Hcl acid attacks.
Table 2: Compressive Strength for Replacement of CGA

with PSA at Room Temperature and 100C without CSF
S.
No.
CGA:
PSA
Identif
ication
Mark
1
2
3
4
5
6
100:0
80:20
60:40
40:60
20:80
0:100
N1
P2
P4
P6
P8
P10
Compressive Strength in
N/mm2
At Room
At 100c
Temperature Temperature
27.7
30.2
24.4
28.1
23.1
27.6
19.3
24.8
16
22.6
9.95
20.6
Table 3: Compressive Strength for Replacement of 100%

CGA: 0% PSA at Room Temperature and 100C with CSF
S.
No.
CGA:
PSA
Identifi
cation
Mark
1
2
3
4
5
100:0
100:0
100:0
100:0
100:0
NS1
NS2
NS3
NS4
NS5
Compressive Strength in
N/mm2
At Room
At 100c
Temperature Temperature
30.9
36.97
32.25
43.85
34.4
46.7
31.55
42.92
28.55
41.05
b) Na2SO4 (with silica fume) It can be understood that

of silica fume and with respect to any immersion
period (within the scope of the present investigation)
is minimum (when compared with other silica fume
percentages). Besides as the immersion period is
increased from 28 days to 180 days the increase in
that for other percentages of silica fume. Hence, for
this combination of (60% NA + 40% P), 8% silica
fume addition is the best/optimum percentage.
S.
No
CGA:
PSA
% of
Silica
Fume
Identifi
cation
Mark
c) Hcl (with silica fume) It can be understood that

of silica fume with respect to any immersion period is
minimum. Besides as the immersion period is
increased from 28 days to 180 days, the increase in
that for other percentages of silica fume. Hence for
1
2
3
4
5
0:100
0:100
0:100
0:100
0:100
5
8
10
15
20
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
121

CGA: 100% PSA at Room Temperature and 100C
Compressive
Strength in N/mm2
At
At
Room
100c
Temper Temper
-ature
-ature
11.5
21.9
15.5
26.1
19.28
27.25
15.67
26.35
13.88
23.65
CGA: 40% PSA at Room Temperature and 100C
S.
No
CGA:
PSA
% of
Silica
Fume
1
2
3
4
5
60:40
60:40
60:40
60:40
60:40
5
8
10
15
20
Identification
Mark
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Table 9: Durability of 60% CGA: 40% PSA in Na2SO4 with

Different Percentages of Silica Fume
Compressive
Strength in N/mm2
At Room At 100c
Temper- Temperature
ature
24
31.22
25.25
35
25
38.1
22.5
34.9
18.1
33.05
Percentage Loss of Weight

%
in Na2SO4
S. CGA: Id Replace
No. PSA Mark ment of 28
56
90
180
Pumice Days Days Days Days
1 60:40 P4
0%
3.2 3.36 3.39 3.49
2 60:40 1Q
5%
2.99 3.33 3.33 3.44
3 60:40 Q2
8%
1.52 1.63 3.26
3.3
4 60:40 Q3
10%
2.09 2.55 2.87 3.31
5 60:40 Q4
15%
2.78 2.78 3.23 3.45
6 60:40 Q5
20%
3.48 3.70 4.01 4.22
Table 6: Weight Loss of Specimens for Replacement of CGA

with PSC for Different Immersion periods in H2SO4
Table 10: Durability of 60% CGA: 40% PSA in Hcl with


%
in H2SO4
S. CGA: Id Replace
No. PSA Mark ment of
7
28
90
190
1 100:0 N1
0
6.75 11.68 21.35 23.55
2 80:20 P2
20
6.05 11.91 20.85 26.99
3 60:40 P4
40
6.94 14.45 18.66 27.2
4 40:60 P6
60
5.83 18.97 20.29 22.55
5 20:80 P8
80
5.32 9.43 15.69 18.48
6 0:100 P10
100
5.81 7.57 9.88 12.23
S. CGA:
No. PSA
1
2
3
4
5
6

with PSC for Different Immersion periods in Hcl
60:40
60:40
60:40
60:40
60:40
60:40

%
in Hcl
Id Replace
Mark ment of
28
56
90
180
P4
0%
3.18 3.25 3.36 3.72
1Q
5%
3.09 3.18 3.31 3.63
Q2
8%
0.87 1.31 1.31 1.64
Q3
10%
0.88 0.88 1.32 2.42
Q4
15%
3.29 3.51 3.73 4.39
Q5
20%
0.91 1.36 1.36 1.82
Table 11: Durability of 60% CGA: 40% PSA in H2SO4 with


%
in Hcl
S. CGA: Id Replace
7
28
90
190
1 100:0 N1
0
0.88 1.12 2.25 2.76
2 80:20 P2
20
1.06 1.21 1.3
1.4
3 60:40 P4
40
1.22 1.89 5.12 5.68
4 40:60 P6
60
1.3
2
7.33 7.79
5 20:80 P8
80
1.41 2.3
4.8
8.2
6 0:100 P10
100
1.5
2.4
3.9
9

%
in H2SO4
S. CGA: Id Replace
28
56
90
180
1 60:40 P4
0%
3.5
6.9 18.5 19.39
2 60:40 1Q
5%
2.41 6.85 18.46 19.33
3 60:40 Q2
8%
3.43 13.35 21.06 22.32
4 60:40 Q3
10%
0.73 11.50 18.47 20.23
5 60:40 Q4
15%
1.22 13.12 18.85 22.71
6 60:40 Q5
20%
1.55 10.51 18.06 20.73

with PSA for Different Immersion periods in Na2SO4

%
in Na2SO4
S. CGA: Id Replace
No. PSA Mark ment of 7
28
90
190
1 100:0 N1
0
0.15 1.89 3.16
5.6
2 80:20 P2
20
0.8 1.71 4.64
7.2
3 60:40 P4
40
0.77 1.52 4.91
6.5
4 40:60 P6
60
0.55 1.41 4.79 6.21
5 20:80 P8
80
0.28 1.8 4.56
5.2
6 0:100 P10
100
0.31 1.5
4
5
Fig. 3: Typical Variation of Compressive Strength Vs.

Percentage Replacement of Pumice at Room temperature
122
2. Finally it is concluded that the presence of CSF used

as part replacement of cement contributed to improve
the durability of light weight pumice concrete.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Fig. 4: Typical Variation of Compressive Strength Vs.
Percentage Replacement of Pumice at Room Temperature
and 100C
[3]
CONCLUSIONS
1. From the limited temperature studies conducted in this
investigation at 100C for 24 hours exposure, the
compressive strengths increase with percentage
replacement of cement by CSF similar to that at room
temperature.
2. Comparing the corresponding strengths at room and
elevated temperatures, the compressive strengths are
found to be higher for the specimens subjected to
higher temperature upto 100C.
1. From acid resistance studies conducted in this
investigation it is again observed that pumice
concretes are better resistant to Hcl and Na2SO4
attacks.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
J.B. Newman, T.W. Bremner, the Testing of Structural

Light Weight Concrete, the Concrete Society, the
Construction press, Lancaster, UK, 1980, pp. 152-172.
Kornev NA, Kramar VG, Kudryavtsev AA. Design
peculiarities of pre-stressed supporting constructions from
concretes on porous aggregates. Lancester, London, New
York, UK: The Concrete Society, the Construction Press;
1980 pp. 141-52.
H. Bomhard, light weight concrete structures,
potentialities, limits and realities, the Concrete Society, the
Construction Press, Lancaster, UK, 1980, pp. 227-290.
Abeles PW, Bardhan-Roy BK Pre-stressed concrete
designers hand book. In: Cement and Concrete
Association. Wexham Springs: A View point publication;
1981.
P. Morabito, measurement of thermal properties of
different concretes, high temp., high press 21(1) (1989)
51-59.
B.J. Brown, Report on concrete mix design for structural
concrete using Yali Pumice Coarse and Fine Aggregates
report no. 89/3408E/3379, STATS Scotland, East
Kilbride, Scotland, UK, 1990.
Brown BJ, Skinner M report on concrete mix design for
light weight masonry units using Yali Pumice Coarse and
Fine Aggregates. Report no. 89/3408D/2923, STATS
Scotland Ltd., East Kilbride, Scotland, UK; 1990.
[8] Light weight concrete provides efficient thermal and

sound insulation in buildings.
123


S. Bhargavi1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
1
MS by Research Student, 2Professor
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
Email: 1bhargavi.sattar@research.iiit.ac.in, 2ramancharla@iiit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Response of a structure subjected to gravity and lateral loads depends on the boundary conditions assigned at
the base of structure in numerical modeling. Most of the structures are analyzed considering fixed base, but in
reality, foundation is not fixed. The fixity depends on the interaction between the soil and foundation. In most of
the cases base of a structure undergoes small amount of rotation because of flexibility induced by soil especially
at the time of earthquake. Difference in boundary conditions used in analysis and in actual conditions will lead
to improper estimation of the design forces, to reduce such effects in numerical analysis fixed base of structure
can be replaced by springs or structure base resting on soil to obtain results closer to that of actual base
conditions. Stiffness of the spring depends on geotechnical parameters as well as on the dimensions of the
foundation. In the present paper an attempt is made to understand the difference between the Linear and Non
Linear response of a frame having fixed base, spring base and with soil. Stiffness of springs for spring base
structure is calculated as per ATC-40 [1] and JICA [7]. Analysis of structure with soil modeling is complex,
specifically for Non Linear behavior for this Applied Element Method is used. Linear and Non Linear response
is compared in terms of stress resultants and capacity of the frame respectively, for non linear response static
pushover analysis is done. From the study, it is observed that the actual capacity of structure is overestimated
assuming fixed base. The fact that the initial stiffness of the structure is governed by the soil stiffness can be
clearly stated from the obtained pushover curves. It is also recommended that analysis of structure should be
done considering spring base in place of fixed support.
Keywords Continuum Approach, Structure Approach, Static Pushover Analysis, Applied Element Method.
INTRODUCTION
In general practice analysis of superstructure with fixed
base is done separately and reactions are used in
designing substructure, in this type of analysis interaction
between foundation and soil is neglected by assuming
fixity at the base; soil is assumed to be rigid as a result
actual base condition effect on the structure response is
neglected. The base condition of the structure depends
upon the geotechnical parameters of soil media on which
the structure is standing. Former can be cohesive or
cohesionless based on site conditions. The fixity of the
structure solely does not depend on those characteristics
of the soil. Structure is considered to have fixed base due
to the difficulties faced in considering base as flexible.
Generally base is considered as fixed in design codes to
simplify the design procedure. In real world, upliftment of
the foundation is affected both by vertical loads and
lateral loads, which is not in case of theoretical fixed base
structure. To take into account the effect on structure due
to soil structure interaction, it is very important to
consider the actual base condition in performing seismic
analysis using design packages.Response of the structure
can be known from linear and nonlinear analysis. The
strength capacity of frame can be analyzed by non linear

static pushover analysis.
NUMERICAL MODELING
Effect of soil in analysis can be considered by two
approaches; Structural (Substructure) and Continuum
(Direct) approach. In structural approach soil is
represented by structural elements like spring, in
continuum approach soil and structure is modeled
together [3]. In substructure method in place of fixity,
resistance offered by the foundation from soil is
represented by springs having stiffness equivalent to that
of soil. When foundation is considered as rigid in
numerical modeling, then at base 3 springs are provided
for 2D structure and 6 springs are provided for 3D
structure. Figure: 1 shows arrangement of springs at the
base in three directions corresponding to the stiffness
direction offered by foundation and soil.
For the current study a 2D frame of span 3 m and height 3
m with column and beam dimensions 0.3 x 0.3 m and
0.25 x 0.3 m respectively is considered with following
boundary conditions:
124
1. Fixed Base
Spring Base Model
2. Spring Base
To model RC 2D frame with spring base, geotechnical

parameters are converted into stiffness of spring as per
ATC-40 and JICA. Stiffness of spring is calculated along
three directions i.e. vertical, horizontal and rotation about
Y-axis. Three mechanisms, related to axial, shear or
rotation can lead to soil failure. In order to accommodate
these three mechanisms, springs at the base of the
structure are provided with calculated stiffness (Eq. 1-10).
The first mechanism, associated with axial, is the
punching of the soil. The second mechanism, associated
with shear, is a translation mechanism (sliding of the
foundation) with the activation of a passive zone in front
of the foundation and an active zone behind the
foundation. The last mechanism, associated with rotation,
is a global rotation with active and passive zones around
the foundation [5].
3. Frame with Soil
Fig. 1: Spring Model
2D frame considered is designed for gravity loads as per

IS: 456 (2000)
Stiffness calculations: As per Japanese practice [PWRI,

1998; JICA, 1992]
Fixed Base Model

Two techniques were adopted to analyze 2d RC frame
with fixed base;
Finite Element Method using SAP2000 package.
Applied element method.
The reason behind analyzing fixed frame in two
techniques is to make the comparison simple.
Where
and
are moduli of sub grade reaction in
horizontal and vertical directions respectively and
is
modulus of sub grade reaction corresponding to in-plane
shear at the base of the foundation.
= width of foundation perpendicular in the considered
direction of shaking (m).
= Equivalent base dimension of the foundation (m)
(a)
= Ratio of horizontal shear sub grade reaction

to that
of vertical modulus of sub grade reaction
= 0.5
(b)
Where
and
are basic moduli of sub grade
reaction in horizontal and vertical directions.
Fig. 1: 2D RC frame model with fixed base (a) SAP2000

(b) AEM
{
Where
is shear wave velocity in the soil layer
calculated from the uncorrected N values.
125
{
Where
using .
the design shear wave velocity is calculated
change depending upon the loading conditions but

whereas in spring system soil properties remain constant
in terms of stiffness. Thus to achieve better results 2D
frame is modeled with base resting on soil. This model is
analyzed using AEM. Cohesionless Soil parameters are
considered in soil block modeling. Dimensions of soil
block are 9.7 m x 3 m x 3 m, boundary conditions of soil
block are considered to be fixed as shown in Figure 4.
is the dynamic shear modulus of the soil layer

calculated from mass density of soil layer ( ) and
.
Where
is dynamic modulus of elasticity calculated
from Poissons ratio of 0.25 for soil and .
Similarly stiffness of soil is calculated as per ATC-40
chapter 10 section 10.4.1.
Stiffness values calculated as per JICA and ATC-40 code,
mentioned in Table1 are used to model springs as shown
in Figure: 4, to carry out linear and non-linear analysis for
2D RC frame.
Table 1: Stiffness Values
Stiffness
Stiffness as per
JICA (kN/m )
70625.69
100439.2
1506.587
Stiffness as per
ATC-40 (p/ft)
1234908
2551503
1345455
Fig. 3: AEM model of frame with soil
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Finite Element Method
FEM is numerical technique used to analyze different
boundary condition systems to obtain approximate
solutions. In this study FEM is used to perform both
linear and nonlinear analysis for 2D frame with fixed base
and 2D frame with springs at the base using SAP2000
package. To carry out nonlinear pushover analysis in
SAP2000 it is important to model hinges in the frame, this
hinges gives nonlinear behavior of frame. Hinges are
assigned at the locations where frame is expected to enter
into inelastic deformation. Hinge length and location are
calculated as per ATC-40.
Applied Element Method
AEM is used for numerical analysis to know continuum
and discrete behavior of structures. In this study AEM is
used to perform both linear analysis and nonlinear
analysis, to know the response of 2D frame with discrete
soil system and 2d frame with fixed base. In nonlinear
static pushover analysis displacement control method is
adopted as a result plot between force and displacement is
obtained as shown in Figure: 10.
PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
Fig. 2: (a) 2D frame Model (b) Spring arrangement at base
Frame Modeled along with Soil

Generally, springs behave independently, whereas in
reality soil is continuous medium; the soil property will
Pushover analysis is a procedure which involves applying

monotonically increased lateral loads in a predefined load
pattern along the height of the frame. The corresponding
stress resultants are found in each step individually and
the global capacity of the structure is estimated. The
global capacity is represented as a plot between the base
shear and corresponding lateral load displacement. This
procedure can be carried out in two ways; load controlled
and displacement controlled. Load controlled procedure
involves applying lateral loads in constant proportions
whereas displacement controlled procedure involves
applying lateral load corresponding to displacement,
126
which is increased constantly. Lateral load profile will

affect the response of the structure in static nonlinear
pushover analysis. There are three types of lateral load
patterns of which one load pattern is considered; load is
applied in first mode.
Hinge Formation Sequence

Figure 6 shows hinge status at the final loading step of
pushover analysis; it is observed that hinge status for
fixed base and spring base (JICA) is same whereas
differing for spring base (ATC40).
Plastic Hinge Length Calculations

=plastic length
Section depth in the direction of loading
= Plastic hinge length at the starting of column
Fig. 5: Final hinge status of (a) Fixed base (SAP) (b) JICA
spring SAP (c) ATC-40 spring SAP
60
Fixed Base
(FEM)
Base Shear (kN)
50
Fig. 4: Hinge Locations
40
30
20
10
Plastic hinge length at the end of the column
0
0
Table 2: Hinge Locations of beam and column
Beam
Column
0.2
Ending
(Relative Length)
0.925
0.975
60
Fixed
Base
50
Base Shear (kN)
Non-linear analysis is carried out through pushover

technique considering displacement control method as a
result plot between base shear and top displacements are
obtained as shown in Figure: 9.
Element
0.15
Fig. 6: Base Shear vs. Roof Displacement curve for fixed

base
Plastic hinge length at the starting of beam
Starting
(Relative Length)
0.025
0.025
0.05
0.1
Roof Displacement (m)
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Roof Displacement (m)
Fig. 7: Base Shear vs. Roof Displacement curve for fixed and
spring base (FEM)
127
Table 3: Moments and Shear forces comparison for spring and fixed base
Element
Bsae Shear (kN)
Left Column
Beam
Right Column
Moment at Starting point

(kN-m)
Spring
Spring
Fixed
Base
Base
Base
(JICA) (ATC-40)
0.52
0.04
0.03
1.05
0.99
0.97
0.52
0.04
0.03
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Moment at Ending Point

(kN-m)
Spring
Spring
Fixed
Base
Base
Base
(JICA) (ATC-40)
0.99
0.96
0.93
0.68
0.63
0.60
0.99
0.96
0.93
Shear Force (kN)

Fixed
Base
-0.52
-2.59
0.52
Spring
Base
(JICA)
-0.35
-2.59
0.35
Spring
Base
(ATC-40)
-0.33
-2.59
0.33
compared to2D frame fixed, 67.1% is the variation of

initial stiffness of 2D frame JICA spring model compared
to 2D frame fixed model and 70.3% is the variation of
initial of 2D frame ATC spring model compared to2D
frame fixed model in Table: 6.
Fixed
Base
Table 4: Initial stiffness results
0.05
0.1
0.15
AEM results
Model
Stiffness
Type
(kN/m)
Fixed
9367.38
Soil
3080.68
-
0.2
Top Displacement (m)
Fig. 8: Base Shear vs. Roof Displacement curve for fixed and
soil base (AEM)
FEM results
Initial Stiffness
Model Type
(kN/m)
Fixed
5902.36
JICA Spring
1946.36
ATC-40
1756.73
Nonlinear Analysis
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS

Linear Analysis
Linear analysis results are shown in Table 3. Moment and
Shear force results of 2D fixed frame are more compared
to the results of 2D frame with spring base as tabulated
due to difference in the base conditions of frames, but
vertical deflection in beam is very large compared to
fixed base. Compared design forces are from gravity load
only the effect will differ in case of lateral load. From this
observation it can be stated that base condition of frame
effect the design forces.
Initial Stiffness of Frame
Due to change in the base condition, 67.2% is the
variation in initial stiffness of 2D frame soil model
Figure (6-9) shows that capacity and strength of structure

is more in case of fixed base, thus if performance of
structure is estimated on the basis of fixed base condition
the structure will be safe but in actual condition its
performance is very low comparatively.
CONCLUSIONS
Study done clearly shows that base support condition has
an impact on the behavior of structure in Linear and Non
linear analysis. Soil structure interaction should be
considered in analysis, it is difficult to go for continuum
modeling but structure approach can be used in analysis.
Capacity and performance of the structure is to be
determined considering soil effect.
Table 5: Comparison of stiffness and strength
Analysis Type
Model-1
Model-2
Comparison
Parameter
Linear(AEM)
Linear(FEM)
Linear(FEM)
Non-linear (AEM)
Non-linear(AEM)
Non-linear (AEM)
NON-linear
2D Soil frame
2D spring Frame JICA
2D ATC-40 spring Frame
2D JICA spring Frame
2D ATC-40 spring Frame
2D Soil frame
2DFixed frame(AEM)
2D Fixed frame
2D Fixed frame
2D Fixed frame
2D Fixed frame
2D Fixed frame
2D Fixed frame
2DFixed frame(FEM)
Initial Stiffness
Initial Stiffness
Initial Stiffness
Strength
Strength
Strength
Strength
128
% Variation
from Model-2
to Model-1
67.2
67.1
70.3
25.2
66.4
2.65
26
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Applied Technology Council ATC-40. Seismic Evaluation

& Retrofit of concrete Buildings.Volume.1 1996
Applied Technology Council ATC-40. Seismic Evaluation
& Retrofit of concrete Buildings.Volume.2 1996
Caselunghe Aron & Eriksson Jonas. Structural Element
Approaches for Soil-Structure Interaction. MS report
Chalmers University of Technology 2012
Jonathan P. Stewart University of California, Los Angeles.
Overview of Soil-Structure Interaction Principles. Stewart
University of California, Los Angeles.
[6]
[7]
129
Damien Dreier. Influence of soil-structure interaction on

structural behavior of integral bridge piers. PhD
Symposium in Stuttgart, Germany 2008.
Tagel-Din Hatem and Kimiro Meguro. Applied Element
Method for Simulation of Nonlinear Materials: Theory
and Application for RC Structures. Structural Eng.
/Earthquake Eng. JSCE, Vol 1, No.2, 2000.
JICA, (1992), Specifications for highway bridges, part IV:
Substructures, Earthquake Disaster Prevention Research
Centre, Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba-Shi,
Japan, 445p.


Anant I. Dhatrak1 and Rushali D. Virulkar2
1
Associate Professor, 2M. Tech. (Civil- Geotechnical) Scholar
Department of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Amravati (M.S).
Email: 1anantdhatrak@rediffmail.com, 2RUSHSUZI9059@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT
The main parameter that can affect the lateral pressure behind a retaining wall is the back face shape of the
wall. In order to study the behavior of earth pressure, the back face wall is taken as curved shape instead of
inclined or straight which has not been investigate yet. The different parameters such as concave, convex curve,
radius and angle of curve, angle of inclination are taken to evaluate the earth pressure using geotechnical
software. It is expected that the earth pressure is decreases with respect to increase in distribution surface.
Keywords Back face shape of wall, Retaining wall with concave and convex pressure face.
INTRODUCTION
Retaining Structure is an indispensable feature of any
civil construction projects. A soil mass is stable when the
slope of the soil mass is flatter than the safe slope. At
some location where the space is limited, it is not possible
to provide flat slope and the soil is to be retained at a
slope steeper than the safe one. In such cases, a retaining
structure is required to provide lateral support to the soil
mass. Retaining walls may be constructed of masonry or
sheet piles. The purposes for which retaining walls are
used are embankment, cut, a bridge abutment, water
storage, flood walls etc. There are different types of
retaining walls such as gravity walls, semi gravity walls,
cantilever walls, counterfort walls, buttressed walls etc.
All the walls have to withstand lateral pressures either
from earth or any other material on their faces.
The lateral pressure which acts on a retaining wall is a
function of the materials and surcharges that the wall
must support, the groundwater and foundation conditions,
and the mode and magnitude of movement that the wall
undergoes as a result of soil structure foundation
interaction. The lateral earth pressure is linearly
proportional to depth and it is taken as: = s. K.Z. The
resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the
backfill should be assumed to act at a height of H/3 above
the base of the wall, where H is the total wall height,
measured along a vertical plane extending from the
ground surface above the back of the footing down to the
bottom of the footing. For walls with a total wall height,
H greater than or equal to 5 feet, the horizontal movement
of the top of the wall due to structural deformation of the
stem and rotation of the foundation is sufficient to
develop active conditions. The pressures acting on the
walls try to move the walls from their position. The walls
should be so designed as to keep them stable in their
position. There are two types of earth pressure and they

are; Active earth pressure or earth pressure (Pa) and
Passive earth pressure (Pp). Active earth pressure tends to
deflect the wall away from the backfill. The Coulomb and
Rankine theories are used to calculate active and passive
earth pressure coefficient.
In this work, gravity type retaining wall is used which
resist the movement because of their heavy sections. They
are built of mass concrete or stone or brick masonry. No
reinforcement is required in these walls. In general the
back of gravity retaining walls are taken as inclined and
many results regarding the active thrust or earth pressure
on pressure face had been drawn. Now the curved shape
backface wall should be taken instead of inclined wall to
analysis the earth pressure effect on wall. Various
theoretical and graphical methods are available for
determine the earth pressure such as Coulomb theory,
Rankine theory, Rebhanns graphical method and
culmanns graphical method. Nowadays computer based
software are also available for determine the lateral
pressure such as GEO 5, MIDAS, PLAXIS 2D & 3D and
this software are widely used because of simple graphical
user interface, accuracy & speed. Also the earth pressure
problems can be analyzed using various input parameters
& methods by using this softwares. The softwares gives
results of analysis in the graphical form at which gives a
better idea of the solution and failure mechanism if any.
Theme
The work is oriented towards analyzing the earth pressure
distribution on gravity retaining wall, for this purpose the
geotechnical software will be used. The various cases for
the study include different degree and radius of circular
curves and also the analysis will be carried out for
different surcharge loads. The validation will be carried
out using graphical or analytical methods.
130
LITERATURE REVIEW
The different parameter of retaining wall had been studied
by a number of researchers. Several experimental and
numerical analyses were performed by various authors.
Some of related works are discussed below,
reinforcements with 24cm diameter, the angle of 20 to

horizontal level and 1.2m horizontal space between the
anchors was considered as shown in Figure 3(b).
Sadrekarimi et.al (2007) studied the parameter that can

affect the lateral pressure behind a retaining wall is the
back face shape of the wall. In this study the static as well
as seismic behavior of hunched back quay walls by 16
shaking table experiments were carried out. The back face
slope of a hunchbacked wall was divided into two parts
where the elevation below the breaking pt of the hunch
were named negative back slopes and the elevation above
the break were named as positive back slopes. Tests were
performed with various base accelerations on models with
different subsoil relative densities. Author concluded that
the earth pressure increases at upper portions of the wall
and decreases by the leaning slope at lower elevations.
Depending on the back-face shape of the wall the total
thrust and overturning moment would be increased or
decreased after an earthquake. However, the hunched
back-shape of the wall tends to raise the point of
application of the total thrust exerted on the wall.
Fig. 2: Wall section for numerical analysis.
Fig. 1: Definitions of negative and positive back-slopes
Shekarian (2008) studied the effect of earth pressure on

retaining wall with reinforced backfill. In this study, the
influence of mechanical and geometrical reinforcement
feathers on pressure reduction of retaining wall was
pointed out. Regarding this purpose, the effect of the
reinforcement length on variation of pressure had been
investigated. For numerical modelling, finite element
software Plaxis (version 7.2) was used. To analyze the
first parameter for decreasing the pressure, in recognition
of different length of reinforcements, resultant pressure by
mass on wall was considered by author as shown in
figure2.
Results of analysis show the pressure equal to 670 kN/m
for un-reinforced mass, while by using three and five
level of reinforcements, for increasing the length of
reinforcements, resultant pressure on wall was reduced
and from more than 8m length this pressure was reached
to constant value shown in Figure 3(a). The
Fig. 3: Resultant earth pressure due to various anchor

diameters and different length of anchors.
Ghanbari and Ahmadabadi (2010) studied the active earth

pressure on inclined retaining walls in static and pseudo
static condition. The value of active earth pressure has
direct relation to the angle of wall. It means by reduction
of inclination angle from vertical state the value of active
earth pressure will decrease. Pressure distribution along
wall, critical angle of failure wedge and the application
point of resultant force are all dependants on the slope of
wall. Using analytical relations based on equilibrium of
forces and moments in a failure wedge, characteristics of
active earth pressure in static and pseudo-static conditions
for inclined walls was investigated in this research. The
investigation of results shows that active earth pressure
(Ka) and seismic active pressure coefficient (Kae) both
increase linearly with increase in slope of retaining wall.
The linear relation between failure wedge and slope of the
wall hence simplified linear relation for its calculation has
been suggested. Presented method in this research based
131
on limit equilibrium concept had advantages of taking

into account the effect of inclination on properties of
active earth pressure and also on failure wedges angle as
well as considering the effect of cohesion and friction
simultaneously.
active thrust on an inclined retaining wall and the reaction

can be determined by the force equilibrium of the wedge
ABC. Authors concluded that the point of application of
the active thrust depend upon a number of factor such as
angle of soil fraction, angle of wall friction, angle of wall
back, and inclination of backfill.
Fig. 5: Problem geometry

Fig. 4: Stress distribution driven by earthquake
Slaman et.al (2011) studied the earth pressure distribution

behind retaining walls subjected to line load. The earth
pressure distribution generated behind a 20 m high
retaining wall was estimated by the finite element method
and compare with that obtained from classical earth
pressure theories. The problem geometry and finite
element mesh are as shown in fig 5 and fig 6. The earth
pressure generated behind a retaining wall was studied by
author. Figure.7 shows the distribution of lateral pressure
against the back face of the wall due to a line load
surcharge placed parallel to the crest of the wall of height.
From these figures, the following points had been drawn
that When the line load increases in value to about (300 to
500 kN/m), the pressure distribution starts to take the
shape of a parabola in the upper part of the wall height,
this parabola vanishes and the distribution becomes linear
towards the wall base. it was found that the maximum
pressure is in the wall base. The value of the lateral earth
pressure at the wall base is about (10 to 20%) less than
that obtained by Coulomb equation. The finite element
analysis shows a clear oscillation in the value of lateral
earth pressure in the upper half of the wall, this oscillation
increases as the line load increases in value and decays as
the load goes far away from the wall. In the lower half of
the wall height, the lateral earth pressure becomes more
close to a linear distribution and its maximum value is in
the wall base. The lateral earth pressure distribution will
vanish as the position of the line load becomes far away
from the wall (m 0.6 D).
Dewalkar, and Dixit (2012) studied the complete analysis
of active thrust on an inclined wall with inclined
cohesionless backfill under surcharge effect. Author used
Ktters (1903) equation to compute the active earth
pressure for an inclined wall retaining horizontal
cohesionless backfill with a uniform surcharge. Figure 8
shows a retaining wall with an inclined back face and a
horizontal cohesionless backfill, subjected to a uniformly
distributed surcharge load of intensity q kN/m2. The
Fig. 6: Finite element mesh
Fig. 7: Lateral pressure on retaining wall due to a line load

surcharge
The literature review shows the analysis of active thrust

on inclined wall for cohessionless and cohesive soil, the
effect of earth pressure on retaining wall with reinforced
backfill, the earth pressure distribution behind retaining
wall subjected to line load, and also a provision of lean
retaining wall which is prove to be economical. As we all
know the gravity walls required a large section and also
resist a movement because of heavy section. It is also
required more construction material compare to other
types of retaining wall, so the construction of gravity wall
becomes costlier. This dissertation work lead to the study
of distribution of earth pressure behind the retaining wall
subjected to curve shaped pressure face with and without
surcharge.
132
From the above figure, the active earth pressure of

concave shape back face of gravity retaining wall is 67.59
KN/m.
From this analysis, it is seen that the earth pressure is
more effective in convex shape back face wall rather than
simple and concave. But furthermore the analysis will be
done by using Plaxis finite element simulation software.
DISCUSSION
Fig. 8: Free Body Diagram of wedge ABC subjected to
uniformly distributed surcharge.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS USING GEO 5

The earth pressure distribution on back face shape of
retaining wall will be analysis by taking different
parameters. The geotechnical software GEO 5 is used
to evaluate the earth pressure. The data for analyzing the
earth pressure for different cases are taken same. The
height of wall is 5m; unit weight of soil is 18 KN/m3,
angle of friction is 320, angle of wall friction is 200 and
cohesion of soil is taken as zero. Fig 9(a) and 9(b) shows
the analysis performance of earth pressure distribution on
straight back face wall, convex shape back face wall.
The proposed work will enhance the basic knowledge of

gravity retaining wall. The backface shape of gravity
retaining wall can affect the lateral pressure. The different
angle of concave and convex curve back face shape with
and without surcharge will be evaluate using Plaxis 2D
and it is expected that, the earth pressure is decreases with
respect to increase in distribution surface. And from the
above analysis of earth pressure using GEO 5, it is
concluded that the convex shape is effective for earth
pressure and stability also.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
Fig. 9(a) Earth pressure analysis of Retaining wall
[4]
Fig. 9(b): Earth pressure analysis of convex shape back face

retaining wall.
[5]
[6]
Fig. 9 (c): Earth pressure analysis of concave shape back

face retaining wall
[7]
From this analysis, the active earth pressure of straight

back face wall is 58.26 KN/m and in case of convex shape
back face of retaining wall the active earth pressure is
46.43 KN/m. Fig 9(c) shows the analysis performance of
earth pressure distribution on concave shape back face
wall.
133
Balwan, R. J. and Kumbhar, A. (2011) Graviloft

Retaining Wall: A Case Study. Proceedings of Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Kochi (Paper No. Q-087), pp.
1068-1070.
Dewaikar, D.M., Pandey, S. R. and Dixit (2012) Active
Thrust on an Inclined Retaining Wall with Inclined
Cohesionless Backll due to Surcharge Effect.
International Scholarly Research Network ISRN Soil
Science.
Frydman1, S and Keissar, I. (1987) Earth Pressure on
Retaining Walls Near Rock Faces. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 113, No.6, pp. 586-599
ASCE.
Sadrekarimi, A. and Ghalandarzadeh, A. (2007) Static
and Dynamic Behavior of Hunchbacked Gravity Quay
Walls. Journal of Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, pp. 99117.
Shekarian, S., Ghanbari, A. and Makarchian, M. (2008)
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls with Reinforced
Backfill. The 12th International Conference of
International Association for Computer Methods and
Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG) Goa, India,
pp.52-56.
Sahakari, K. A. (2011) Lean Wall as a Retaining
Structure. International Journal of Earth Sciences and
Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 04, No 06 SPL, pp.
116-120.
Salman, F. A, Fattah, M. Y, Shirazi, S. M. and Mahrez, A.
(2011) Comparative Study on Earth Pressure Distribution
Behind Retaining Walls Subjected to Line Loads.
Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 6(11), pp. 92-96
Academic Journals.


Anant I. Dhatrak1 and Sagar D. Dhengle2
1
Associate Professor, 2M. Tech. (Civil- Geotech) Scholar
Department of Civil Engg., Government College of Engineering, Amravati.(M.S).
Email: 1anantdhatrak@rediffmail.com, 2dhengle.sagar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Underground openings and excavations are increasingly being used for civilian and strategic purposes all over
the world. Recent earthquakes and resulting damage have brought into focus and raised the awareness for
aseismic design and construction. In addition, underground tunnels, particularly, have distinct seismic behavior
due to their complete enclosure in soil or rock and their significant length. Therefore, seismic response of tunnel
support systems warrants closer attention. The geological settings in which they are placed are often difficult to
describe due to limited site investigation data and vast spatial variability. Therefore, the parameters which
govern the design are many and their variability cannot be ignored.
Due to tunnel excavation, settlement profile, faulting, liquefaction, and tectonic uplift and subsidence, angular
distortion and horizontal tensile ground strain, various tunneling methods and geology, tunnel dimensions,
shape, depth, stiffness of the tunnel lining and the nature of input motion, dynamic response of two parallel
tunnels and a tunnel with a soft coating in order to minimize shear forces on tunnel-soil interface. However, the
study on effect of various seismic loading condition, various shapes of tunneling, shapes of building structure,
loading intensity of structure, soil properties, effect of ground water table and effect of number of tunnels is
lacking. Considering this gap in the research, present research work is undertaken.
Keywords Tunnel, excavation, superstructure, Earthquake, MIDAS 2D, Displacement
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important factors affecting the design of
the structures is the impact of the earthquake loadings on
the forces and the design displacements. Nevertheless, the
influences of the near structures on the existing buildings,
that sometimes can cause great changes in forces and
displacements, can never be forgotten. Thus, the induced
displacement in the adjacent buildings of a newly
constructed underground tunnel will be investigated in
this study. The response of the super structures, such as
buildings, bridges, under seismic conditions is highly
affected by the underlying soil layer. So far, extensive
studies the impact of the earthquakes on underground and
ground structures have been carried out and it can be
evaluated, whether the amount of variations in forces and
displacements are in the allowable ranges, and what
measures are needed to save the structures in case of
having excess changes in these parameters. Different
shapes of tunnels as shown in figure 1.
Engineering Approach to Seismic Analysis and Design
Earthquake effects on underground structures can be
grouped into two categories, a) ground shaking and, b)
ground failure such as liquefaction, fault displacement,
and slope instability. Ground shaking, refers to the
deformation of the ground produced by seismic waves
propagating through the earths crust. The major factors
Fig. 1: Circular, Horseshoe and Curvilinear (Oval) Tunnel

(FHWA, 2005a)
influencing shaking damage include: i) the shape,

dimensions and depth of the structure ii) the properties of
the surrounding soil or rock iii) the properties of the
structure and iv) the severity of the ground shaking,
Seismic design of underground structures is unique in
several ways. For most underground structures, the inertia
134
of the surrounding soil is large relative to the inertia of the

structure. Measurements of the seismic response of an
immersed tube tunnel during several earthquakes show
that the response of a tunnel is dominated by the
surrounding ground response and not the inertial
properties of the tunnel structure itself. The focus of
underground seismic design, therefore, is on the free field
deformation of the ground and its interaction with the
structure. The emphasis on displacement is in stark
contrast to the design of surface structures, which focuses
on inertial effects of the structure itself. This led to the
development of design methods such as the Seismic
Deformation Method that explicitly considers the seismic
deformation of the ground. Many researchers present a
review on the seismic behavior and design of
underground structures in soft ground with an emphasis
on the development of the Seismic Deformation Method.
The behavior of a tunnel is sometimes approximated to
that of an elastic beam subject to deformations imposed
by the surrounding ground.
Need
There are several reasons for utilizing tunnels. They can
be used to connect land masses, to bypass impeding
geologic formation, or stability issues, and to reduce
environmental concerns. Most tunnels, however, are used
to increase the flow of traffic. Fifty percent of the worlds
population lives in urban areas and seventy percent of the
population lives in earthquake prone areas. Initially,
tunnels were designed with no regard to seismic effects,
but, recently, there has been enhanced awareness of
seismic hazards for underground structures.
Theme
and various aspects of experimental and numerical

behavior of tunneling under seismic loading. Some of
related works are discussed, Sliteen (2000), AbdelMeguid (2002), Zaneta G. Adme (2006), M. Azadi
(2007), Sun Tiecheng (2010), Mallika S. (2012) studied,
structural damage to the buildings due to tunnel
excavation, settlement profile, faulting, liquefaction, and
tectonic uplift and subsidence, angular distortion and
horizontal tensile ground strain, various tunneling
methods and geology, tunnel dimensions, shape, depth,
stiffness of the tunnel lining and the nature of input
motion, dynamic response of two parallel tunnels and a
tunnel with a soft coating in order to minimize shear
forces on tunnel-soil interface.
Review of Work on Behavior of Building Due to
Tunneling Under Seismic Loading Conditions.
Sliteen (2000) studied a three-dimensional and nonlinear
analysis behavior of a tunnel in soft soil subjected to
seismic loading. Model consists of a tunnel embedded in
soft soil underlined by a rigid bed rock. The tunnel has an
excavation diameter of 9m and a lining thickness t =
40cm. Its axis is located at H = 16m (about 1.8D) from
the ground surface. The 3D finite difference mesh defined
in numerical calculation includes 18600 8-node elements,
using FLAC3D code (Flac3d, 2005). The system
geometry consists of x, y, z axes where the y axis is along
the tunnel axis, the x axis is along the transversal
direction and the z axis is along the vertical direction. Its
dimensions (x = 126m, y = 90m, z = 40m) or respectively
(14D, 10D, 4.5D) are chosen to ensure that its edges are
undisturbed by stress or strain induced by excavation as
shown in Figure 2.
The site characteristics of an underground tunnel will be

first investigated. Then the excavation of the tunnel will
be modeled, while the adjacent structures will be taken
into account. Finally, the impact of excavation on the
adjacent structures under different earthquake loadings
will be studied and investigated. The corrected
accelerograms of the different earthquakes will be used
for seismic analyses and a one and two stories buildings
will be modeled as the adjacent buildings. In this study,
the impact of the tunnels excavations, shape of tunnel,
geometry of structure, loading intensity, soil properties,
ground water table, and number of tunnel on adjacent
buildings under seismic conditions will be studied using
Finite Element Analysis software (MIDAS 2D/3D).
Fig. 2: Geometry of 3D soil-tunnel system
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature shows considerable working on the study of
effect on buildings due to tunnel excavation. Several
experimental and numerical analysis were performed on
tunneling at shallow depth, greater depth, performance of
parallel tunnels, by various authors. These works are
reviewed keeping in view the methodology, principles
The seismic loading of a duration 6.6sec was applied at

the base of the soil mass as a harmonic acceleration
g=0.1g in the x direction with a frequency fload = 0.6 Hz
which is close to the natural frequency of the soil fI =
0.474 Hz. Properties of soil and tunnel lining are given in
table 1.
135
maximum bending moment obtained with nonlinear

analysis is 24 % greater than that obtained in elastic
analysis iii) maximum shear force obtained with
elastoplastic model is about 22% larger of than that of
elastic model for an excavated tunnel.
Table 1: Properties of Soil and Tunnel Lining
Materi
E
al
(MPa) (KN/m3)
Soil
30
0.3
Lining 35000
0.25
()
()
20
35
C
(KPa)
7
The distribution of the internal forces in the tunnel lining

shows in Figure 3. The thrust N, the bending moment M
and the shear force Q resulting from the finite difference
dynamic analysis. These results are reported as a function
of the angle (defined in figure 3) According to results
the maximum thrust is N max = 649 KN located at =
45, the same for the maximum bending moment M max
= 705 KN. m, the maximum shear force is Q max = 584
KN located at = 90.
Fig. 3: Distribution of the seismic induced internal forces in

the tunnel lining
Author consider that excavation carried out in stages of

30 fraction with a length of Ldec =D/3=3m for every
trench and Rate of preconfinement dec = 0.5, Length of
the unsupported area Ldec = 3m. for examine the effect of
excavation on the seismic response of tunnel author
carried out two cases with and without excavation and the
results are as follows, i) regarding thrust force traction
force increases about 21% for elastoplastic model ii) the
(a)
Abdel-Meguid (2002) studied a 3D elasto-plastic finite

element model to examine the effect of construction over
two existing tunnels. Tunnel deformation and the change
in lining shape are compared with the field measurements
of the York-Mills Centre project constructed in 1989 over
an existing Toronto subway tunnel. The criterion for
potential damage to the tunnel liner is established based
on the extreme fiber stresses of the lining. Typical 2D
plane strain analyses were also conducted to investigate
the importance of the 3D analysis in this case. Reasonable
agreement is found between the observed field
measurements and the predicted results using the 3D
numerical simulation. A meshing of finite element model
and first stage of surface excavation is shown in figure
4.(a) and (b). respectively.
In order to investigate the importance of the 3D analysis
in this case, a typical two dimensional (2D) plane strain
analysis was performed on one transverse cross-section
located at section (A-A) shown in Fig. 4 (c) The elements
considered in the 2D analysis are 364 8-noded
isoparametric elements with a total of 1161 nodes
arranged as shown in Figure 5.
Nodes along the vertical boundaries may translate freely
along the boundaries but are fixed against displacements
normal to these boundaries. The nodes at the base are
fixed against displacements in both directions. The
segmented cast iron lining of the subway tunnels are
modeled as prismatic 8- noded solid elements with a finite
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4: (a) Finite Element Mesh Used in the 3D Analysis. (b) First Stage of Surface Excavation.(c) Final Stage of Surface
Excavation
Fig. 5: Finite Element Mesh Used For the 2D Analysis.
136

Table 2: Comparison of Predicted and Measured Maximum Deformations
Point of interest
Maximum heave (mm)

Crown-invert Extension (mm)
Spring-lineClosure (mm)
2D analysis*
SouthNorthbound
bound
38
39
6
7
9
10
3D analysis*
SouthNorthbound
bound
17
18
5
6
4
5
width and modulus (EA) equivalent to that of the real

lining. To allow a direct comparison, the numerical details
for the 2D analysis were the same as for the 3D analysis
(see Figure 6). Based on the 2D results, the maximum
estimated crown heave is about 42 mm. The increase in
the vertical distance between the crown and the invert is
about 7 mm and the decrease in the horizontal distance
between points on the spring-line is about 10 mm.
Measured
SouthNorthbound
bound
15
17
4
4
3.5
4.4
Zaneta G. Adme (2006) studied a finite element model of

the tunnel to investigate which soil types, when used in
conjunction with a tunnel completed using the New
Australian Tunneling Method, perform better when
subjected to seismic excitation. Author perform following
steps, the first step was to identify the physical problem.
This included describing the physical structure,
identifying the source of dynamic excitation, and
determining the expected outcomes. The next step in the
process was defining the inputs and then defining the
model based on the inputs. The last step was to find the
solution of the model and review the results of the project.
Fig. 7: Displacement Profile Along The Northbound Tunnel.

Table 3: Soil Order and Soil Types.
(a) Construction of north subway tunnel c) First stage of

surface excavation
(b) Construction of south subway tunnel d) Second stage of

surface excavation
Fig. 6: Simulation of different construction process in 2D
analysis.
It may be seen that the maximum heave measured was

close to but slightly below the maximum heave predicted.
Author concluded that the 3D finite element analysis
predicted a satisfactory displacement profile as well as
stress distribution along the tunnel shown in figure 7.
Location
Agadir, morocco
Soil order
Alfisols
Avezzano, Italy
Ultisols
Chimbote, peru
Entisols
Los angelase,
California
Mexico city, mexico
Mollisols
Tangshan, china
Tokyo, japan
Inceptisols
Oxisols
Andisols
Soil type
Low plasticity
clay
Low plasticity
silt
Gravel-sand
mixture
Organic
Medium
plasticity silt
Sandy gravel
High plasticity
clay
There were four basic criteria used to select the cities used
for this project. The first criterion was the earthquake
history of the city. The next criterion was the population
of the city to evaluate the possibility of tunnel use, which
is the third criterion. Tunnels are more likely to be used in
cities that have a large population. The last criterion used
was the variance in the soil types present in these areas. It
was necessary to select cities with contrasting soils to
137
obtain a broad range of results. There are currently 15

different soil orders present in the world. Each city used
in this experiment was classified by soil order. That soil
order was then classified by the aggregate(s) associated
with them as shown in Table 3.
The physical structure used for this simulation consisted
of a tunnel surrounded by two ground layers, each 130
meters wide as shown in figure 8. The bottom layer was
granite rock and was 106 meters in height. The properties
for this layer remained constant during each trial. The
uppermost layer was a 24 meter deep soil layer that
changed according to the soil properties associated with
each trial city. The tunnel was circular with a 22 meter
diameter and was buried 67 meters below the ground
surface. Finite element method was used in this project.
This method is used to model and solve complex two and
three dimensional engineering problems as shown in
figure 8. The Visual Finite Element Analysis (Visual
FEA) program incorporates powerful finite element
processing software with a user-friendly graphical
interface that reduces the amount of time needed for
programming.
data from uniform gravel and medium to high plasticity

silt are evaluated for comparison purpose.
Although the bands of color seem similar in their
placement, their difference is relayed in the scales of each
soil. The scale for uniform gravel goes from 0-2.1406 cm
and the scale for medium to high plasticity silt only goes
form 0-1.1526 cm. The displacement results for all soils
and results for each city are presented in Table 4(a) and
4(b) respectively.
Table 4: Displacement Results for Selected Cities.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8: Physical Structure
First a two dimensional plane strain model was used. This

is used in modeling three dimensional structures that are
uniform throughout their length, e.g. beams and cylinders.
The data was taken from a point between the rock and soil
interface directly above the highest point of the tunnel.
Since there are thirteen different soil types, the recorded
Tangshan, China recorded the smallest maximum

displacement for the point of interest. The maximum
displacement was only 0.02057 cm. The location that
recorded the highest maximum displacement was Tokyo,
Japan, 1.419 cm. Although Tokyo has the highest
maximum displacement, these displacements would only
produce minor cracks in the tunnel structure (Yang,
2002). Using the model representing a NATM tunnel, it is
Fig. 9: Graphical Results for Uniform Gravel and Medium to High Plasticity Silt.
138
shown that tunnels constructed using this tunneling

method produces relatively small displacements under
earthquake loadings and could possibly considered as the
primary method of construction in other projects.
M. Azadi (2007) studied a commercially available finite
element package, PLAXIS-2D, which is capable of doing
dynamic analysis of soil-structure interaction using the
ground accelerographs, has been implemented. He
investigate the impact of a tunnel construction on the
response of the adjacent buildings, two different cases
have been taken into account: i) In the first case the
seismic analysis of the buildings before excavating the
underground tunnel has been done. Two different
accelerographs were used to calculate the displacements
of the buildings at different elevations. As shown in figure
10. The relative display-cement of top of the building
(point B) to that in the ground level (point A), or the
differential displacements are calculated. ii) In the second
case, the dynamic analyses of the building under the same
accelerographs are carried out, while the underground
tunnel has already been excavated shown in figure 10. In
this case the differential displacements of the buildings
again are calculated. To study the impact of the
underground tunnel on the seismic displacement of the
buildings these two values are compared with each other.
buildings were considered to be1 and 2 stories (similar to

existing type of structures in the area). Based on the
analyses results, the variations of the horizontal
displacements of the buildings at points (A&B) versus the
time of the dynamic analysis are the maximum percentage
of variations of the differential displacements after
excavation of the tunnel is about +3(%) for El Centro and
about -2.5 (%) for Naghan earthquakes. Although the
absolute variations of the horizontal differential
displacements never exceed 3(%) which means the
excavation of the underground tunnel does not have any
destructive effect on the adjacent building. Horizontal
displacements of a typical two stories building due to El
Centro earthquake is shown in figure 11(b).
Fig. 11: (a) The Finite Element Mesh of the Numerical

Model, (b) Horizontal displacements of a typical two stories
building due to El Centro earthquake before and after
excavation of the Shiraz underground tunnel.
Fig. 10: The View of The Model In Case I and Case II
The impact of the underground tunnel on the adjacent

buildings during different earthquake loadings can be
evaluated. It has to be noted that, the radial displacements
of the surrounding soils always have been ignored. It
means that, the gap between the tail-skin and cutter-head
of the excavating machine is perfectly filled by grouting.
The triangular elements of 15 nodes are used to do the
finite element mesh of the model before and after
excavation of the Shiraz underground tunnel shown in
figure 11(a).
The dynamic analyses of model before and after
excavation of the underground tunnel (case i & case ii)
using the corrected accelerographs of the Naghan and El
Centro earthquakes were carried out. The adjacent
Mallika S. (2012) studied reliability-based analysis of the

support system of an underground tunnel in soil. Issues
like the description of the interaction between the tunnel
lining and the surrounding medium, the type of limit state
that would be appropriate, the non-availability of a closed
form performance function and the advantages of
response surface method [RSM] are looked into. Both
static and seismic environment with random variability in
the material properties are studied by author. Support
seismic response was studied in terms of thrust, moment
and shear forces in the lining.
In order to evaluate the effect of uncertainties, a real
tunnel and the earthquake to which it was subjected or
considered. The author had chosen a case study which
concerns a tunnel of 6 m diameter and overburden depth
between 21.0 and 25.3 m. The center of the studied
section of the tunnel is approximately 24m deep with a 21
m thick overburden and is embedded in the Shongsan
formation which comprises six alternating silty sand and
silty clay layers.For the seismic analysis, the
accelerogram of the earthquake that occurred in
139
(c)
November 14, 1986 with a magnitude of 7.8 at a distance

of approximately 120km from the airport and at a depth
approximately 34m is used. The peak ground acceleration
PGA is 0.13g (Fig 4). Fig. 5 shows the FE model used for
the dynamic analysis.
Case
studied
Static
Seismic
1.30
0.31
Shear
E (MPa) cc (kPa)
25.51
34.93
331.22
33.54
c(deg)
34.74
30.35
For the thrust and moment response, where >1, there is

less probability of failure (pf<4%). This indicates that the
chosen lining system is reliable against the randomness in
ground material properties for the thrust and moment
response. Table 9 also confirms that shear response under
seismic case is poorer compared to the static case. This
implies that strengthening against shear failure would be
advisable.
METHODOLOGY
Finite Element simulation software MIDAS 2D/3D will
be used to evaluate the thrust, bending moment, shear
forces in the lining and displacement at ground surface
under different seismic loading condition.
Fig. 12: (a)Accelerogram of Taiwan Earthquake,
November14, 1986 (National Geophysical Data Centre)
(b)Finite Element model used for seismic analysis
OBJECTIVES
The results are analyzed and discussed in terms of thrusts,

moments, shear and displacements. The associated
reliabilities under appropriate limit states and
corresponding critical material property combinations are
examined. The minimum reliability obtained for the
displacement response is given in table 7. A comparison
of the static and seismic reliability levels of the lining
response is given in Table 9
Behavior of buildings due to tunneling under seismic

loading condition will be studied using Finite Element
Analysis software (MIDAS 2D/3D). The various
parameters for study include Shape of tunnel, Number of
Tunnels and Geometry of building under seismic loading
conditions, considering water table at various depths (d)
of Tunnel. The details of parameters study is given in
Table 6.
Table 7: Details of Parameters Study
Model
Type
Table 5: Iterations performed to obtain minimum reliability

for displacement Response
Reliability
c (kPa)
(deg)
E (MPa)
0
30
31
28
0.26
28.74
31.40
27.35
4.24
20.64
31.07
12.64
0.60
24.28
30.78
12.55
E
F
Ground Water Table.
Number of Tunnels.
Validation by
analytical
(a)
Static
Seismic
1.77
1.70
Thrust
E (MPa) cc (kPa)
2.02
34.60
368.56
48.80
c(deg)
23.40
35.20
(b)
Case
studied
Static
Seismic
5.77
2.07
Moment
E (MPa) cc (kPa)
58.60
20.02
569.20
1.42
H
c(deg)
37.10
24.53
Shape of tunnel
Seismic loading
conditions
Geometry of
building structure.
Loading intensity of
structure.
Soil properties.
Table 6: Comparison of reliability of the static and seismic

case for the lining response
Case studied
Parameter to be
Studied
Case detail
Circular
Horseshoe
Oval/Egg
Maximum intensity
Square, Rectangular
Various Loading
Intensity
C-soil, C- Soil
GWT At Various
Depth
Single, Twin
Analytical Approach
EXPECTED RESULTS
The proposed work will enhance the basic knowledge in
the field of tunneling under seismic loading condition
140
which gives the effect of seismic loading condition on

behavior of building due to tunneling. The parametric
study of various shapes of tunneling, geometry of
building structure, loading intensity of structure, soil
properties, ground water table and number of tunnels will
be evaluated and it shall be concluded that whether the
amount of variations in forces and displacements are in
the allowable ranges, and what measures needed to
protect the structures in case of excessive changes in these
parameters.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Abdel, M. M., Rowe, R. K. and Lo, K. Y. (2002). 3D

effects of surface construction over existing subway
tunnels. The International Journal of Geomechanics.,
Volume 2, Number 4, 447469.
141
Azadi, M. (2007). The impact of underground tunnel

excavation on adjacent buildings during earthquake case
study: Shiraz underground, Iran,. electronics journal of
geotechnical engineering.
Mallika, S., Srividya, A. and Venkatachalam, G. (2012).
Uncertainty modelling and limit state reliability of tunnel
supports
under
seismic
effects.
IJRET.,
http://www.ijret.org/.
Sliteen, I., Mroueh, H. and Sadek, M. (2000).Threedimensional modeling of the behavior of shallow tunnel
under seismic loading. Elsevier Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2000.10.004.
Zaneta G. Adme (2006)., Analysis of NATM tunnel
responses due to earthquake loading in various soils.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining
Sciences., 47 (2006) 12311241.

Mechanical Properties of High Strength Concrete Composites

with Mineral Admixtures
M.V.S.S. Sastri1, K. Jagannadha Rao2, B.L.P. Swami3 and V. Bhikshma4
3
Professor & Co-ordinator, Research & Consultancy
Department of Civil Engineering,Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad, (AP)
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engg. Chaitanya Bharathi Inst. of Technology, Hyderabad, (AP)
4
Professor, Department of Civil Engg, O.U.College of Engg. Osmania University, Hyderabad, (AP)
Email: 1sastrimvss@gmail.com, 2kjagannadharao@yahoo.com
1,3
ABSTRACT
Sustainability is touching new heights and many green building materials are tried and tested as partial
replacement for the cement. Fly ash and condensed silica fume are industrial waste by-products, can be
recommended to be used along with the cement to derive certain enhanced mechanical properties of the concrete
like strength and economy. In the present investigation two grades of M50 and M80 concretes using fly ash and
condensed silica fume was undertaken. It is found from the experimental investigation that concrete composites
with superior properties can be produced with fly ash and condensed silica fume.
Keywords condensed silica fume, flexural strength, split tension, youngs modulus.
INTRODUCTION
The versatility and the mouldability of concrete material
and its high compressive strength have contributed largely
to its widespread use and it can rightly be stated that this
is the age of concrete. According to ACI 116R Flyash and
condensed silica fumes are pozzolonic which is defined
as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that
itself possesses little or no cementitious value, but that
will, in finely divided form and in presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide (CH) at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds having cementitious
properties. Fly ash exhibits pozzolanic properties to some
extent. The current annual world-wide production of coal
ash is estimated to be 700 million tonnes.
Fly ash improves the workability of the concrete which
refers to the ease of handling, placing and finishing of
fresh or plastic concrete. The fly ash concrete is more
workable than a plain cement concrete at equivalent
slump but has a slower reaction rate, when compared to
hydraulic cement. It limits the amount of early heat
generation and the detrimental early temperature rise in
massive structures. The permeability of the fly ash
concrete is clearly more sensitive to the duration of the
moist curing period while curing at lower temperatures.
Condensed silica fume (CSF) which is also pozzolonic in
nature is more reactive than fly ash. Certain percentages
of CSF used as as replacement to OPC contributes
towards increase in the strengths of concrete matrix.
Review of Previous Work
Thomas et al (15) carried out experiments with three
different grades of concrete with and without Class F fly
ash in a marine tidal zone for 1 and 10 years. The duration

and temperature of the moist curing period was found to
have little effect on the extent of chloride penetration after
age of one year. Grutzek,et al (2) studied the resistance to
chloride penetration increases significantly as the fly ash
content of the concrete increases. Mazloom et al (5)
concluded that as the proportion of silica fume increased,
the workability of concrete decreased but its short-term
mechanical properties such as 28-day compressive
strength and secant modulus are improved while
increasing autogenous shrinkage of concrete. Yogendra et
al (7) studied the efficiency of silica fume in influencing
the strength of high-strength concrete with different w/c
ratios and dosages of silica fume and suggested that the
optimum replacement of cement by silica fume in highstrength concrete of 50 to 70 MPa at 28 days is 15
percent.
Materials Used
Cement
The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of UltraTech 53
grade confirming to Indian standard IS12269-1987 was used.
Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate used for this entire study of investigation
for concrete was river sand confirming to zone-1 of IS:
383-1970.
Coarse Aggregate
Crushed hard granite chips of maximum size 20 mm were
used in concrete mixes.
142

Table 1: Summary of Mix Proportions
Mix
M50
M80
w/c
ratio
0.35
0.28
Water
(litre)
175
182
Cement
(kg)
500
650
NA
(kg)
1080
1316.25
Fine Aggregate
(kg)
692
406.25
Mix Proportion
1:1.384:2.16 with 0.35 w/c and 0.5% SP
1:0.625:2.025 with 0.28 w/c and 1.5% SP
Water
Potable water available in the college was used for casting
and curing.
150x300mm concrete cylinders tested under uni axial

compression at a constant rate of loading. The
longitudinal extensometer was used.
Condensed Silica Fume

The CSF was obtained from M/s V.B. Ferro Alloys Pvt.
Ltd., Hyderabad.
The test results on hardened concrete are reported in

Table No. 2 and 3.
Fly Ash
The material was procured from Ramagundam Thermal
Power Plant (A.P).
The results obtained from the experimental investigations

have been tabulated and are shown in Tables 2 and 3. The
results have been analyzed and the bar charts showing the
strength variations have been plotted (fig.1 to 10).
Super Plasticizer (SP) of M/s Fosroc Industries Ltd

Conplast SP 430 satisfying the specifications was used.
Reference Concrete Mix
Two mixes of M50 and M80 concretes were designed and
tested. The details of mix proportions are given in table-1.
Casting and Curing of Specimens
Casting of Specimens was done by batching of materials,
preparation of moulds and placing of concrete in the
moulds. Vibrator was used after every 1/3 filling of
material into the mould and the top surface was properly
levelled at the end. Pan mixer was used for mixing. After
24 hrs air drying, demoulding was carried out and the
specimens were placed in the curing tank. They were
tested at different ages ranging from 7 to 90 days. Casting
and curing was carried out as per the standard
specifications.
Tests Conducted on Hardened Concrete
Three specimens of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm
were used for compression testing for each batch of mix
Split Tensile Strength Test
Split tensile test was conducted on cylinders of size 100
mm diameter and 200 mm height.
Flexural Strength
The prisms of size 100x100x500mm were tested to
evaluate the flexural strength of the concrete by two point
loading.
Static Modulus of Elasticity
Measurements of static modulus of elasticity were
according to IS 516 at 33% of ultimate load using
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Workability
The workability of concrete is improving with increased
percentage of fly ash and in the case of M50 grade
concrete the quantity of superplasticizer was decreased. In
the case of concrete containing condensed silica fume the
workability of concrete is decreasing with increased
percentage. However, no segregation was observed. The
workability of the mixes was maintained at medium level
by judiciously adding superplasticizer.
1. From the tables 2 and 3 it is observed that with the
increase in the percentage of condensed silica fume
the compressive strength of the concrete is increasing
at all ages relative to the reference strength. The
optimum compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
and above is produced with 10 percent replacement of
cement by condensed silica fume and the strengths are
gradually decreasing beyond 10% CSF.
2. It is observed that the maximum early age
compressive strengths of the concrete at the age of 7
days is achieved at 15% and 10% replacement with
CSF and is increasing by 5% for M-50 and M-80
grade concretes over the reference concrete.
3. Due to replacement of OPC by fly ash, the strength
gets decreased, compared to that of reference mix.
4. With 20% fly ash replacement of OPC the strength
values are optimum and they are only marginally less
by 2%.
5. There is decrease in strength of M-50 grade concrete
with fly ash replacement, as it may be due to lesser
availability of cement in the mix and at the same time
it is showing an improved gain in strength for M-80
grade concrete.
143
Flexural Strength
1. With the replacement of cement with condensed silica
fume by 10% there is a maximum increase in flexural
strength of concrete at the age of 28 days, which is
more compared to reference mix with 0% CSF. This is
true in both the concrete grades considered.
fume beyond 10%, there is a fall in the flexural
strength of the concrete but still it is more than that of
control mix.
3. With fly ash replacement, the trend in the flexural
strength is same as compressive strength.
fume by 10% there is a maximum increase in the split
tensile strength of the concrete at the age of 28days
and it is (9.82%) more than that of M-50 grade control
mix.
2. A marginal decrease in static modulus was observed

with 20% replacement of OPC by fly ash.
Use of Mineral Admixtures in High Performance
Concrete (HPC)
Mineral admixtures like fly ash and condensed silica fume
are available as industrial wastes where used as part
replacement of OPC in cement composites, helps in
several ways. The present investigation is limited to the
mechanical properties, where high strength concrete
mixes are being used. Replacement of OPC by suitable
mineral admixtures not only helps in the flow and
strength, but also in durability, which is a very important
requirement. Hence, the present study heads to the use of
mineral admixtures in HPC which satisfies all the
requirements like strength, durability etc.

fume beyond 10%, there is a marginal increase in the
split tensile strength of the concrete and also with 15%
replacement, but the strength is comparatively less
than that of 10% replacement of OPC by fly ash is
optimum even for split tensile strength.
Static Modulus of Elasticity
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1. The static modulus of elasticity measured based on the

IS code procedure has shown 8.8% and 1% increase
compared to control concrete at 10% replacement of
cement by condensed silica fume for M-50 and M-80
grades respectively.
0
20
7d strength
28day
30
56d
40
90day
Fig. 1: Variation of compressive strength of M-50 grade of

concrete at various percentages of fly ash
Table 2: Test Results of Compressive Strength at Different Ages
M-50
Grade
M-80
Grade
M-50
Grade
M-80
Grade
Mix
FA
SF
A1
A2
A3
A4
E1
E2
E3
E4
A1
A5
A6
A7
E1
E5
E6
E7
0
20
30
40
0
20
30
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
7day
N/mm2
48.6
33.51
27.21
23.34
54.5
52.3
48.4
33.4
48.6
48.9
49.72
51.06
54.5
56.2
57.2
52
Percentage 28day percentage

increase
N/mm2 increase
0%
60.69
0%
-31%
52.53
-13%
-44%
45.55
-25%
-52%
44.92
-26%
0%
85.0
0%
-4%
83.3
-2%
-11%
62.1
-27%
-39%
62.2
-27%
0%
60.69
0%
1%
61.69
2%
2%
66.09
9%
5%
63.99
5%
0%
85.0
0%
3%
85.6
1%
5%
86.23
1%
-5%
72.245
-15%
144
56day percentage 90day percentage

N/mm2 increase N/mm2 increase
62.534
0%
65.25
0%
62.03
-1%
64.21
-2%
58.39
-7%
60.23
-8%
54.89
-12%
58.32
-11%
88.6
0%
90.2
0%
87.3
-1%
92.4
2%
81.3
-8%
88.7
-2%
66.5
-25%
68.7
-24%
62.534
0%
65.25
0%
63.25
1%
67.2
3%
68.12
9%
72.8
12%
67.2
7%
69.1
6%
88.6
0%
90.2
0%
89.2
1%
91.2
1%
89.3
1%
93.0
3%
75.2
-15%
78.4
-13%

Table 3: Test Results of Split, Flexural Strength and Youngs Modulus Values.
M-50
GRADE
M-80
GRADE
M-50
GRADE
FA
SF
A1
A2
A3
A4
E1
E2
E3
E4
A1
A5
A6
A7
E1
E5
E6
E7
0
20
30
40
0
20
30
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
10
15
0
5
10
15
2.75
2.74
2.73
2.45
4.30
4.35
4.20
3.12
2.75
3.02
3.02
2.90
4.30
4.80
5.09
4.51
percentage
change
Flexural
strength
28days
N/mm2
percentage
change
0%
0%
-1%
-11%
0%
1%
-2%
-27%
0%
10%
10%
5%
0%
12%
18%
5%
4.90
4.40
4.80
4.60
9.20
7.18
6.98
6.50
4.90
5.20
6.00
5.80
9.20
9.50
8.02
6.12
0%
-10%
-2%
-6%
0%
-22%
-24%
-29%
0%
6%
22%
18%
0%
3%
-13%
-33%
80
compressive strength in Mpa
M-80
GRADE
Mix
split tensile
strength
28days N/mm2
60
40
20
0
0
7day
5
28day
percentage
change
0%
-1%
-4%
-8%
0%
-6%
-6%
-12%
0%
5%
8%
8%
0%
1%
-3%
-3%
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0
10
15
% condensed silica fume
10
15
56day
90day

concrete at various percentages of condensed silica fume

concrete at various percentages of condensed silica fume
100.0
10.00
flexural strength in MPa
Youngs
modulus
28days
x103
N/mm2
38.42
37.97
36.87
35.23
49.50
46.52
46.63
43.57
38.42
40.53
41.53
41.58
49.50
49.80
48.10
47.80
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
M50 grade
M80 grade
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.0
0
20
30
% fly ash
40
20
30
%fly ash
40
Fig. 5: Variation of flexural strength of M-50 and M-80

grades of concrete at 28days at various percentages of fly
ash

concrete at various percentages of fly ash
145
60.00
M80 Grade
Static young's modulus in GPa
M50 grade
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0
5
10
%Condensed silica fume
15
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0
Fig. 6: Variation of flexural strength of M-50 and M-80

grades of concrete at various percentages of condensed silica
fume
20%fly ash30
40
Fig. 9: Variation of youngs modulus of M-50 and M-80

grades of concrete at various percentages of fly ash
split tensile strength in MPa
60.00
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0
20
%fly ash
30
0.00
40
5
10fume
%Condensed
silica
15
Fig. 7: Variation of split tensile strength of M-50 and M-80

grades of concrete at 28days at various percentages of fly
ash
Fig. 10: Variation of youngs modulus of M-50 and M-80

fume
6.00
CONCLUSIONS
5.00
Based on the present experimental study, the following

conclusions are drawn.
4.00
1. Fly ash improves the workability of concrete and

condensed silica fume (CSF) in higher percentages
decrease the workability of concrete there by requiring
higher dosages of superplasticizer.
3.00
2.00
2. Addition of fly ash decreases the compressive strength

and 20% fly ash can be taken as optimum from
strength considerations. Strength of fly ash concrete
improves with age. This is true in all the strengths
considered in the present investigation.
1.00
0.00
0
10
15
%Condensed silica fume

Fig. 8: Variation of split tensile strength of M-50 and M-80
fume
3. CSF improves the compressive strength of concrete.

Ten percent CSF used as replacement to OPC is
optimum. Beyond this, the strength gradually reduces.
This is true at all ages. The split tensile and flexural
strengths also follow same trend.
146
4. Even the values of Youngs modulus follow the same

trend as the strengths. CSF contributes towards higher
modulus.
5. 20% fly ash is optimum from workability and strength
considerations where as 5 to 10% CSF in the matrix
generates optimum mechanical properties.
6. Replacement of OPC by certain percentages of CSF is
necessary to produce HPC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Management and Principal, Vasavi
College of Engineering, Hyderabad. Our special thanks to
Prof & Head Dr. B.Sridhar, for his constant
encouragement and help.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
N. Krishnaraju, Design of Concrete Mix- CBS

publishers -1985
Grutzek,
M.W.,
Atkinson,S.,
and
Roy,
D.M.(1983).Mechanism of hydration of condensed silica
fume in calcium hydroxide solutions. ACI Special
publications, 79-33, 643-664.
Malhotra, V.M., 1980, Strength and durability
characteristics of concrete incorporating a pelletized blast
furnace slag fly ash, condensed silica fume, slag and other
mineral by-products in concrete, SP-79. V.2American
Concrete Institute, Detroit pp. 891-922.
P.K. Mehta &J.M.M.Paulo, Concrete Microstructure
Properties and Materials McGraw Hill Publishers 1997.
[5]
[6]
Mazloom, M., Ramezanianpour, A., & Brooks, J.

(2004).Effect of silica fume on mechanical properties of
high-strength concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites,
26(4), 347-357.
A.M.Neville, Properties of Concrete English Language
book society 1988.
[7]
Yogendran, V., Langan, B., Haque, M., & Ward, M.

(1987). Silica fume in high-strength concrete. ACI
Materials Journal, 84(2).
[8]
IS: 2386 (Part III), Methods of Test for Aggregates for

Concrete: Specific Gravity, Density, Absorption and
Bulking.
[9]
IS: 2386 (Part IV)-1963, Methods of Test for Aggregates

for Concrete: Mechanical properties.
[10] IS: 516-1963, Method of Test for Strength of Concrete, 1.

IS 1344 1968, Indian Standard Specifications for
Pozzolonas- Bureau of Indian Standards.
[11] IS 4031 1988, Indian Standard Methods of physical
tests for hydraulic cement First revision, Bureau of
Indian Standards.
[12] IS 383 1970, Indian standard specifications for coarse
and fine aggregate for the Natural sources for concrete
2nd revision- Bureau of Indian standards.
[13] IS 7869 (Part II), Indian standard specifications for
Admixtures in concrete Bureau of Indian standards.
[14] IS 456 2000, Plain and reinforced concrete Indian
standard Specifications Bureau of Indian standards.
[15] Thomas, M. D. A., Hopkins, D. S., Girn, G., Munro, R., &
Muhl, E. (2002, June).The use of high-volume fly ash in
concrete. In Proceedings, 7th International Gypsum and
Fly Ash Science and Technology Conference, Toronto.
147


S.T. Jadhav1, H.S.Chore2 and S.B. Patil3
1
PG Student, 2Professor and Head, 3Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Airoli, Navi Mumbai.
Email: 1Shreerang.jadhav57@gmail.com, 2chorehs@gmail.com, 3sbpatil_2009@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Performance check of existing RC building is very essential in country like India. The nonlinear static analytical
procedure (Pushover analysis) as introduced by ATC-40 is applied for the evaluation of existing design of a
reinforced concrete bare frame, frame with infill in outer periphery and frame with open ground storey. In order
to examine the performance of these models, the pushover analysis for seismic evaluation of existing building is
performed. After performing the analysis pushover curve are obtained. It is concluded that presence of
percentage of infill in RC frame considerably reduces the storey drift ratio of the buildings under consideration.
Also consideration of infill drastically affects the performance of structure.
Keywords Pushover analysis, Performance, Storey drift ratio, Bare frame, Soft storey, Existing RC building.
INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of the seismic performance of buildings
that are designed for gravity loads is found to be
vulnerable due to certain detailing aspects such as
discontinuous positive flexural reinforcement, lack of
joint shear reinforcement and inadequate transverse
reinforcement for core confinement. These factors are
inherent in the existing buildings in India. Most
reinforced concrete (RC) buildings in India are framed
constructions with unreinforced masonry infill ranging
from 2 to 8 storeys. Mid rise buildings from 4 to 8
storeys having open ground storey for parking facilities
is a common construction practice in the whole of India.
These buildings have undergone major damage in the
recent earthquakes. Soft storey mechanism of failure is
observed in many of the cases. Therefore, it is very
important to evaluate the capacity of existing RC
buildings against seismic force demand. Therefore, an
accurate estimation of the performance of structure during
an earthquake is crucial for estimating the actual eects of
that earthquake on the existing RC structures.
The primary objective of this work is to study the seismic
response of RC frame building using performance based
seismic evaluation. The effect of earthquake forces on (G
+ 4) storey building with and without the effect of brick
infill for various parameters is proposed to be carried out
with the help of pushover analysis as introduced by ATC40 [3]. The various parameters are percentage of infill
only in outer periphery and effect of soft storey
mechanism on building. The major objectives of the
research work are as follows:
To study performance of frame without the influence

of masonry infill wall panel in Reinforced Concrete
frame structure in terms of deformation.
To study the behavior of frame with brick masonry
infill by modeling masonry infill as a diagonal strut
[4].
Determination of performance point of both models.
Comparison of storey drift ratio, pushover curve for
bare frame and frame with infill idealizations.
Past Studies on Seismic Evaluation of Existing Rc
Buildings Without Brick Masonry Infill.
Agrawal and Chourasia [1] presented the methodology for
estimation of seismic vulnerability of Indian City base on
qualitative and quantitative approach. Based on these
approaches they have only explained the method for
computation of demand capacities ratios for masonry as
well as for RC buildings. Sinha and Goyal [5] presented
the pre-analysis step before going in for detailed analysis,
i.e. Rapid Visual Screening. In this procedure, many
building aspects were utilized for predicting the
approximate vulnerability of existing buildings based on
score assignment. Mwafy and Elnashai [6] presented the
validity and the applicability of this technique, inelastic
static pushover analysis are assessed by comparison with
dynamic pushover idealised envelopes obtained from
incremental dynamic collapse analysis. Lakshmanan [7]
reported the pushover analysis performed on the
representative building using displacement coefficient
method included in FEMA-356. After performing the
148
pushover analysis number of hinge in beam and column

were noted for each performance range and to these,
weightage factor was assigned and vulnerability index
were found out from which good or poor performance of
building elements during earthquake were indicated
which could be useful for further retrofitting strategy.
Lang [8] proposed an evaluation method developed for
seismic risk assessment, within the scope of the
earthquake scenario project for the city of Basel,
Switzerland, in order to determine the seismic
vulnerability of existing buildings.
Table 1: Salient features of the building
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Type of Structure
Zone
Layout
Number of stories
Ground storey height
Floor-to-floor height
External walls
8. Internal walls
Past Studies on Seismic Evaluation of Existing RC

Buildings with Brick Masonry Infill
Singh and Das [9] analyzed three sets of RC buildings- 4
storied, 8 storied and 16 storied, with the effect of brick
masonry infill. The URM masonry was modeled as a
diagonal strut using the expression given by FEMA 356.
Displacement based nonlinear analysis procedure was
adopted using SAP2000 nonlinear analysis software.
Mahmud et al. [10] analyzed the ten storied building with
brick infill panel. Finite Element package ANSYS 5.6
was used for the development of the model. In complete
modeling, BEAM44 3-D Elastic Beam element was used
to represent beams and columns. Korkmaz et al. [11]
studied a 3-storied R/C frame structure with different
amount of masonry infill walls, to investigate the effect of
infill walls on earthquake response of such types of
structures. The diagonal strut approach was adopted for
modeling masonry infill walls. Also, it can be interpreted
from the results that application of infill increases the
axial force carrying capacity of frames. Das and Murty
[12] analyzed five RC frames with brick masonry infill
and designed using EC (8), NBC and Indian seismic code.
The modeling concept of brick infill was developed and
the same concept was utilised in modeling the infill panel
in their companion study. The various concepts of
different codes were also discussed. SAP2000 software
was used for analysis purpose. Kaushik et al. [13] carried
out investigation on improving the strength and stiffness
of open first ground storey. A typical four storey RC
frame was designed and analysis was carried out using
SAP2000 software. Several additional strengthening
schemes were suggested to improve the lateral load
capacity of such buildings.
NUMERICAL PROBLEM
A building is assumed for seismic analysis that consists of
a 5 storied R.C.C. Residential building. The plan of the
building is regular in nature as it has all columns at
unequal spacing. The building is located in Seismic Zone
III and is assume on hard type soil. The building is 17.0 m
in height 37.0 m in length and 13.0m in width.
The important features of this building are shown in
Table 1.
9. Live load
Multi-storey frame
III
As shown in Figure no 1
5(G + 4)
3.0m
3.0 m
plaster
plaster
3.0 kN/m2
10. Materials
11. Seismic analysis
M 20 and Fe 415
Pushover analysis(Nonlinear
static analysis)
12. Design Philosophy
Limit state method

conforming to IS 456 : 2000
230 x 450 mm
13. Size of exterior

column
14. Size of interior column 230x 450 mm
15. Size of beams in
230 x 450 mm
longitudinal and
transverse direction
16. Total thickness of slab 125 mm
PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
Pushover analysis is an approximate analysis method in

which the structure is subjected to monotonically
increasing lateral forces with an invariant height-wise
distribution until a target displacement is reached.
Pushover analysis consists of a series of sequential elastic
analyses, superimposed to approximate a forcedisplacement curve of the overall structure. A two or three
dimensional model which includes bilinear or trilinear
load-deformation diagrams of all lateral force resisting
elements is first created and gravity loads are applied
initially. A predefined lateral load pattern which is
distributed along the building height is then applied. The
lateral forces are increased until some members yield. The
structural model is modified to account for the reduced
stiffness of yielded members and lateral forces are again
increased until additional members yield. The process is
continued until a control displacement at the top of
building reaches a certain level of deformation or
structure becomes unstable. The roof displacement is
plotted with base shear to get the global capacity curve as
shown in figure 1.
Pushover analysis can be performed as force-controlled or
displacement controlled [7].
149
v. The primary elements are identified and plastic hinges

are assigned.
vi. Pushover analysis cases are then defined. The first
case is for dead starting from zero initial conditions
(unstressed state).
vii. Analysis is then run and pushover curves are
obtained.
Fig. 1: Global Capacity (Pushover) Curve of a Structure
Generally, pushover analysis is performed as

displacement-controlled to overcome these problems. In
displacement-controlled procedure, specified drifts are
sought (as in seismic loading) where the magnitude of
applied load is not known in advance. The magnitude of
load combination is increased or decreased as necessary
until the control displacement reaches a specified value.
In displacement control method the target displacement is
considered to be 4% [14].
Fig. 3: Model 1 (Bare Frame)
The internal forces and deformations computed at the

target displacement are used as estimates of inelastic
strength and deformation demands that have to be
compared with available capacities for a performance
check. As graphically presented in Fig.2, the nonlinear
static analysis procedure requires determination of three
primary elements: capacity, demand and performance.
The demand spectrum curve is normally estimated by
reducing the standard elastic 5% damped.
Fig. 4: Model 2 (Frame with Masonry Infill)
Fig. 5: Model 3 (Frame with soft storey)

The three models of the building are analyzed using SAP
2000, the effect of masonry infill in seismic evaluation of
bare frame, frame with infill in outer periphery only and
frame with soft storey is studied. The results obtained
from the analysis performed on 5 storey building for
various parameters are discussed below.
Fig. 2: Nonlinear Analysis Procedure.
Push Over Analysis in SAP2000

The step by step procedure for buildings with rigid floor
diaphragm is as follows:
i. A three dimensional computer model was generated.
ii. Response spectrum analysis was performed for
specified response spectrum.
iii. The calculated the control displacement as 4% of
height of the building.
iv. The rigid floor condition is given to the floors at
different levels.
Inter-Storey Drift Ratios

Building structures under the influence of earthquake
loads, sway back and forth. During the swaying state the
structural members are deformed and member forces and
stresses are induced. If excessive deformation is allowed
in the structure, there would be problems of material
failure during strong ground motions, unacceptable nonstructural damages and discomfort of the occupants even
though the structure remains in the functional state. Thus
the drift limitations are set in all the standards to avoid
problems under serviceability condition.
150
The inter-storey drift ratio, which is a direct measure of

structural response towards the giving ground motion,
was used as one of the output results in this study. It is
defined as the ratio of the difference in drifts between two
adjacent levels and the storey height, given by formula;
Where;
Pushover Curve
Pushover curve is a plot of base shear vs. roof
displacement (V vs. D). It is also known as capacity
curve. This curve gives idea about the base shear induced
in the structure at performance point. The pushover
curves for different models are plotted and are shown in
Fig. 7.
ui= Lateral displacement at ith storey level
10000
ui+1= Lateral displacement at( i+1) storey level
8000
h= Hfive of storey between ith and (i+1) levels
6000
Inter-storey drift ratios were found based on the

maximum roof displacement response and are shown in
Fig. 6 for the three models. The model 1 produces the
maximum inter-storey drift ratio compare to other two
models.
Model - 1
4000
Model - 2
2000
Model - 3
0
0
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Push X
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-0.1-1000 0
Model - 1
Model - 2
Model - 3
0.01
0.02
0.03
Fig. 6: Inter-storey drift ratios for models under

considerations
The consideration of infill reduces inter storey drift

ratio. Only model 2 and 3 satisfied the drift criteria of
0.004h (i.e. 0.004 x 3 = 0.012) as specified by IS: 18932002. The model 3 fails to satisfy the drift criteria as
specified by Indian code. Thus it is concluded that the
models satisfied drift ratio as per IS: 1893-2002 while
considering effect of masonry infill.
Model - 1
Model - 2
Model - 3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Push Y
Fig. 7: Pushover curve for models under considerations
It is observed from the pushover curve, model 2 is having

the maximum base shear capacity of 8638 kN with a
displacement of 72 mm at collapse prevention level (CP)
as compare to model 1 and model 3 respectively.
Table 2: Values of displacement at various levels
Levels
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Model 1
D (mm)
0.121
67.879
134.016
167.491
195.761
237.27
293.546
271.649
V (kN)
0
3078.451
6072.546
7241.648
7758.204
8110.866
8409.025
6234.532
Model 2
D (mm)
1.115
6.364
35.712
69.979
71.321
67.99
151
V (kN)
0
1091.392
6224.354
8590.944
8638.378
7653.521
-
Model 3
D (mm)
0.754
56.794
64.599
78.294
100.733
152.745
152.752
155.394
V (kN)
0
6211.271
6912.678
7575.259
8024.195
8477.263
7142.107
7292.395
Table 2. gives the values for maximum displacement for

various models under consideration. From the results
presented in Table 5.3, for model 1 maximum roof
displacement is found to be 293 mm. In case of model 2
the maximum roof displacement is found to be 72 mm
with a base shear of 8638.37 kN, this shows that when the
same model is considered with infill panels in outer
periphery, structure showed that there is decrease in
displacement and increase in base shear capacity. Model 3
is having maximum displacement of 156 mm with a base
shear of 7292.395 kN. Hence it can be concluded that
from all of the models, model 2 and model 3 shows that
consideration of infill drastically affect the performance
of structure. Thus it is also predicted that, for
improvement of structural ability during earthquake infill
imparts some strength and stiffness to structure which is
helpful in improving the structural performance.
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
SUMMARY
Although from all of the above stated procedures, the
non-linear static analysis procedure is most convergent
procedure for determining the performance of the
building. Using the capacity spectrum method, the
pushover analysis traces the actual failure behavior in the
form of capacity curve. The method is useful in predicting
the seismic performance of the buildings under
consideration.
[10]
[11]
[12]
REFERENCES
[1]
S.Agrawal and A. Chourasia. Methodology for Seismic

Vulnerability Assessment of Building Stock in Mega
Cities, A Workshop on Microzonation Interline
Publishing, Bangalore.
[2]
U. Yazgan. The Use of Post-Earthquake Residual

Displacements as A Performance Indicator in Seismic
Assessment, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU),
2009.
[3]
ATC. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete

buildings. ATC-40 Report, Applied Technology
Council, Redwood City, California, 1, 1996.
[4]
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA 356).

Prestandard and commentary for the seismic
rehabilitation of buildings, A Report, Washington, D.C.,
2000.
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
152
R. Sinha and A. Goyal. A National Policy for Seismic

Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings and Procedure for
Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic
Vulnerability. Department of Civil Engineering Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay, 2011.
A. Mwafy, A. Elnashai. Static pushover versus dynamic
collapse analysis of RC buildings, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College,
Imperial College Road, London SW7 2BU, UK,26 May
2000.
N. Lakshmanan. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting Of
Buildings and Structures. ISET Journal of Earthquake
Technology, Paper No. 469, Vol. 43, No. 1-2, March-June
2006, pp. 31-48.
K. Lang. Seismic vulnerability of existing buildings,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, University
of London, England, 2002.
Y. Singh and D.Das. Effect of URM Infills on Seismic
Performance of RC Frame Buildings. 4th International
Conference on Earthquake Engineering Taipei, Taiwan,
October 12-13, 2006.
K. Mahmud, R. Islam and Al-Amin. Study the
Reinforced Concrete Frame with Brick Masonry Infill due
to Lateral Loads, International Journal of Civil &
Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS, 10(4), 2010.
K.A.Korkmaz, F. Demir and M. Sivri., Earthquake
Assessment of R/C Structures with Masonry Infill Walls,
International Journal of Science & Technology, 2(2),
2007, pp.155-164.
D.Das and C.V.R. Murty. Brick Masonry Infill in
Seismic Design of RC Framed Buildings: Part I- Cost
Implications, The Indian Concrete Journal, August 2004,
pp.39-44.
H.Kaushik, D. Rai and S.Jain, Effectiveness of Some
Strengthening Options for Masonry-Inlled RC Frames
with Open First Story, Journal of Structural Engineering,
135(8), August 1, 2009,pp.925937.
G.Mulgund and A. Kulkarni. Seismic Assessment of RC
Frame Buildings with Brick Masonry Infill, International
Journal of Advanced Engineering Sciences and
Technologies, 2(2), 2011, pp.140 147.
R. Thapaliya. Assessing building vulnerability for
earthquake using field survey and development control
data: A case study in lalitpur sub-metropolitan city. Ph.
D. thesis, Nepal, March 2006.
A. Meher Prasad. Seismic Vulnerability of Existing RC
Buildings in India.13th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 1207, August 1-6,
2004.

Comparing the Empirical Time Period Formula Given in Seismic Code of

Different Countries with Indian Seismic Code IS 1893:2002
Pulkit D. Velani1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
1
MS by Research Scholar, 2Professor of Civil engineering and Head

Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, IIIT-Hyderabad.
Email : 1velani.pulkit@research.iiit.ac.in, 2ramancharla@iiit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Tall building construction is booming in India. There are several earthquake safety issues involved in planning,
designing and constructing these buildings. Some issues related to seismic behaviour are still not resolved even
in developed countries, like USA and Japan. Researchers all over the world are continuously working towards
development of latest techniques for improving earthquake safety of tall building. The situation in India is that
there are few codes which specify guidelines for earthquake resistant design of structures. However, the
guidelines given in this code are useful for regular and relatively small, low-rise buildings. When it comes to tall
buildings, every structure is special, several parameter needed to be considered. One such parameter is T.
Existing empirical natural period equation given in IS 1893 is suitable only for small to medium rise buildings.
There is a serious need for proposing equation for high rise buildings. In this paper an attempt is made to
compare empirical equations for natural period of different countries. Study gives that there is a need to propose
the new time period formula exclusively for Tall structure based on Indian condition.
Keywords Approximate fundamental natural period of vibration, Tall building, Indian seismic code, infill
masonry wall.
INTRODUCTION
Natural period of structure and its mode shape is the basic
property of structure to be known to carry out the design
of building for dynamic loading. In case of seismic design
of building natural period of structure helps in finding out
the base shear to be resisted by structure and mode shape
gives the idea about distribution of base shear at every
storey. At initial stage of design, of any building when
exact size of structural member is not known, the
fundamental time period can be calculated by the
empirical expression suggested by the seismic code of a
country. These are also helpful for performing the check
for detailed design of building. Such expressions are
developed after carrying out the force vibration test on
existing building or recording the response of building in
the actual earthquake event.
Indian seismic code (IS:1893(Part I) - 2002, clause 7.8.1)
recommend us to go for dynamic analysis if height of
regular building is greater than 40m in zone IV and V and
90m in case of building in zone II and III. For irregular
building the upper limit of height of building is restricted
to 12m and 40m for zone IV, V and zone II, III
respectively. According to Indian seismic code, the
fundamental natural period may be estimated by using
empirical expressions or by performing computer
analysis. After advancement of science use of time period
value arrived after doing computer analysis is started
becoming popular for the calculation of design base shear

force. The value arrived by this is not reliable because of
non-availability of accurate modeling of unreinforced
masonry (URM) infill wall in software package which are
used in India as well as around the globe. Accurate
estimation of mass and underestimating the stiffness gives
the higher value of time period which will intern gives the
lower value of design base shear force. In this paper the
building with same plan but with different number of
storeys modeled in ETABS. Time period arrived from
computer analysis is compared with that of the value
calculated based on empirical expression given in various
seismic code.
State of the Art
An early attempt made to correlate measured and
empirical natural period of different types of building
structures showed that the simple expressions involving
the basic geometric dimensions of the buildings give
satisfactory estimates1. Some of the early expressions for
the fundamental natural periods are similar to those found
in the present codes.
Most of the codes will give simple expression to find the
time period formula. Such expressions are related with
building geometry such as height of building (H), Number
of storeys (N), base dimension of building (D). Some of
the expression used in current paper is listed Table 1.
153
Table 1: Expressions for fundamental natural periods adopted by design codes of some countries
Country
Fundamental
Natural Period
(sec)
Australia[9]
(AS 1170.42007)
Canada[10]
(NBCC
2005)
Euro code[11]
(EN 1998-1
2004)
Remarks
kt= Constant depends upon the type of frame
i) For moment resisting frames = 0.11
ii) For moment-resisting concrete frames = 0.075
iii) For eccentrically-braced steel frames = 0.06
iv) For all other structure = 0.05
hn= Height from the base of structure to the uppermost seismic weight or mass, in
meters
NOTE: Values obtained are valid for ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE.
N= Number of storeys. For any moment resisting frame.
hn=Height of building in meters
i) For steel moment frames ( =0.085, x=0.75)
ii) For concrete moment frames( =0.075, x=0.75)
iii) For braced frame( =0.025, x=1)
iv) For shear wall and other structure( =0.05, x=0.75)
NOTE: If a dynamic analysis is used, the resulting T values
shall not be taken greater than 1.5 times that calculated using the empirical
formula for moment resisting frames, and shall not exceed two times that
calculated using the empirical formula for braced frames and shear wall
structures.
H = Height of the building, in m, from foundation or from the top of a rigid
basement.
Ct= 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for moment resistant
space concrete frame and eccentrically braced steel frames. 0.050 for all other
structures.
NOTE: Valid for buildings with heights of up to 40m only.
For structures with concrete or masonry shear walls
Where,
[ (
Japan[12]
(2001)
Taiwan[13]
(2005)
) )]
Where,
Ac is the total effective area of shear wall in the first storey of the building, in m2.
Ai is the effective cross-sectional area of shear wall I in the direction considered in
the first storey of the building, in m2.
lwi is the length of shear wall I in the first storey in the direction parallel to the
applied forces, in m, with the restriction that lwi/H should not exceed 0.98.
NOTE: Valid for buildings with heights of up to 40m only.
d is the lateral elastic displacement of the top of the building, in m, due to the
gravity loads applied in the horizontal direction.
h represents the height of the building in meters.
represents the total height of stories in which the majority of columns and
beams are made of wooden construction or steel construction (excluding the
ground floor) as a ratio of the total building (h).
hn = Height of the building, in m, above the base.
Ct= 0.085 for steel moment-resisting frame,
0.07 for RC or SRC moment-resisting frame and eccentrically braced steel frames.
0.05 for all other structures.
NOTE: Period estimated from dynamic analysis shall not exceed the 1.4 times of
approximate fundamental period.
154
Comparing the Empirical Time Period Formula Given in Seismic Code of Different Countries with Indian Seismic Code
India[8]
(IS: 1893
(Part 1) 2002)
US[14]
(ASCE 710)
h = Height of the building, in m. This excludes the basement storey, where

basement walls are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the
building columns. But, it includes the basement storey, when they are not so
connected.
Ct= 0.085 for steel frame building and 0.075 for RC frame building.
h = Height of the building, in m.
d = Base dimension of the building at the plinth level, in m, along considered
direction of the lateral force.
hn is the structural height
i) Steel moment-resisting frames
Ct= 0.028 and 0.0724 (MKS unit)
x = 0.8
ii) Concrete moment-resisting frames
Ct= 0.016 and 0.0466 (MKS unit)
x = 0.9
iii) Steel eccentrically braced frames and
Steel buckling-restrained braced frames
Ct= 0.03 and 0.0731 (MKS unit)
x = 0.75
iv) All other structural systems
Ct= 0.02 and 0.0488 (MKS unit)
x = 0.75
N= Number of stories above the base
NOTE: Applicable to structures not exceeding 12 stories above the base and
where the seismic force-resisting system consists entirely of concrete or steel
moment resisting frames and the average storey height is at least 10ft(3 m)
hn is the structural height
)
[
( ) ]
Where,
AB= Area of base of structure, ft2
Ai= Web area of shear wall I in ft2
Di = Length of shear wall i in ft
hi = height of shear wall i in ft
x = number of shear walls in the building effective in resisting lateral forces in the
direction under consideration
NOTE: Applicable for masonry or concrete shear wall structures.
In general the expression used in seismic codes across the
world can be classified in to following forms,
does not come into the picture. Other than expression

stated above one of the most basic expression suggested
in many codes, which is based on Rayleigh method, is
(a)
(b)
Where h is the height of structure and d is base lateral
dimension of the structure in the direction of vibration. C,
a, x and y are constants comes after regression analysis.
One of the most popular equation is
(c)
Where N indicates the number of storeys of the building.
The major drawback of this formula is change in the
stiffness that arrived due to change in floor to floor height
)
(
(d)
Wi is the seismic weight at level i, Fi is the displacing

force acting at i level causing horizontal displacement di
of the center of mass generally ignoring the effects of
torsion.
Experimental observations made in Japan reiterated that
the properties of walls in buildings, apart from the height
and base dimensions of the building, significantly
influence the natural period of the buildings. The overall
155
distribution of the walls within the building plan also

influences the period of vibration4 5.
Study carried out in India also shows that analytical
modeling approach does not accurately estimate the
fundamental lateral natural period. Comparison of
Ambient vibration study with analytical modeling
concludes that area of infill walls in the ground storey
needs to be brought in as a parameter in the empirical
expression for fundamental natural period[7].
US code and Canadian code have check on time period
arrived from numerical analysis. This limit prevents the
use of an unusually low base shear for design of structure.
Numerical Study
The modulus of elasticity of brick masonry is used as per

equation (f)6. fm is the compressive strength of brick
masonry. The material property used in model is listed in
Table 2.
(f)
The floors are assumed to act as rigid floor diaphragms.
The compressive strength of brick is assumed as 7.5 MPa.
The external walls are of 230mm thick and parapet wall
of being same thickness with 1m height. It is assumed that
150mm internal brick wall will rest on every interior
beam of each typical floor. A crude assumption of wall
without opening is made in this study.
Geometry and General Description

In the present study a commercial reinforced concrete
building of 5, 10, 15 and 20 storey has been taken in to
consideration (Fig. 2). Building is simple rectangular
having
plan
dimension
as
25mx16m
(
Fig. 1). Buildings have 5 bays of 5m in longitudinal

direction and 4 numbers of 4m bays in transverse
direction. The plan of building is kept same and the
structural analysis of building is carried out in ETBAS.
This program is especially intended for buildings,
particularly those with infill or structural walls and rigid
floor diaphragms. The imposed load on typical floor is
considered as 2.5kN/m2 and 1.5 kN/m2 considered for
roof slab. The uniform dead load due to waterproofing
material on roof top is assumed to be 1.2 kN/m2 whereas
for typical floor load due to floor finish is assumed to be 1
kN/m2. Water tank load is not considered in design.
(e)
Table 2: Material property used in Modeling of building
Material Type
Reinforced
concrete (M25)
Reinforced
concrete (M40)
Brick masonry
Modulus of
elasticity
MPa
Poissons
ratio
Unit
mass,
Kg/m3
25,000
0.2
2,548.54
31,622.78
0.2
2,548.54
2,572.5
0.15
2,039.4
The reinforced buildings with brick infill wall consist of

150mm slab resting on beams of 350mmx275mm in both
the direction. The various columns of different cross
section
ranging
between
300mmx350mm
to
750mmx700mm have been used. The height of plinth
level is 2m above the foundation level where base shear is
acting. All the foundations are assumed to have fix
support at the base.
All the buildings as bare frame are also modeled (Fig. 2
(b)). The wall loads are applied on beam and analysis is
carried out.
Material Property
For all types of buildings, except for 20 storey, M25 grade
of concrete has been used for all the structural elements.
Grade of concrete for columns in 20 storey building has
been kept M40 to get reduced size of column. The elastic
modulus for concrete is taken corresponding to its grade
of concrete as per the equation (e) given in IS 456:2000.
Where fck is the 28 days characteristic compressive
strength of concrete in MPa.
156
Fig. 1: Typical floor plan of building
Table 3: Time period value as per different codal provision for Bare Frame
Number of
storeys
5
10
15
20
Time period (sec)

ETABS
(Bare)
1.629
2.507
3.487
4.548
Australia
Canada
Euro code
India
Japan
Taiwan
US
0.785
1.261
1.683
2.071
0.628
1.009
1.346
1.657
0.628
1.009
1.346
1.657
0.628
1.009
1.346
1.657
0.340
0.640
0.940
1.240
0.586
0.942
1.257
1.547
0.597
1.054
1.490
1.912
Table 4: Percentage difference of Time period between Indian code and other seismic code (Bare frame)
Number of storeys
5
10
15
20
ETABS(Infill)
159.43
148.45
159.01
174.45
Difference of time period (percentage)

Australia
Canada
Euro code
Japan
25.00
0.00
0.00
-45.85
25.00
0.00
0.00
-36.58
25.00
0.00
0.00
-30.18
25.00
0.00
0.00
-25.17
Taiwan
-6.67
-6.67
-6.67
-6.67
US
-4.96
4.50
10.70
15.39
Table 5: Time period value as per different codal provision for Infill frame
Number of
storeys
5
10
15
20
ETABS
0.511
0.558
0.729
0.932
Australia
0.523
0.841
1.122
1.381
Time period (sec)

Canada
Euro code
0.419
0.260
0.673
0.474
0.898
0.661
1.105
0.831
India
0.306
0.576
0.846
1.116
Japan
0.340
0.640
0.940
1.240
Taiwan
0.419
0.673
0.898
1.105
structure. This indicates the overestimation of flexibility

of structural system (by neglecting stiffness of nonstructural element like brick infill wall) computed in
computer analysis there by underestimation of base shear.
(a)
In case of empirical expression given in various codes the

Australian code gives the highest value with uniform
difference 25% higher than that of Indian seismic code.
This is because Australian code gives time period value
for Ultimate Limit state. For 5 storey building time period
arrived by US codal provision is 4.96% lesser whereas for
20 storey it gives 15.39% higher value than that of Indian
code. Taiwan gives difference of 6.67% lesser than Indian
provision irrespective of number of storeys. Japanese
expression gives least value among all codes with
difference of 45.85% for 5 storey which get reduce to
25.17% for 20 storey building.
(b)
Fig. 2: 3D view of buildings modeled in ETABS (a- Infill
frame, b- Bare frame)

The computer analysis results and the values arrived from
time period empirical expressions are listed in Table 3 for
bare frame and in for Infill frame.
Bare Frame
The Indian, European and Canadian code has same
expression in the form of CHx. For bare frame ETABS
gives highest value among all other values. It has
difference of 159.43% than Indian seismic codal for 5
storey, this difference get increase as increase in number
of storeys and found to be 174.45% more for 20 storey
Infill Frame
Euro code gives minimum value for time period for given
number of storeys. Table 5 shows the percentage
difference of time period between Indian seismic code
and other seismic code. Japanese code gives 11.11% more
value than Indian seismic code, this difference is
independent of number of storeys. Taiwan and Canadian
code have same formula which shows difference of
36.8% value for 5 storey building which decreases to
1.01% for 20 storey building when compared to Indian
code. Australian code gives difference of 23.74% higher
157
Table 6: Percentage difference of Time period between Indian code and other seismic code (Infill frame)
Number of storeys
5
10
15
20
Difference of time period (percentage)

Australia
Canada
Euro code
71.00
36.80
-15.19
45.99
16.79
-17.63
32.61
6.09
-21.87
23.74
-1.01
-25.55
ETABS(Infill)
66.99
-3.12
-13.83
-16.49
US
Australia
Euro code
India
Japan
Taiwan
ETABS
Canada
ETABS
Australia
Taiwan
US
210.00
180.00
150.00
120.00
90.00
60.00
30.00
0.00
-30.00 5
-60.00
Percentage diffrence
value for 20 storey and 71% more value for 5 storey

building. ETABS value varies as number of storeys get
change. It shows a 67% higher value for 5 storey building
and decrease value of 3.12%, 13.83% and 16.49% for 10,
15 and 20 storey buildings. Assumption made in
modeling plays a very vital role so at most care should be
taken while modeling of any structure. The numerical
analysis result depends upon the frame mechanism,
detailing and foundation (soil) rigidity.
Japan
11.11
11.11
11.11
11.11
Taiwan
36.80
16.79
6.09
-1.01
Japan
10
15
20
Number of storeys
ETABS
Japan
3.00
1.00
0.00
5
10
15
Number of storeys
20
Fig. 3: Number of storeys vs. Time period (Bare frame)

Australia
Euro code
India
Canada
Taiwan
Japan
Taiwan
ETABS
70.00
20.00
5
10
15
20
-30.00
Number of storeys
(b)
Fig. 5: Percentage difference in Time period
(a - Bare, b - Infill Frame)
Canada
1.50
Time period (sec)
Australia
Eurocode
2.00
Pecentage diffrence
Time period (sec)
(a)
4.00
CONCLUSION
1.00
0.50
0.00
5
10
15
Number of storeys
20
Fig. 4: Number of storey vs. Time period (Frame with infill)
Construction of tall buildings in India is on rise.

Empirical natural period formula given in IS 1893 (Part I)
is insufficient for calculating T of tall buildings. There is
a need to propose new expression exclusively for tall
structure based on forced vibration or ambient vibration
studies. In this paper study has been conducted to find out
the T of various countries and compare the same with
natural period obtained by numerical modeling.
Numerical analysis for bare frame shows much more
difference than infill wall modeling when it compared to
empirical formula.
158
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Housner, G. W., and Brady, A.G., (1963), Natural

Periods of Vibration of Buildings, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, Engineering
Mechanics Division, Vol.89, No.EM4, pp 31-65.
Goel, R. K. and Chopra, A. K. (1997). Period formulas for
moment-resisting frame buildings. Journal of Structural
Engineering 123: 11, 1454-1461.
Goel, R. K. and Chopra, A. K. (1998). Period formulas for
concrete shear wall buildings. Journal of Structural
Engineering 124: 4, 426-433.
Tekeuchi,M.,(1960), vibrational characteristics of
Buildings: Part I, Second World conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, japan, pp 961-972.
Tekeuchi,M., and Nakagawa,K.,(1960), vibrational
characteristics of Buildings: Part II, Second World
conference on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, japan, pp
973-982.
Dayaratnam,P., Brick and Reinforced Brick Structures,
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., 1987, New Delhi.
Arlekar,J.N., Ambient vibration survey of reinforced
concrete frame buildings with unreinforced brick masonry
infills, Master of Technology Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, 1997.
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
159
Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design

of Structures part 1 General Provisions and Buildings
(fifth revision), IS: 1893(Part 1) 2002, Bureau of Indian
standards, New Delhi.
Australian Standard Structural Design actions Part 4:
Earthquake actions in Australia, AS 1170.4-2007,
Standards Australia, Sydney.
National Building Code of Canada, 2005, Canadian
Commission on Building and Fire Codes and National
Research Council of Canada.
European Standard Eurocode 8: Design of structures for
earthquake resistance Part 1: General rules, seismic
actions and rules for buildings, BS EN 1998-1:2004,
European committee for standardization.
The building standard law of Japan, Ministry of land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2001.
Seismic Design Code for Buildings in Taiwan, 2005,
Construction and Planning Agency, Ministry of the
Interior, R.O.C.
ASCE Standards Minimum Design loads for Buildings
and Other structures, ASCE/SEI 7-10, 2010, American
Society of Civil Engineers Virginia.


A. Mukherjee1 and S.B. Patil2
1
PG Student, 2Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Airoli, Navi Mumbai.
Email: 1abj_muk@yahoo.com, 2sbpatil_2009@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Elevated storage reservoirs have heavy mass lumped at the top, just like an inverted pendulum and hence,
vulnerable to damage against earthquake motions. These structures must be analyzed for the lateral forces i.e.
wind or earthquake and designed for whichever is critical. Circular base slab analysis is carried out for all
Do/D ratios. From this entire analysis (i.e. circular slab analysis, wind analysis and earthquake analysis) the
optimum Do/D ratio is selected for design. Then the elevated storage reservoir is designed for that Do/D ratio. It
is also observed that the horizontal forces have a major effect on the design of the elevated storage reservoir.
Keywords Elevated reservoir, Circular base slab, Do/D ratio, Base shear, Wind speed, Radial moment.
INTRODUCTION
Past history says that, many storage reservoirs have failed

or there service life has reduced during the earthquake
because of improper analysis, design and present
engineering practices. This should not happen as water
reservoirs are an important public utility structure, since it
forms an essential part of the water distribution system,
which is the life line facility that must remain functional
following any natural calamity. Most municipalities in our
country depend on water tanks to cater to the needs of the
society.
Extensive research work has been carried out in the field

of elevated storage reservoirs. Many papers and reports
are reviewed and from that a brief summary of the most
significant papers pertaining to the study of elevated
service reservoirs are presented.
These structures have heavy mass lumped at the top and

hence, vulnerable to damage against earthquake motions.
During the 30 September 1993, Killari earthquake and 26
January 2001, Bhuj earthquake large number of water
tower structures were severely damaged. This has
developed an active interest in the field so as to
rationalize the ideas of the dynamic behavior of water
tanks with particular reference to earthquake effects on
them.
Many water tanks have failed due to damage to the
staging of elevated water tanks in Bihar-Nepal earthquake
of August 1988 also. Therefore all structures must be
designed for the lateral forces i.e. wind or earthquake
whichever is critical.
The supporting structures may be of two types i.e. framed
type and Shaft type. The framed type structures are more
stable as they are more indeterminate and there seismic
energy absorption capacity through inelastic action is
better than shaft type structure. The framed type
structures do not collapse suddenly as they have many
flexural members to distribute lateral load.
Housner (1963) has given simplified formulae to calculate

earthquake forces for a water tank considering it as a twomass system. Housner (1963) investigated rigid
cylindrical thanks fixed to the base for seismic forces. he
concluded that the liquid composes of two separate
components,(1)impulsive component and (2) convective
component. ASCE (1976) gives the primary structural
problems occurs because of the lateral force and the
resulting bending moment and overturning effects.
Haroun and Housner. (1980) presented dynamic analysis
of liquid storage tank in three context first theoretical
formulation for liquid shell system, second experimental
investigation for full scale tank model, at last detailed
improved design procedure. Jain and Sameer (1990) has
given provisions pertaining to a seismic design of
elevated water towers and several suggestions given for
making these more rational. The design seismic force for
the water tank depends on its flexibility and hence on the
time period.
Jain and Sameer (1990) presented the study of seismic
analysis and design of R.C frame type elevated tank and
finding are; it gives less lateral force but SDOF system
with response reduction factor in between 2.5 to 3.5,
which yields into more reliable solution. Sajjad and Jain
(1994) proposed an approximate procedure for lateral
force analysis of frame staging for elevated water tanks.
MacRae (1994) has given P- effect on single degree of
160
freedom structure in earthquake. Ingle (1997) deals with

the analysis of elevated water towers, having rectangular
configuration, for use in earthquake resistant design.
Malhotra (2000) has given simplified formulae to
calculate time period of the tank supported on ground.
This paper takes into account the impulsive and sloshing
masses for steel as well as concrete tanks. Yin Zhou, et al.
(2000) presented wind load calculation using various
codes and standards. The comparison in this study
considers the definition of wind characteristics, mean
wind loads, turbulence intensity profile, GLF and
equivalents static wind loads.
Dutta, Jain, Murthy (2002) has done assessment of the
seismic and torsion vulnerability of elevated tanks with
RC frame-type staging. Elevated water tanks have failed
during past earthquakes (e.g. 1952 Kern County
earthquake) owing to large torsion response. Prakash Rao
(2002) has given detailing of water contact structures. The
performance of concrete structures depends not only on
the material quality and construction but on its
configuration, and also on detailing of the reinforcement
besides analysis and design procedure. Munshi and
Legator. (2003) presented seismic design of liquid
containing structure as per ACI standard provisions. The
detailed and step by step procedure is given to evaluation
hydrodynamic force.
IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for design of liquid storage
tanks (2007), Liquid storage tanks are commonly used in
industries for storing chemicals, petroleum products, etc.
and for storage water in public water distribution systems.
Importance of ensuring safety of such tanks against
seismic loads cannot be overemphasized. IS 1893:1984
had some very limited provisions on seismic design of
elevated tanks. Also, the code does not cover groundsupported tanks. Ingle and Kulkarni (2007) has given
staging design aspect of RCC water towers for limiting
drift. I.S:456-1978 only suggests that final design forces
shall only include the effect of deformation i.e. P- effect,
which depends on the storey drifts and gravity loads.
Herndez et al. (2009) presented the procedure to evaluate
along wind response of prismatic structure using various
standard provisions. Dobson (2010) gives a brief
overview of P- delta analysis as many Engineers today
typically use linear elastic static (first order) analysis to
determine design forces and moments resulting from
loads acting on a structure. Jain, (2010) has given
guidelines for use of new IS 3370 (Part I & II) -2009 with
emphasize on limit state design of aqueous liquid storage
tank. Liquid load is treaded as dead load as per code but it
cant be always DL, it will be IL for limit state of
serviceability. Phanisri and Menon (2011) worked on
optimization of cylindrical water resting on ground with
height (H) and depth (D) as variables. Also comparative
study between limit state design and working stress
design for water tank is conducted.
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
In the present work, the analysis of container and staging
that include the analysis of circular slab, wind analysis
and earthquake analysis. The study aims at evaluating the
effect of different diameter of supporting tower on the
response of ESR. For this purpose the details of which are
given below:
RC circular elevated water tanks of 50m3 capacities.
With four column staging configuration.
Tank diameter(D) as 4.6m
Diameter of supporting tower (Do) as 3.91 m
Water height as 3.0 m
Freeboard is 0.3m for seismic loads for 12 m staging
height with panel height of 3m
Tank is assumed to be designed for zone II located on
medium soils
Assume grade of concrete M-25 and grade of steel
Fe 415
Size of top beam 0.3 0.5 m, sizes of braces
0.3 0.4 m
Sizes of circular column 0.45 m dia, square column
0.4 0.4m
Do/D ratio 0.85
Fig. 1: Plan and elevation of ESR
The circular elevated storage reservoir basically consists

of two parts- one part is container and the second one,
staging. The container is analyzed in two parts, i.e., tank
wall and base slab. The tank wall is designed for
maximum hoop tension and maximum bending moment,
checked for maximum tensile stress which is governed by
the thickness of wall. The base slab is designed for
maximum bending moment. The staging element is
analyzed and designed for maximum bending moment,
maximum shear force and maximum axial forces in
members for wind and earthquake load cases.
161
Table 1: The radial and circumferential moments for Do/D ratios
Do/D
Do(m)
D(m)
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
2.76
2.99
3.25
3.45
3.68
3.91
4.14
4.37
4.60
r=0
-27.76
-19.38
-10.14
-3.33
4.45
12.12
19.72
27.27
34.80
final Mr(kN-m)
r=b
-40.29
-34.08
-27.53
-22.91
-17.83
-13.03
-8.47
-4.14
0.00
r=a
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
r=0
-27.76
-19.38
-10.14
-3.33
4.45
12.12
19.72
27.27
34.80
final M (kN-m)
r=b
-31.93
-24.28
-15.93
-9.86
-2.98
3.74
10.32
16.80
23.20
r=a
-24.99
-20.28
-14.46
-9.74
-3.90
2.31
8.90
15.86
23.20
Table 2: Wind forces (kN) on circular/square column for different Do/D ratio
Do/D
D (m)
Do(m)
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
2.76
2.99
3.25
3.45
3.68
3.91
4.14
4.37
4.60
Circular column
Container
Staging
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
7.06
7.16
7.27
7.36
7.46
7.56
7.66
7.76
7.86
The mathematical model required the dimension of the

container, i.e., H/D ratio and position of supporting tower
according to base slab, i.e., Do/D ratio. The container
dimensions (H/D) is constant whereas the dimensions of
supporting tower, i.e. Do, changes. The Do/D ratio ranges
between 0.6 - 1.0 at 0.5 intervals. The analysis and design
of base slab depends upon the range of Do/D ratio which
governs the bending moment in the base slab and hence,
aims at the economical design of base slab. For this,
different Do/D ratio of ESR analysis is done for circular
slab analysis, wind effect and earthquake effect.
CIRCULAR SLAB ANALYSIS
The behaviour of the circular slab in water tank is
different from the rectangular slab where bending takes
place in two perpendicular directions along the two spans.
However, when the circular slab- simply supported at the
edge- is loaded with uniformly distributed load, it bends
in the form of disc, due to which stresses are developed
both in radial as well as the in circumferential direction.
These moments are calculated for Do/D range 0.6-1.0.
The radial and circumferential moment in slab for
different Do/D ratio are shown in Table 1.
Square column
Container
Staging
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
14.97
12.81
13.01
13.24
13.41
13.61
13.81
14.01
14.21
14.41
For the values of moments at various sections throughout

the slab shown in Table 3, the radial moment (Mr) is
found to be zero at the outer edge, i.e., for r = a. Whereas,
the radial moment is staging, i.e., for r = b, is hogging for
all values of Do/D ratios indicating tension occurs at the
water face. The radial moment is hogging throughout the
slab corresponding to Do/D ratio values of 0.6- 0.75.
Along similar lines, the circumferential moment (M) is
hogging throughout the slab for the Do/D values ranging
from 0.6-0.85. For the range of Do/D from 0.85-1.00, the
circumferential moment is sagging throughout the slab.
The sagging moment is indicates the induction of tension
in the bottom of the slab. That means the chances of
leakage are minimum.
WIND EFFECT ANALYSIS
Wind analysis is carried out on the basis of geometrical
parameters of ESR. The wind forces are calculated for
circular column section and square column section. Other
geometrical parameters remain same for both the column
sections. IS 875-1987 gives the complete guideline for
wind analysis on elevated storage tank or for that reason
any structure. A wind force is calculated for Do/D ratio
range 0.6-1.0. All ranges sizes of container are same but
162
staging diameter is change according to their different

Do/D ratios. The wind forces on either columns- circular
and square- for different Do/D ratio are shown in Table 2.
From the values of the wind forces depicted in Table 2, it
is seen that the wind force for circular and square column
container remains same. In case of square column, the
wind force multiplication factor on staging is double as
compared to that observed in case of circular column. The
base moment and force in column is high for staging with
square column as compared to that in circular column.
However, the wind speed is same for either column
staging.
EARTHQUAKE EFFECT ANALYSIS
CONCLUSIONS
Some of the prominent conclusions deduced from the
analysis presented in this study are summarized below.
The effect of horizontal forces on ESR depends on
geometrical parameter of container (H/D ratio) and
staging (Do/D ratio).
Diameter of staging and container affects the bending
moment in base slab at different locations.
Analysis of staging is mostly governed by the
horizontal forces due to wind and earthquakes.
The value of Do/D ratio of 0.8 gives the minimum
radial and circumferential moment in base slab.
Earthquake analysis is performed on the basis model of

ESR and topographical condition of ground. In
earthquake analysis single force is calculated on structure,
i.e., base shear. The methodology for calculating base
shear is given in IS: 1983 - 2002. The base shear is
calculated for empty condition and full condition for
different Do/D ratio ranging 0.6-1.0. The earthquake
forces on empty tank and full condition for different Do/D
ratio is shown in Table 3.
The magnitude of wind forces depends upon shape

factor and effective area of member. It also depends
upon the position of braces, column and top beam.
From the values of base shear shown in Table 3, it is

observed that the base shear depends upon the seismic
weight and time period of structure and these changes due
to different Do/D ratios. The base shear for tank full
condition is found to increase by 85-90% as compared to
that in tank empty condition. This is because the seismic
weight of water is added in tank full condition. The
design horizontal seismic coefficient (Ah) is same for tank
empty and tank full conditions because of the zone factor,
importance factor, response reduction factor and average
response acceleration coefficient is same for both the
cases.
REFERENCES
The base shear for tank full condition is on higher side

by 85-90% as compared to that obtained for tank
empty condition.
The optimum design moment are found to be in the
range of 0.8 to 0.9 values of Do/D ratio.
[1]
IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for Seismic Design of Liquid

Storage Tanks, 2005, IIT Kanpur, India
[2]
Simple Procedure for Seismic Analysis of Liquid-Storage

Tanks, Structural Engineering International 3/2000
Reports 197.
[3]
Performance of elevated tanks in Mw 7.7 bhuj

earthquake of January 26 th 2011, dept of civil Engg, IIT,
Kanpur 208016 India.
[4]
An Explanatory hand book on IS 875(part 3 ):1987, wind

load on building and structure, dept of civil Engg, IIT
roorkee India.
Table 3: Earthquake forces on tank empty/full condition for

different Do/D ratio.
[5]
Review of code provision on design seismic forces for

liquid storage tanks, dept of civil Engg. IIT, Kanpur.
Tank Empty
Condition
Base
Base
Shear Moment
34.27
474.70
34.40
476.41
34.54
478.37
34.65
479.85
34.77
481.56
34.90
483.30
35.02
485.01
35.14
486.73
35.27
488.45
[6]
Review of code provision on seismic analysis of liquid

storage tank, dept of civil Engg. IIT, Kanpur.
[7]
Plain And Reinforced Concrete (volume I & II ), Jai

Krishna & O. P. Jain, nemchand and bros.publication.
[8]
Reinforced Concrete Structure (volume I & II ), Dr.

B.C.Punmia, standard publishers distributors.
[9]
For Plain Reinforced Concrete Structure IS 456-2000,

BIS, new Delhi, India.
Do/ D
D (m)
Do
(m)
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
2.76
2.99
3.25
3.45
3.68
3.91
4.14
4.37
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.60
Tank Full
Condition
Base
Base
Shear Moment
64.18 888.93
64.31 890.65
64.45 892.61
64.55 894.09
64.68 895.81
64.80 897.53
64.93 899.25
65.05 900.97
65.18 902.70
[10] Criteria for Earthquake Resistance Design of Structure,

IS: 1893-2002(Part 1), BIS, New Delhi, India.
[11] Concrete Structure for Storage of Liquids- Code of
Practice, general requirements, IS 3370 (part 1): 2009,
BIS, New Delhi, India.
[12] Concrete Structure for Storage of Liquids- Code of
Practice, reinforced concrete structures, IS 3370 (part 2):
2009, BIS, New Delhi, India.
163
[13] Code of Practice for Concrete Structure for the Storage of
Liquids, design tables, IS 3370 (part 4): 1967, BIS, New
Delhi, India.
[14] Code of practice for design loads for building and
structures, wind load, IS 875 - 1987 Part 3, BIS, New
Delhi, India.
[15] G. W. Housner, Dynamic Analysis of Fluids in
Containers Subjected to accelerations, ASCE Technical
Seminar on Seismic Design Today- State-of art
Applications, January 25-26, 1980, Los Angeles,
California.
[16] G. W. Housner, The Dynamic Behavior of Water Tanks,
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol.53,
No.2, pp.381-387, Feb1963.
[17] Jai Krishna & Jain, O.P, Plain and Reinforced Concrete
(Volume-I), Nem Chand and Bros. Publications.
[18] Praveen K. Malhotra, Thomas Wenk, Martin Wieland,

Simple Procedure for Seismic Analysis of Liquid- Storage
Tanks, Structural Engineering International, 3/2000.
[19] R. K. Ingle, Time Period of Elevated Water Tower, The
Indian Concrete Journal, September 1997, 497-499.
[20] S.C. Dutta, S. K. Jain, C. V. R. Murty, Assessing the
seismic torsional vulnerability of elevated tanks with RC
frame-type staging, Soil dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, 19 (2002), 183-197.
[21] S.K. Jain, U.S. Sameer, Seismic Design of Frame Staging
for Elevated Water Tanks, Ninth Symposium on
Earthquake Engineering, Roorkee, December 14- 16,
1990, Vol.1.
[22] Dr. B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain and Jain Arun Kumar
Comprehensive RCC Design, Laxmi Publications.
[23] D. S. Prakash Rao, Detailing Of Water Contact Structures,
The Masterbuilder, Oct-Dec 2002.
164
Water Resources Management

Geospatial Based Watershed Planning and Impact Assessment of

Mahendragarh Watershed in Bhilwar District of Rajasthan State
T. Phanidra Kumar, P. Kesava Rao, V. Madhava Rao and DSR Murthy
Centre on Geoinformatics Application in Rural Development(CGARD),
National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Critical land resource parameters like soil, water, flora and fauna are crucial which, influence the basic survival
of human beings by supporting food production and providing a congenial living environment. As anthropogenic
and natural forces impact the landscape, resource agencies find it increasingly important to monitor and assess
these alterations. Changes in vegetation affect wildlife habitat, fire conditions, aesthetic and historical values
and ambient air quality. These changes, in turn, influence management and policy decisions.
Concern for environment has become paramount in todays perspective as so much is changing so fast and
watershed identification and planning could be one of the prime mover in this direction for judicious
environmental planning. The watershed protection Approach could prove to be a strategy for effectively
protecting and restoring aquatic ecosystem and protecting human health. This strategy has its premise that many
water quality and ecosystem problem are best solved at the watershed level rather than at the individual water
body or discharge level. The targeting priority problems, a high level of state holder involvement, integrated
solutions that make use of multiple agencies, and measuring success through monitoring and other data
gathering integrate into the watershed protection.
The analysis, protection, repair, utilization and maintenance of drainage basin for optimum control and
conservation of water with due regard to other resources primarily covers watershed management. Further
watershed projects have different objectives depending on the perceived natural resource management problem
in a given area, namely in hilly, semi-arid areas, the focus is on water harvesting, or trapping runoff during the
rainy season for later use when water is scarce, where as, in flatter areas with less opportunity for water
harvesting, it is more about concentrating soil moisture to raise rainfed agricultural productivity. Watershed
management is a landscape-based strategy that aims to implement improved natural resource management
systems for improving livelihoods and promoting beneficial conservation, sustainable use, and management of
natural resources. Remote sensing and GIS techniques are being widely used for the inventory of natural
resources such as hydrogeomorphology, soils, and land use in watersheds and to generate action plans.
The applicability of geospatial technology tool in various facets of environment are necessitated, for
environmental impact assessment in the assessment of positive or negative impact of a project may have on the
environment, both natural, social and economic aspects. The assessment ensures decision makers consider the
ensuing environmental impacts when deciding whether to proceed with a project or make any modifications in
the proposals. Geospatial based change detection in watersheds helps in enhancing the capacity of local
governments to implement sound environmental management. Change detection is the measure of the distinct
data framework and thematic change information that can guide to more tangible insights into underlying
process involving land cover and land use changes than the information obtained from continuous change. This
involved development of spatial and temporal database and analysis techniques. Integrated use of GIS, Remote
Sensing and Image processing technologies enable us to cope with the objectives of change detection. A common
observation has been thatmost of the changes of ecosystems happens on earth is in close proximity of human
inhabitations.
Keywords Land Use Planning, classification, NDVI, Change Detection, Ground Water, Slope, Contours etc.,
INTRODUCTION
Soil, water, flora and fauna are the important land
resources, which together influence in the survival of
human beings by supporting food production and

providing a congenial living environment. Land resources
are being exploited faster than they are renewed, as a
result ecosystems are degraded, life support processes are
167
threatened and biodiversity, being the key factor in

maintaining biospheric resilience is decreasing at an
alarming rate. Watershed is defined as a natural unit of
land upon which water from direct precipitation,
snowmelt and other storage collects in a (usually surface)
channel and flows down hill to a common outlet at which
the water enters another water body such as stream, river,
wetland, lake or the ocean. Watershed management is
defined as the analysis, protection, repair, utilization and
maintenance of drainage basin (watershed) for optimum
control and conservation of water with due regard to other
resources. Watershed development is carried out to:
rehabilitate the watershed though proper land use and
conservation measures in order to minimize erosion;
reduce the damage caused by sedimentation to the
multipurpose reservoir; develop the watersheds crop,
livestock, forestry, fish culture and recreational activities;
ensure that the watershed provides water of the highest
quality for municipal uses; and manage the watershed in
order to minimize natural disasters such as floods,
drought and landslides, etc. The objectives of watershed
development can be achieved through a well-defined
planning process. Planning is a means of making
decisions concerning future action. When the action is
targeted on the land use or management, it is referred to a
geo-spatial planning. The geo-spatial planning in needed
from national level to the grass root level. The inventory
of land resources to evaluate the watershed for its
potentials and problems is a pre-requisite for watershed
planning. The remote sensing technology has immense
potential to meet the challenges of land resource
management which is evident from the improved
capabilities of the current satellite sensors and more so
from the future missions. It is necessary to periodically
evaluate the current status of application in all spheres so
as to apprise the users about the potentials, and at the
same time, provide a feed back to the sensor designers
about the gaps in meeting the user demands. Information
about change is necessary for updating land cover maps
and the management of natural resources. The
information may be obtained by visiting sites on the
ground and/ or extracting it from remotely sensed data.
For many of the physical and cultural features on the
landscape there are optimal time periods during which
these features may best be observed. Remotely sensed
data acquired at the fixed time interval becomes an
important factor. Change detected from different temporal
images usually reflect natural and human activity impact
each other and then can be used to study how to form the
regional geographic feature. Integrated use of GIS,
Remote Sensing and Image processing technologies
enable us to cope with the objectives of change detection
to study the impact of watershed programmes on the
environment.
LOCATION AND EXTENT
The study area comprises, Mahendragarh Watershed of
Bhilwara District, Rajasthan, which spreads over an area
of 7500 ha. These area lies geographically between the 25

o2530 N to 25 o3230 N Latitude and 74 o2700 E to
74 o3500 E Longitude and falls in Survey of India
Toposheets Nos. 45 K/6, 45 K/7, 45K/10 and 45K/11
West scale 1:50000 published in 1971.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ARE
The main objective of the present study is to generate
information/databases on 1:10,000 scale pertaining to
Drainage, surface water bodies, watershed, transport
network, Land Use Land Cover, hydrogeomorphology,
Slope, Soil and its related parameters like soil depth,
Water depth, Gravelliness etc. using multi-temporal
satellite data. These databases are converted in to digital
form for future analysis and utilization and to prepare
location specific land and water resources development
plans, by integrating with socio-economic data and
contemporary technology in the GIS environment such
that control of soil & moisture conservation and land
degradation, optimal management of croplands and
conservation and management of land and water
resources can be achieved. The study is also aimed at
studying the changes in the watershed before and after the
implementation of the project. To achieve this change
detection was done for different temporal data.
Methodology and Analytical Framework
The following methodology is adopted in the present
study to meet the above mentioned objectives. The base
map is generated at 1:25,000 scale from the SOI
Toposheet. The thematic layers like LULC, Hydro
geomorphology, Soil, Slope etc are generated using the
IRS P6 LISS IV images and Cartisat-I Data. Taking the
SOI Toposheets as source, the thematic layers like
drainage and contours are prepared at 1:25,000 scales.
The slope map is derived using Survey of India
topographical sheets at 1:25000 scale with 10 meter
contour interval. The rainfall and temperature data and
other collateral data of the study area are collected and is
integrated in the GIS Domain. The DEM (Digital
Elevation Model) is generated from the contours. The soil
map is taken as the base for integration. A scheme for
thematic data integration and recommendation for various
combinations of land parameters was evolved by
observations in the field. Following the scheme of data
integration, action plan maps were generated giving
suitable site - specific recommendations for alternate land
use and water conservation measures. To study the impact
of the watershed programme change detection was carried
out for different temporal data sets to analyse the extent
and density and type of vegetation and the vegetation
growth, the integrated use of GIS and Remote Sensing
and Digital Image Processing techniques were used for
the study. The study was carried out specifically for the
years, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006 and 2007.
168
Geospatial Based Watershed Planning and Impact Assessment of Mahendragarh Watershed in Bhilwar District of Rajasthan State
Land Use/Land Cover Classification

Thematic land classes were derived digitally by grouping
pixels that have similar spectral signatures from the
measurements of individual bands throughout the
spectrum. Usually this classification is made with visible,
near-infrared, and middle infrared part of the spectrum.
Image interpretation was carried out with the help of nine
elements of interpretation key.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
NDVI = NIR Red / NIR + Red
NDVI values lies between -1and +1. Vegetation in good
condition shows higher NDVI values. This is used to
eliminate the seasonal sun angle difference and minimize
atmospheric effects. Higher values indicate more density
and vigor of the vegetation. NDVI is extensively used to
detect seasonal variations among vegetation.
Change Detection
Change detection analysis was carried out with the help of
Change Detection Matrix provided with ERDAS imagine.
By giving classified image of two different periods as
input, the model automatically generates the area where
changes are happened. For knowing changes happened in
which type of land use classes statistical analysis were
also carried out. To get an idea about vegetation, terrain,
people and climate, a preliminary field visit was carried
out in the early periods of study and necessary literatures
and statistical information such as rainfall, temperature,
agriculture were collected and incorporated with further
studies.
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that
aims to meet human needs while preserving the
environment so that these needs can be met not only in
the present, but also for future generations. Today,
watershed modelers have been able to capture the key
hydrological behaviors of many watershed systems.
Despite the complexity and uncertainty of various
watershed processes, many engineering-based models
have been successfully calibrated, verified, and applied by
decision makers. Our ability to model hydrologic
processes with greater accuracy, and at finer spatial and
temporal resolution, will continue to improve with
increased use of remotely sensed data (e.g., satellite
observation), increased computational capacity, and
improvements in GIS and database management systems.
The geohydrology model helps to identify potential sites
for appropriate soil and water conservation measures
through identifying suitable sites for water harvesting.
The study is also envisaged to prepare a comprehensive
watershed management plan and to assess the impact of
the watershed programme on the improvement of the
environmental aspect of the watershed. Based on careful
integration of information on soil, land use/ land cover,

ground water potential and slope, the following action
plan have been formulated in development of land, soil
and water conservation. An attempt is also made using
change detection studies to see the impact of these
activities on the vegetation and the environmental aspects
related to the watershed.
Land use Land Cover
The knowledge of spatial distribution of land cover/land
use of large area is of great importance to regional
planners and administrators. Conventional ground
methods are time consuming and no uniform
classification system was used in the preparation of maps
with the advent of remote sensing technology the above
problems have been solved to quite some extent. Satellite
data can provide information on large areas and the
temporal data can be utilized for change detection and
updating old data. The land use / land cover categories
was obtained from the remotely sensed data include level
I classes of land use classification system such as water
bodies, forest, grass land, agricultural land, barren land,
and scrub land. The Spatial Distribution of the various
land use land cover classes found in the study are
calculated in GIS environment. The land use land cover
maps were generated for the years 2001 to 2007 to study
the impact of the watershed programme in the study area.
Land use Land Cover Map of Sept. 2001 Image
In 2001, Land use land cover Map shows the dominance
of Crop Land and it is clearly seen by the percentage
(50%). The Scrub land covers near about 25.1% area of
the watershed which is second dominant class. Waterbody
covers 2.8% of total area where as Open Land and
Temporary fallow land covers 3.6% and 18.5%
respectively.
Fig. 1: Land Use Land Cover Map of Sept. 2003 Image

(51.1%). The Scrub land covers near about 27.7% area of
169

Temporary fallow land covers 6.5% and 12%
respectively.

(47.5%). The Scrub land covers near about 19.3% area of
Temporary fallow land covers 11.4% and 18.50%
respectively.
Fig. 5
Hydro Geomorphology
Hydrogeomorphology deals with the study of landform in
relation to groundwater occurrence and availability. It is
manifested at the surface, mainly by geology,
geomorphology, structure and recharge conditions. All the
four parameters were studied and integrated to arrive at
the groundwater prospects under each geomorphic cum
lithologic unit, designated as hydrogeomorphic unit. The
following Geomorphic units are mapped in the watershed
area at 1:10, 000 scale.
Ground Water Potential

(61.47%). The Scrub land covers near about 19.87% area
of the watershed which is second dominant class.
Waterbody covers 6.9% of total area where as Open Land
and Temporary fallow land covers 0.98% and 10.78%
respectively.
of Fallow Land and it is clearly seen by the percentage
(44.30%). The Crop land covers near about 23% area of
covers 1.10% of total area where as Open Land and Scrub
Land covers 13.6% and 18% respectively.
Ground water potential maps are prepared by integrating

information on geomorphology, slope, lithology,
structural features and the precipitation. Ground water
recharge depends on favorable slope, permeability and
degree of compactness of the rocks. On the basis of
ground water availability three major categories has been
identified, high, moderate, low and very low ground water
potential zone. An area 250 ha under watershed area falls
under Alluvial Plain and 200 ha of are under Flood Plain
which has very good ground water potential and it is near
about 2% of the total study area. Denudation hill, Linear
Ridges, Mesa, Pediment Plain and Structures hill have
poor ground water potential and which covers near about
170
5000ha under the watershed which is 18% of the study

area. Moderate weathered and shallow weathered
pediplain have moderate ground water potential and is
more than 50% of the study area.
Soils
For Optimal utilisation of available land and water
resources, information on soil with respect to nature,
physico-chemical characteristics, potential and inherent
limitations are pre-requisite. The soils are directly related
to the geomorphology or physiography of the area.
Geomorphology is the study of the processes involved in
formation of a landscape and those processes are
indirectly related to the developmental process involved
in soil formation. Hence, by integrating those processes
the soils are mapped. The land units thus mapped include
the external and internal characteristics of the landforms.
Thus similar land units will have similar soils. This
approach has been adopted in mapping of soils, of course
more detailed investigations has been done during the
field work by digging profiles at closer intervals. Deep,
well drained, loamy, calcareous soil on very gently
sloping plane soil with gently or moderate erosion covers
near about - ha area. Slightly deep well drained fine
calcareous soil on very gently sloping land with moderate
erosion covers near about 1500 ha area. Very shallow
excessively drained, loamy calcareous soil gently sloping
undulating lands with severe erosion covers near about
1700 ha area. Slightly deep, excessively drained, loamy

soil on gently sloping undulating land with moderate and
severe erosion covers near about 2100 ha area. Slightly
deep well drained fine moderately calcareous soil on very
gently sloppy lands with moderate erosion covers near
about 1300 ha area. Shallow, well drained, clayey,
calcareous soil on gently sloping land with moderate
erosion covers near about 900 ha area. For running the
hyderology model these soils were regrouoed in to two
classess clay loamy and fine loamy soils for assigning the
weightages.
RASTER THEME WEIGHTAGES
Weightages are given to significant units (on priority
basis) in various thematic layers such as
hydrogeomorphology, slope, drainage, soils and land
use/land cover in raster form in order to prioritize
locations for suggesting appropriate recharge structures.
CONVERSION OF THEMATIC LAYERS TO
RASTER FORMAT
All the thematic layers were converted to raster form in
Arc Map using convert features to raster option to assign
weightages, since the analysis should be performed in
raster mode. Assigning weightages to different units in
various thematic layers is purely dependent up on the
priority. In drainage raster 4th order streams can be given
high (1) priority, 3rd order streams can be given moderate
(2) priority and least (3) priority to2nd&1st order streams.
These themes can be evaluated using raster calculator in
spatial analyst based on the weightage decided. The
formula for this raster calculation is
(Drainage)*0.4.
Fig. 6
Fig. 8
Fig. 7
171
A drainage raster indicating high and low priority

locations will be generated by evaluating this equation.
Based on this location priority raster various water
harvesting structures can be suggested at appropriate
locations.
PROPOSED STRUCTURES IN THE WATERSHED
Based on this location of priority raster and field checking
various water harvesting structures have been suggested
at appropriate locations. Seven locations for constructing
check dams, and sixteen locations for moisture
conservation pits, and rain water harvesting units were
identified. It will be very useful for the development of
water resources of the watershed.
Change Detection
Change detection is used to highlight or identify
significant differences in imagery acquired at different
times. The Matrix operation from the GIS Analysis menu
allows two thematic images or vector files of different
years to be compared. By comparing two classified or
vector sets of data, we can eliminate false positives due to
radiometric differences. The matrix operation in GIS
analysis menu is used to find out changes between two
seasons. The matrix operation compares all the classes of
image with all classes of another image and shows the
change from one class to another class.
Changes Related to Crop Land

From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Crop
Land is 2230.20 ha, the area under Fallow Land which
changed to Crop Land is 890.62 ha, the area under Scrub
Land which changed to Crop Land is 1216.78 ha, 125.00
ha of Open Land has changed to Crop Land and 127.85 ha
of Water bodies has changed to Crop Land from 2001 and
2006.
Changes Related to Fallow Land
From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged
Fallow Land is 177.76 ha, the area under Crop Land
which changed to Fallow Land is 417.08 ha, the area
under Scrub Land which changed to Fallow Land is
174.79 ha, 29.61 ha of Open Land has changed to Fallow
Land and 12.78 ha of Water bodies has changed to Fallow
Land from 2001 and 2006.
Table 1
Classes
2006
2011
Crop Land
Fallow
Land
Open Land
Scrub
Land
Waterbody
CHANGE MATRIX BETWEEN 2001 AND 2006
Crop
Land
Water
body
Fallow
Land
Open
Land
Scrub
Land
2230.20 417.08
45.16
698.63 335.72
890.62 177.76
6.16
253.11
65.32
125.00
29.61
9.74
92.39
13.80
1216.78 174.79
5.94
409.98
80.33
7.78
42.50
23.51
127.85
12.78
Changes Related to Scrub Land

From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Scrub
Land is 409.98 ha, the area under Crop Land which
changed to Scrub Land is 698.63 ha, the area under
Fallow Land which changed to Scrub Land is 253.11 ha,
92.39 ha of Open Land has changed to Scrub Land and
42.50 ha of Water bodies has changed to Scrub Land from
2001 and 2006.
Changes Related to Open Land
From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Open
Land is 9.74 ha, the area under Crop Land which changed
Fig. 9
Changes Related to Water Bodies

Water body is 23.51 ha, the area under Crop Land which
changed to Water body is 335.72 ha, the area under
Fallow Land which changed to Water body is 65.32 ha,
80.33 ha of Scrub Land has changed to Water bodies and
13.80 ha of Open Land has changed to Water bodies from
2001 and 2006.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2001
2006
Fig. 10
172
to Open Land is 45.16 ha, the area under Fallow Land

which changed to Open Land is 6.16 ha, 5.94 ha of Scrub
Land has changed to Open Land and 7.78 ha of Water
bodies has changed to Open Land from 2001 and 2006.
Table Showing Changes in study area (All Area are in ha)
Changes Related to Scrub Land

From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Scrub
changed to Fallow Land is 1524.36 ha, the area under
Fallow Land which changed to Scrub Land is 342.77 ha,
the Open Land which changed to Scrub Land is 81.39 ha,
15.70 ha of Water body has changed to Scrub Land from
2001 and 2007.
Changes Related to Open Land
From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Open
changed to Open Land is 529.94 ha, the area under Fallow
Land which changed to Open Land is 220.39 ha, the
Scrub Land which changed to Open Land is 206.19 ha,
33.22 ha of Water body has changed to Open Land from
2001 and 2007.
60
50
40
30
20
2001
10
2007
Fig. 11: Changes in 2001 and 2007 image
Changes Related to Water Bodies

Water body is 0.27 ha, the area under Crop Land which
changed to Water body is 70.77 ha, the area under Fallow
Land which changed to Water body is 2.14 ha, the Scrub
Land which changed to Water body is 10.50 ha, 0.00 ha
of Open Land has changed to Water body from 2001 and
2007.
Fig. 12
NDVI Classification From the NDVI analysis it was

observed that in the year 2001 2523.14 ha of area was
under high density vegetation, 1567.35 ha of area was
under Moderate Vegetation, 1903.78ha of area is under
low vegetation,1265.18 ha of area is under barren land
and 223.54ha is under water bodies.s.
Table 2
Changes Related to Crop Land
Classes
Crop Fallow
2001
Land
Land
2007
Crop Land 894.63 1524.36
311.74 515.91
Fallow
Land
Open Land
41.03 111.55
Scrub Land 41.03 1028.97
Water body 35.12 130.11
From the analysis it is observed that the Unchanged Crop

Land is 894.63 ha, the area under Fallow Land which
changed to Crop Land is 311.74 ha, the area under Scrub
Land which changed to Crop Land is 441.85 ha, the Open
Land which changed to Crop Land is 41.03 ha, 35.12 ha
of Water body has changed to Crop Land from 2001 and
2007.
Changes Related to Fallow Land
Fallow Land is 515.91 ha, the area under Crop Land
which changed to Fallow Land is 1524.36 ha, the area
under Scrub Land which changed to Fallow Land is
1028.97 ha, the Open Land which changed to Fallow
Land is 111.55 ha, 130.11 ha of Water body has changed
to Fallow Land from 2001 and 2007.
Open
Land
Scrub
Land
Water
body
529.94 707.06
220.39 342.77
70.77
2.14
36.57 81.39
206.19 200.30
33.22 15.70
0.00
10.50
0.27
From the NDVI analysis it was observed that in the year

2006, 2395.42 ha of area was under high density
vegetation, 1373.10 ha of area was under Moderate
Vegetation, 1938.25 ha of area is under low
vegetation,1219.87 ha of area is under barren land and
455.90 ha is under water bodies.
173
pattern, soil erosion thereby improving and sustaining

productivity of resources leading to higher income and
living standard for the inhabitants in the watershed area.
Remote sensing is being applied in different stages of the
planning process for integrated watershed development.
At a time, when new satellite data products are generated,
it is imperative that the technology in the application
aspect is updated with due consideration to the users
requirements. It is with this background a study was taken
up with an aim to apply remote sensing for tactical and
operational planning and prepare a perspective plan for
watershed development.
Initially, the natural resources inventory of the study area
was carried out using LISS-IV data at 1:10,000 scale. The
data on hydrogeomorphology, soils, land use/land cover
and slope was generated following the technical
guidelines developed for the Integrated Mission for
Sustainable Development by the National Remote
Sensing Agency, with necessary modifications in few
aspects.
Fig. 13
The study revealed that the information on

hydrogeomorphology and land use/land cover was
meeting the needs of generating action plans, but a
constraint was felt in using the soil map for developing
soil
and
site
specific
recommendations
for
implementation of recommendations, as about 40% of the
mapping units were representing soil associations and
complexes. This would create confusion to the
implementing agency, which may not qualify enough to
distinguish the soil associations and firmly provide
suitable recommendation. This level of plan will be
highly useful for tactical planning which involves
preparation of project plans including arrangement of
infrastructure such as machinery and equipment, inputs
and placement of manpower based on the recommended
land use and conservation measures.
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
CONCLUSION
The concept of Watershed Development is that the
development and management of the resources in the
watershed should be taken up so as to achieve higher
production that can be sustained without causing any
deterioration in the resource base or causing no ecological
imbalances. The aim is to prevent watershed degradation
that results from the interaction of physiographic features,
eliminate unscientific land use by appropriate cropping
Based on the hydrogeomorphology, soils, land use/land

cover, slope and socio economic conditions, action plans
for optimal land utilization and conservation measures
were prepared for the macro-watershed and a microwatershed, which served the requirement of tactical and
operational planning, respectively. The action plan for
optimal land use, prepared at 1:10,000 scale was made
use for recommending soil and site specific production
systems. The action plan for soil and water conservation
at 1:10,000 scale did not meet the requirement of locating
conservation structures at the actual site, as this item of
work required a detailed contour map with updated
cadastral boundaries.
The hydrological analysis process in GIS is one of the
effective methods in terms of cost and time in proposing
various water harvesting structures. This process deals
with assessing various hydrological characteristics of a
surface. The basic parameter that controls the surface
water flow (run-off) is the shape of the surface (terrain).
174
Slope and aspect play a vital role in determining the shape

of a surface. The change detection techniques were used
for identifying the changes in the watershed after the
implementation of the scheme. It also highlights which
areas in the watershed has shown positive growth and
which had shown negative growth. Based on these the
people can analyze the reasons for the negative growth.
Based on the analysis of the change detection results of
the watershed the following recommendations were made.
The following recommendations were proposed for
sustainable development for the study area.
Strengthening of marketing and food processing

facilities for sustainability of agri- horticulture and
horticulture development.
Unused arable lands to be reclaimed through Agrohorticulture by proper construction of soil

conservation and water harvesting structures like mini
percolation tanks.
REFERENCES
Desiltation of tanks to be carried out to increase the

water storage capacity and recharge.
[2]
[3]
Systematic and scientific approach to be followed for

plantation.
Crop diversification by increasing area under crops
and adaptation of crops requiring less water.
Cultivate the sloping grounds by lift irrigation method
from where the water is available in the lower level of
the same land holders.
Adaptation of sprinkler and drip irrigation system for
proper utilization of water
Poultry farming, dairy farming aquaculture and other

industries to be developed by utilizing available
natural recourses, for increasing the livelihood of the
people.
Strengthening of transport and communication
network for maintaining a supply system and
marketing the products grown in the area.
[1]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
175
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulated_irregular_
network
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_elevation_model
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/aars/acrs/2002/env/122
.pdf
http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage
http://landcover.usgs.gov/pdf/anderson.pdf
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/thesis/OpeyemiZubair_Th
esisPDF.pdf
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/aars/acrs/1997/ts8/ts8001a
.shtml
http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/
http://www.gis.com/


H. Mahabaleswara1 and H.M. Nagabhushan2
1
Professor & Former Principal, Dept of Civil Engg, 2Professor & Dean
RYM Engg College, Bellary.
ABSTRACT
Reservoirs are the life line components for the overall development of a country, sufficient number of small,
medium and large scale reservoirs proves effective water resources management of a country thereby protecting
the country from the probable floods and droughts. Sedimentation is major problem in the operation and
maintenance of reservoirs which greatly affects over the capacity of the reservoir and the useful life of the
reservoir decreases. The impacts due to sedimentation has the adverse effects on designed live storage which
directly results on proposed purposes causing greater economic loss also chances for flooding situation at
downstream. So the prediction of probable rate of silting of reservoirs is an important tool for a hydrologist in
the planning and designing of reservoirs also estimating the deposited silt. Presently in India many reservoirs
are facing the problem of sedimentation resulting reduction in the capacity to about 0.5 % to 1.20 % every year,
thus it is inevitable to release excess inflow during monsoon which flow as unused at d/s reaching nearby sea or
ocean resulting greater loss in water wealth. Hence it is the need of the hour to study on origin of silt,
transportation, deposition patterns, and its impacts also remedial measures to arrest the silt erosion and
desilting methods. It is difficult to built new reservoirs but it is possible to restore the capacity. In the present
paper a case study of Tungabhadra Reservoir (Karnataka) is considered which is life line for part of Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh.
Keywords capacity of reservoir, sedimentation, Desilting, Deposition pattern.
INTRODUCTION
Water, a natural renewable resource plays a vital role on
social and economic conditions of human beings. The use
of natural rain water is manifold which must be harnessed
properly during monsoon by arresting it in the form of
various storage structures. Reservoirs are constructed
across the various rivers in our country are the invaluable
assets serving the various purposes like Irrigation, flood
control, power generation, Domestic and Industrial,
Ground water recharging etc. throughout its economic life
as estimated during planning stage. For reservoir
operation and maintenance the silting up of reservoir is
the major problem which severely affects the capacity.
Reservoir sedimentation is the process of accumulation of
silt carried by the flowing river water at the different
zones of the reservoir base causing reduction of reservoir
capacity. The rate of sediment deposition is monitored by
periodical hydrographic survey. If the sedimentation
continues for a longer periods, a stage likely to reach
when the whole reservoir may get silted up and becomes
useless. Every river carries certain amount of sediment
load; it tries to settle down at river bottom due to
gravitational force, but may be kept in suspension due to
upward current in the turbulent flow which may overcome
the gravity force. Silt carried along the river bed is called
bed load which is coarser and carried along the flow in

the suspension form called as suspended load which is
fine silt
As the velocity of water approaching the reservoir
decreases the bigger suspended particles and most of the
bed load gets deposited in the head reaches of the
reservoir, fine particles may travel some more distance
and may finally deposit gradually at the base. Some very
fine particles may remain in suspension for much longer
period and may finally escape from the dam along with
water discharged through the sluiceways, turbines,
spillways etc.,. The total volume of silt likely to be
deposited during the designed life period of the dam and
same volume is left unused to allow for silting and is
known as dead storage, the remainder storage is known as
live storage, the combined storage is called as gross
storage. Thus total life span of the reservoir depends on
the rate of silt deposition in dead and live storage zones.
The impacts due to sedimentation causing degradation in
social and economical status of its dependents. It is
imperative to ensure that realistic assumptions about the
rate of sedimentation are made at the planning stage so
that the continued optimum benefits are derived and
remedial measures are taken to minimize sediment
deposition and to prolong the useful life of reservoirs.
176

Table 1
Sl no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Name of the
reservoir
Tungabhadra
Malaprabha
Bhadra
Krishanaraja sagar
Narayanpur
Almatti
Hipparagi
Loss in the capacity

(TMCft)
28.131
2.775
2.152
1.054
10.155
5.309
0.126
Gross storage
capacity (TMCft)
132.473
43.778
71.535
48.665
37.842
123.108
3.522
Latest Gross
storage (TMCft)
104.341
41.004
69.392
47.611
27.685
117.799
3.396
Rate of
siltation/year
0.55
0.277
0.051
0.018
0.406
0.408
0.014
It is unfortunate that many of Indian reservoirs are

suffering from the decease of sedimentation, the study or
investigation shows ignorance about catchment treatment;
silt arresting structures, desilting etc. The main cause for
sedimentation is erosion of silt particles in the catchment,
transportation of silt through streams and rivers and
settlement of silt at different locations in the water spread
area of reservoirs. According to the assumption made
during design silt deposition is to be restricted to dead
storage only. Hence it is essential to monitor the silt flow
into the reservoirs and its deposition, trap efficiency of
reservoir, distribution pattern, rate of reduction in the
capacity and its impacts on Irrigation, power generation
etc. It is also necessary to take suitable measures to
control the erosion, arresting the silt along its course,
preventing or minimizing the entry of silt into reservoir.
Once if the reservoirs are filled with abnormal amount of
silt it is difficult to remove or to restore its capacity by
increasing its height or construction of parallel reservoirs,
hence it is more advisable to control at its origin and
prevent/minimize its entry by adopting suitable measures.
Present requirement is not the construction of big
reservoirs but the effective management of existing dams
regarding this experts are timely cautioning the Govt
parallel to this the administrative bodies are need to focus
seriously.
reservoir is, in general, a function of the watershed

characteristics such as drainage area, average land and
channel slope, soil type, land management and use, and
hydrology. The ratio of the volume of sediment trapped in
a reservoir to the volume of incoming sediment is usually
referred to as the reservoir trap efficiency.
Tungabhadra Dam is one of the major reservoirs in

Karnataka built across the river Tungabhadra blessing the
farmers of both Karnataka (partly) and Andhra Pradesh
(partly) is severely affected with sedimentation by losing
about 30 TMCmt of water out of its gross capacity is
considered as case study.
The amount of sediment inflow to a reservoir depends on

the sediment yield produced by the upstream watershed.
Rate of Sedimentation in Severe Seven Reservoirs of

Karnataka
According to Hydrographic survey conducted, the
observed losses in the storage capacity are as below
CAUSES FOR SEDIMENTATION AND
ILL-EFFECTS DUE TO SEDIMENTATION
Main factors responsible for the sedimentation are:

1. Physical and Hydrological
catchment, Deforestation.
characters
of
the
2. Intensity of erosion in the catchment (sheet, rill, gully

and stream channel erosion).
3. Quality, quantity and concentration of the sediment
brought down by the river.
4. Over exploitation of minerals in the catchment and
Trap efficiency of the reservoir.
5. Size, shape and length of the reservoir
6. Method of reservoir operation
7. Exposure of deposited material.
8. Land use pattern and cultivation at the head of the
reservoir.
Estimation of Erosion
Universal soil loss equation (USLE) is used to compute

the soil loss
A=RKLSCP
Where A = computed soil loss in tons/acre/year R =
Rainfall factor K = soil erodibility factor
L = slope length factor S = slope steepness factor P =
Erosion control practice factor
Ill- Effects Due to Sedimentation
Causes for Sedimentation

Erosion of silt particles is the main cause for
sedimentation. The sediment inflow rate into a particular
1. The principle ill-effect is the reduction of storage

capacity.
177
Fig. 1
2. Deposition of silt in the river valley above the

reservoir raises the bed level causing high flood level.
It may also lead for water logging and formation of
swamps.
suspended sediment samples taken at the u/s and d/s of

reservoir. The amount of sediment deposited Qtd in the
reservoir during any given period can be computed by
Qtd = Qti - (Qto + Qts )
3. A threat to safety of dam

4. Affects on the operation of the outlets.
5. Flow of sediment through canals affects its section
and operation.
6. Proposed command area gets affected with deficit
water supply, food production decreases, social and
economical conditions gets affected.
where Qti = Sediment inflow Qto = Sediment outflow Qts

= Change in the amount of sediment held in suspension
in stored water during the same time interval.
Capacity Survey Methods
7. Difficult to utilize the surplus flow during monsoon,

chances for occurrence of floods.
Surveys of existing reservoirs for determining loss of

storage space and distribution of sediment deposits within
the reservoir provides data on sediment yield rate as well
as for operation purpose.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS OF
SEDIMENTATION
Methods:
Measurement of reservoir sedimentation is an important is

an important aspect to know the exact rate of
sedimentation and to take suitable measures to combat it
also helps to compare with the assumed rate of
sedimentation at the time of design.
Following are the methods adopted
1. Contour method (Photographic survey or Bathymetric

survey)
2. Range line method (Hydrographic survey with echo
sounding equipment)
SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
Inflow Outflow Method
There are several depositional pattern of sediment.

Location of sediment deposition is important to fix the
elevation of outlets also to know the coverage in the live
storage for assessing the loss in the capacity. The patterns
depend on the inflowing sediment characteristics, shape
of reservoir, river valley slope and reservoir
operation.(Fig-1)
It is an indirect method of measurement of sedimentation.

In this the incoming and outgoing sediment load is
worked out on the basis of observations of discharge and
The four basic types of deposition pattern are listed

below:
1. Inflow outflow method or sediment transport method

2. Capacity survey methods.
3. Remote sensing and GIS,GPS
178
Fig. 2: Schematic diagram for sediment management in reservoirs
1. Delta deposits contain the coarser form of the

sediment load which is rapidly deposited at the zone
of inflow. It may consist entirely of coarse sediment
(d>0.062) or may also contain a large fraction of finer
sediment such as silt.
2. Wedge-shaped deposits are thickest at the dam and
become thinner moving upstream. This pattern is
typically caused by the transport of fine sediment to
the dam by turbidity currents. Wedge-shaped deposits
are also found in small reservoirs with a large inflow
of fine sediment, and in large reservoir operated at low
water level during flood events, which causes most
sediment to be carried into the vicinity of the dam.
3. Tapering deposits occur when deposit become
progressively deposition of fines from the water
moving towards the dam.
4. Uniform deposits are unusual but do occur. Narrow
reservoir with frequent water level fluctuation and a
small load of fine sediment can produce nearly
uniform deposition depths.
MEASURES TO CONTROL SEDIMENTATION

Sedimentation is the natural process, if it observed
abnormal it gradually reduces the capacity of the
reservoir, thus it impacts on the basic purposes for which
the reservoir was built. So it is necessary to take suitable
measures for controlling the entry of silt and to remove
the deposited silt. (Fig 2)
Types of Silt Controlling Measures
1. Control of sediment inflow
2. Control of sediment deposition
3. Desilting methods
Control of Sediment Inflow
It is known that silt originates due o the erosion of soil
particles from the catchment and it try to move/flow along
with storm water reaching finally the reservoir, if this
amount of silt is arrested from erosion and prevented
further flow then it is possible for prevention or reduction
of silt deposition in the reservoir.
179
Following are the suggested measures for the control

1. Soil conservation methods such as
a) Afforestation, growing of grass and erosion control
structures.
b) Contour ploughing and proper irrigation practices
c) Construction of check dams and silt control dams
across tributaries.
d) Foreshore afforestation
2. By constructing a bypass channel or a tunnel to divert
a large amount of sediment to adjacent valleys or
depressions or to the d/s river of the dam.
3. Special sediment detention basins or a series of small
dams at u/s of the main river can be constructed.
Debris dam located in the u/s of the main reservoir can
help to trap most of the coarse grade sediment.
Control of Sediment Deposition
These methods are undertaken to control the deposition of
sediments which enters into reservoir even after taking
proper land treatment in the catchment.
Following are the suggested methods:
1. Operation of the spillway gates during floods for
sediment routing
2. Flushing out the silt into the rivers and canals through
silt sluices
3. Artificial turbulence
Desilting Methods
Even after taking proper care and adopting suitable
methods for arresting the origin and flow of silt as
recommended above, certain amount of silt gets collected

in the reservoir at the different locations. If this quantity is
found more it is advised to remove the silt by following
any of the methods mentioned below
1. Manual excavation
2. Mechanical excavation using hi-tech mechanical
devices
3. Dreading by mechanical means
4. Mechanical stirring and slurry pumping
A CASE STUDY OF TUNGABHADRA RESERVOIR
(KARNATAKA)
Tungabhadra Reservoir is multipurpose river valley
project built across the river Tungabhadra near Hospet,
Bellary Dist, Karnataka. The main architects of reservoir
are Sri.M.S. Tirumale Iyyenger and Bharata Ratna
Sir.M.Visvesvaraya.The construction of reservoir was
started in the year 1945 and completed in the year 1953.
Tungabhadra reservoir is the life line of both Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh which caters the needs for the
Irrigation, Power Generation, Domestic, and Industries
etc. This reservoir is severely affected by the
sedimentation, as per the recent studies a total of about
30.00 TMCft of storage capacity is lost due to the
deposition of silt (One TMC of water can irrigate about
8000 acres of land).The assumed rate of sediment during
the planning stage was 4.29 Ha-m/100 Km2/year but the
present studies indicates that rate of siltation is observes
as 6.48 Ha-m/100 Km2/year, thus annual deposition of silt
is more than assumed. The average rate of inflow of silt
into the reservoir is 0.6 TMCft. (Fig 3 and Fig-4)
Fig. 3
180
Fig. 4
Salient Features of TB Dam
3. Diversion of water from the reservoir by interlinking

of all tanks and enhancing the capacity of tanks.
Catchment Area : 28179.00 Sq Km
4. Construction of parallel canal at both left and right

banks for utilizing surplus flow.
Type of Dam : Gravity Dam with 32 spillways

Length of the Dam : 2449.00 m
Gross Storage : 133.00 TMCft
5. Diversion of Tungabhadra river water at the u/s of

Dam during flood periods into neibouring water
courses.
Live Storage : 130.70 TMCft
CONCLUSIONS
Height of the Dam : 35.36 m, MRL : + 497.74 M
Dead Storage : 2.30 TMC ft

Year of first impounding : 1953 A.D.
Water spread area : 380.00 Sq Km
Total command area : 5.12 Lakh Ha
Due to the good rainfall in the catchment area, the water
flow from the TB Reservoir this year has observed more
than 211 TMCft, and it is for the first time in five years
the outflow from the reservoir has breached the 200
TMCft mark, this is due to loss in the storage due ti
silting.
Recently in the last week of Dec,2013 Honorable
Revenue Minister of Andhra Pradesh Govt Sri.Raghuveer
Reddy expressed in meeting convened by the TB Board
that desilting of the TB Reservoir can be taken up jointly
by the Karnataka and A.P very soon which will definitely
gives solution for the present burning issue of
sedimentation in the Tungabhadra Reservoir.
As on today many proposals are put forth by the various
agencies regarding the desilting process, but no action
was initiated so far. As per the experts opinion desilting
of is not advisable instead the loss in the storage can be
recovered by adopting the following measures.
Sedimentation of the reservoir is the major problem in the

operation and maintenance of reservoirs. So it is
necessary to study in detail about the origin,
transportation and deposition of silt. If the rate of
sedimentation is observed more than assumed in the
beginning affecting the capacity of reservoir, suitable
measures are to be taken immediately to arrest the
erosion, holding the silt at frequent interval along water
course by constructing check dams and removing the
deposited silt from the reservoir. The statistics of case
study considered proves the ignorance about
sedimentation in the initial periods after filling, made to
decrease the storage capacity; it is suggested to react
immediately to restore the original capacity. Hence it is
concluded that, to view serious about the process of
sedimentation and controlling measures are to be taken up
immediately. The concerned authorities should take
responsibility of controlling and removal of silt which
only the remedy for the present global problem by giving
top priority for the issue
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
1. Construction of balancing reservoirs.

2. Restoration of existing old tanks and filling through
canals.
181
B.N. Asthana and Dr.P.S. Nigam

Sediment in Reservoirs Journal
Engineers( India), Vol.60, May 1980.
Report of Sedimentation studies
Reservoir, Karnataka Engineering
Hydraulic Division, K.R.S.
Distribution of
of Institution of
of Tungabhadra
Research Station,
[3]
[4]
[5]
Review of sediment control Measures in Reservoirs Indian water week 2012- Water, Energy and Food
Security : call for solution, 10-14 April 2012, New Delhi.
Methods for Assessing Sedimentation in Reservoirs
Mark Jakubauskas, Frank deNoyelles Agricultural
Experiment Station. University of Kansas.
Sedimentation studies in Reservoirs CBIP, Technical
Report -20, vol.1, sept 1977.
[6]
[7]
182
Reservoir sedimentation surveys using Global Positioning

System K.K.Agarwal and K.C. Idiculla Central water
commission, Ministry of water Resources, New Delhi.
Can Reservoir Management Reduce Sediment Deposition
- Debra Baker, Environmental Scientist, Kansas Water
Office and Frank deNoyelles, Deputy Director, Kansas
Biological Survey, University of Kansas.


P. Raja Sekhar1, P. Lakshmi Sruthi2 and K. Rekha Rani3
1
Associate Professor, 2Post Graduate Student, 3Asst. Director, CWC, Hyderabad.
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering (Autonomous), Osmania University, Hyderabad.
1,2
ABSTRACT
Flood Routing is a mathematical procedure for predicting the changing magnitude, speed and shape of a flood
wave as a function of time at one or more points along a water course. Flood routing procedures may be
classified as either hydrological or hydraulics.
Hydrological methods use the principle of continuity and a relationship between discharge and the temporary
storage of excess volumes of water during the flood period. Hydraulic methods of routing involve the numerical
solutions of the convective diffusion equations, the one dimensional Saint Venant equations of gradually varied
unsteady flow in open channels.
In present research, the examination of the several hydraulic, hydrologic methods, have been preceded for
Godavari river data i.e., from Perur to Badrachalam stretch, compared with MIKE 11software analysis. Also, a
comparison was made between the results of generated values, with that actual river data values in the field.
MIKE 11 is a professional engineering software tool for the simulation of hydrology, hydraulics, water quality
and sediment transport in estuaries, rivers, irrigation systems and other inland waters.
INTRODUCTION
Since, time immemorial, floods have been responsible for
untold misery in major portions of the world and India is
no exception. Valuable property, loss of crops, human
lives and livestock continue to get washed away during
flood times.
routing is important in the design of flood protection

measures, to estimate how the proposed measures will
affect the behavior of flood waves in rivers, so that
adequate protection and economic solutions may be
found.
Floods are caused by excessive rainfall in the catchment

area while the magnitude and severity thereof depends on
the nature and extent of rainfall and the characteristics of
the specific watersheds.
Central Water Commission started flood-forecasting

services in 1958 with the setting up of its first forecasting
station on Yamuna at Delhi Railway Bridge. The Flood
Forecasting Services of CWC consists of collection of
Hydrological/ Hydro-meteorological data from 878 sites,
transmission of the data using wireless/ fax/ email/
telephones /satellites /mobiles, processing of data,
formulation of forecast and dissemination of the same.
Presently, a network of 175 Flood Forecasting Stations
including 28 inflow forecast, in 9 major river basins and
71 sub basins of the country exists. It covers 15 States
besides NCT Delhi and UT of Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
Central Water Commission on an average issues 6000
flood forecasts with an accuracy of more than 95% every
year.
FLOOD ROUTING
METHODOLOGY
In hydrology, routing is a technique used to predict the

changes in shape of water as it moves through a river
channel or a reservoir. In flood forecasting, hydrologists
may want to know how a short burst of intense rain in an
area upstream of a city will change as it reaches the city.
Routing can be used to determine whether the pulse of
rain reaches the city as a deluge or a trickle.. Flood
MIKE 11 is a professional engineering software tool for

the simulation of hydrology, hydraulics, water quality and
sediment transport in estuaries, rivers, irrigation systems
and other inland waters. MIKE 11 is a modeling package
for the simulation of surface runoff, flow, sediment
transport, and water quality in rivers, channels, estuaries,
and floodplains. The most commonly applied
hydrodynamic (HD) model is a flood management tool
Due to ever increasing pressure of population and due to

economic considerations, encroachments on flood plains
have gone almost unbated.This is causing progressive
increase in flood damages. During the monsoon season,
when about 80% of the total run-off occurs in Indian
rivers, floods of varying intensities are experienced in one
or other part of the country.
Causes of Floods
183
simulating the unsteady flows in branched and looped

river networks and quasi two-dimensional flows in
floodplains. MIKE 11 HD, when using the fully dynamic
wave description, solves the equations of conservation of
continuity and momentum (known as the 'Saint Venant'
equations). The solution to the equations are based on the
following assumptions:
and river morphology studies, salinity intrusion in rivers

and estuaries.
The water is incompressible and homogeneous (i.e.

negligible variation in density)
*.bnd11...... Mike11 Boundary condition data,

*.rr11.........
Mike11
Rainfall-runoff
model
parameters,*.hd11........Mike11 Hydrodynamic model
parameters,*.xns11......
Mike11
Cross-section
data,*.res11....... Mike11 model results,*.dfs0.........
Mike11 Time series data.
The bottom slope is small, thus the cosine of the angle

it makes with the horizontal may be taken as 1
The wave lengths are large compared to the water
depth, assuming that the flow everywhere can be
assumed to flow parallel to the bottom (i.e. vertical
accelerations can be neglected and a hydrostatic
pressure variation in the vertical direction can be
assumed)
The flow is sub-critical (super-critical flow is modeled
in MIKE 11, however more restrictive conditions are
applied)
The equations used are:
MIKE11 Extension files:

*.sim11...... Mike11 model simulation data,*.nwk11.....
Mike11 River network data
To assist the user, a file format convention has been

developed. Each data filename in this system consists of
three name segments separated by dashes as follows:
creek name or station name - storm event date (short date
format: yymm) - variable name and the extension. For
example, the file name: Holyoke-7808-Rainfall.dfs0 is the
rainfall time series data file at the Holyoke meteorological
station for the storm event of August 1978.
FLOOD ROUTING
Continuity:
Once direct runoff in each watershed is calculated, it has

to be routed to the main outlet. A flood wave is attenuated
by friction and channel storage as it passes through a
reach. The process of computing the travel time and
attenuation of water flowing in the reach is often called
routing. Travel time and attenuation characteristics vary
widely between different streams. The travel time is
dependent on characteristics such as length, slope,
friction, and flow depth. Attenuation is also dependent on
friction, in addition to other characteristics such as
channel storage. Direct runoff of various subbasins has
been routed to the main outlet at Badrachalam using
Muskingum-Cunge. The Muskingum-Cunge method was
used where multiple channel slopes were found. After
completing the model setup, trial runs were executed to
obtain results. Each run combines a topographic
model,meteorological model, and control specification
components with run options. All errors such as missing
sink and source nodes, channel connectivity, and so on in
model setup were rectified during trial runs. Runs can be
re-executed at any time to update results when data in the
components are changed.
Where
Q:discharge,(m/s)
A:flowarea,(m)
q:lateral inflow,(m/s)
h:stage above datum,(m)
C:Chezy resistance coefficient,(m/s)
R:hydraulic or resistance radius,(m)
MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
I: momentum distribution coefficient

APPLICATIONS
MIKE11 has been used in hundreds of application around
the world. Its main application areas are flood analysis
and alleviation design, real-time flood forecasting, dam
break analysis, optimization of reservoir and canal
gate/structure operations, ecological and water quality
assessments in rivers and wetlands, sediment transport
Model calibration is the process of adjusting model

parameter values until model results match historical data.
The process can be completed using engineering
judgement by repeatedly adjusting parameters and
computing and inspecting the goodness-of-fit between the
computed and observed hydrographs. Significant
efficiency can be realized with an automated procedure
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2001). The quantitative
184
measure of the goodness-of-fit is the objective function.

An objective function measures the degree of variation
between computed and observed hydrographs. The key to
automated calibration is a search method for adjusting
parameters to minimize the objective function value and
to find optimal parameter values. A hydrograph is
computed at the target element (outlet) by computing all
of the upstream elements and by minimizing the error
(minimum deviation with the observed hydrograph) using
the optimization module. Parameter values are adjusted
by the search method; the hydrograph and objective
function for the target element are recomputed. The
process is repeated until the value of the objective
function reaches the minimum to the best possible extent.
During the simulation run, the model computes direct
runoff of each watershed and the inflow and outflow
hydrograph of each channel segment. The model
computes the flood hydrograph at the outlet after routing
flows from all subbasins to the basin outlet. The
computed hydrograph at the outlet is compared with the
observed hydrograph at Perur and Badrachalam stations.

Agricultural land is the predominant land-use type in the
study area that is severely exposed to floods every year.
Slopes in the deltaic portion of the river are very flat (less
than 3 percent), causing frequent inundation in this area.
Soils in the study area are very fine in texture, resulting in
more runoff.
In Mike 11 there are many initial values which are taken
nearly approximate value. One of those initial values in
Mannings M value and it is taken as 28 initially. When
the generated Hydrograph during validation process and
observed hydrographs are compared, there has been a
slight variation in both of them i.e., they didnt match
exactly. To match them to a nearly acceptable limit,
Mannings M value is being taken different values i.e.,it
ranges from10,15,20,25,30,35,40 and compared the
hydrographs of these values of M with the actual values.
The computed hydrograph during the validation process
and observed hydrograph at Perur and Badrachalam
stations are shown in Figures below.
After computing the exact value of the unknown variable

during the calibration process, the calibrated model
parameters are tested for another set of field observations
to estimate the model accuracy. In this process, if the
calibrated parameters do not fit the data of validation, the
required parameters have to be calibrated again. Thorough
investigation is needed to identify the parameters to be
calibrated again. In this study, hydrometeorological data
of 2010 were used for model validation because floods
occurred in that year.
REAL-TIME VALIDATION OF THE MODEL
The developed model has been validated thoroughly at the
Central Water Commission Office in Hyderabad with the
real-time hydrometeorological data during the floods of
2010 (the simulation period is 15 June to 15 October
2010). Considering the availability of real-time data,
discharge data of the PERUR, Rainfall Data Of Perur,
Eturnagaram, Dummagudem and Badrachalam (Figure 1)
were fed into the model as inputs. Rainfall runoff
modelling was done in all the sub basins located in the
study area down to the above mentioned stations.
Hydrodynamic flow routing was also done in all the river
channels. In real-time validation, the total flood routing
stretch is approximately 133 km long (Perur to
Badrachalam). The selected river reach Perur to
Badrachalam is an ideal stretch as we have catchment
area, flood routing, and a tributary joining in middle and
the stretch is not very long, the intermittent catchment
contribution is less. For study purpose this is the best
stretch.
185
Fig. 1: Comparision of Badrachalam Discharge graph with

the Generated Badrachalam Discharge graph with
Mannings M value 15
Fig. 2: Comparision of Badrachalam Waterlevel graph with

the Generated Badrachalam Waterlevel graph with
Mannings M value 15

Mannings M value 28

Mannings M value 20

Mannings M value 30

Mannings M value 20

Mannings M value 30

Mannings M value 28
186

Mannings M value 35
Fig. 12: Comparision of Badrachalam Waterlevel graph

with the Generated Badrachalam Waterlevel graph with
Mannings M value 40
By observing keenly, it is found that at a particular value

of Mannings M 30, there has a nearly match of the two
graphs. Here comparision of water levels and also
discharge levels are being done.
The computed hydrograph during the validation process
and observed hydrograph at Perur and Badrachalam
stations are shown in Figures. These figures indicate that
the computed hydrographs match well with the observed
hydrographs.
Fig. 10: Comparision of Badrachalam Waterlevel graph
with the Generated Badrachalam Waterlevel graph with
Mannings M value 35
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

Mannings M value 40
187
Danish Hydraulic Institute (1994): MIKE 11 FF Short

description: Real Time flood forecasting and modeling.
DHI (2002) MIKE II: A Modeling System for Rivers and
Channels. Reference Manual, DHI Software 2002, DHI
Water & Environment, Horsholm, Denmark.
Danish Hydraulic Institute (2003). MIKE 11 Reference
Manual and User Guide, 2003

Integration of Remote Sensing & GIS Techniques for Site Suitability Analysis of
Rain Water Harvesting Structures
G. Shravan Kumar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad.
Email: shravanrama@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Assessing, managing and planning of water resources for sustainable use become an important issue in human
life. Harvesting of available runoff at a micro level for storage and recycling is necessary for better utilization of
rainfall, control of erosion etc. Integration of remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS)
techniques provides reliable, accurate and update database on land and water resources. To illustrate this
concept, a case study was carried out for Hire water shed of Malaprabha River Basin. The satellite data
provided by IRS-IC was geo-referenced and rectified with the base map. The cross operation was performed
between land-use map and soil textural map. The cross-map was filtered using maps of land use, soil texture,
classified slope and run off potential. Decision rules for different water harvesting structures were formulated
and adopted. Water balance calculations are done for individual water holding zones and the runoff potential
map was generated for various zones. Different structures were identified by integration of the maps of land use,
soil texture, classified slope and run off potential. The sites found for various structures were checked by
overlaying the drainage map. From the water balance study it is found that there is no surplus water available
for runoff in most of the soil moisture classes (combination of land use and soil texture). It indicates the
hydrological drought condition in the region.
INTRODUCTION
Assessing, managing and planning of water resources for
sustainable use becomes an important issue in human life,
especially in the region where rainfall is very low, erratic
and very high ground water depth. There is an obvious
need for proper understanding of the hydrological
processes in the watershed. Rainfall-runoff relationship
plays an important role in understanding the dynamic
aspects of the hydrological processes that takes place in
any region. Harvesting of available runoff at a micro level
for storage and recycling is necessary for better utilization
of rainfall, control of erosion and providing life saving
irrigation to crops during dry spells in the monsoon
season and also for growing a second crop in Rabi season.
The objective and technologies of rainwater harvesting
are highly location specific and appropriate technology
developed for a particular region cannot be used as such
for the other areas for physiographic, environmental,
technical and socio-economic reasons. So far waterharvesting technologies are not based on annual rainfall
only, but terrain, soil permeability and land use on its
variation in space and time too plays an important role in
determining the sites. Integration of remote sensing and
geographical information system (GIS) techniques
provides reliable, accurate and update database on land
and water resources, which is a pre-requisite for an
integrated approach in identifying runoff potential zones
and to identify the sites for water harvesting structures
such as farm ponds, check dams, percolation tanks and

bundies etc.
STUDY AREA
The study was carried out for hire watershed a part of
Malaprabha River basin which is a sub-basin of Krishna
River basin. This area lies in Koppal district of Karnataka,
occupying a total geographical area of 580.41 Sq.km.
bounded between 15 3950N and 155759N latitudes
and 76 2754E longitudes. The location map is shown in
figure 1. Physiographically, the area is almost flat to
gentle with slopes varying from 1 to 5% except in some
of the hilly areas. The area is under Semi-Arid zone.
Average annual rainfall in the area is about 719mm. The
watershed comes under the hydrologic category of fern
shape. Drainage network in the area consists of stream
segments upto 5th order. The soils are moderately deep to
very deep and low drained. As per field investigations and
textural analysis of soil the watershed is divided into 3
textural categories as clay, clay loam and sandy clay
loam. According to the land use the area is delineated as
built up land, agricultural land waste land, water bodies
and scrubs. The major land use in the watershed is
agriculture. The undulating uplands are either barren or
with minor scrubs.
The waste land includes barren and rocky areas. About
85% of the total geographical area is under agriculture
with negligible irrigation facilities and no scope for
188
Integration of Remote Sensing & GIS Techniques for Site Suitability Analysis of Rain Water Harvesting Structures
constructing large irrigation structures due to absence of

perennial streams. Thus in-situ water conservation and
supplementary irrigation facilities are required. In
comparison to the standard 33% green cover requirements
to maintain the Eco-meteorological balance, this area has
negligible vegetation cover and no forest resource
contributes to the economy. There is a need for efficient
and judicious use of available water potential for crop
management.
Fig. 1: Location Map
DATA USED AND METHODOLOGY

The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS-IC) Linear
Imaging Self Scanning System (LISS III) data acquired
on 19th November 1998 is used. Survey of India toposheet
No. 57 A/1, 57 A/2 and 57 A/5 are considered.
Meteorological data is obtained from FAO web site.
ILWIS 2.2 version is used for the study. The guidelines
given by Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development
(IMSD) and Indian National Committee on Hydrology
(INCOH) are used for selection of sites for different water

harvesting structures. The methodology of the flow chart
is shown in figure 2.
The maps obtained after scanning the toposheet were
glued by using ILWIS software to get the base map. The
boundary of the watershed is delineated using the contour
and drainage information in the base map. Different
Thematic maps viz. drainage map, contour map, land
use/land cover map, soil texture map, slope map etc.,
were prepared using the base map (Topo Maps) and
Remote sensing data. The above maps are shown in
figures 3, 4, 5 & 6. The digital data of IRSIC LISS III of
the study area is procured from NRSA, Hyderabad. The
False Colour Composite (FCC) was prepared using band
combinations viz. band1, band2 and band3 as shown in
figure 7. The image features of the FCC were interpreted
for land use/land cover using appropriate interpretation
keys. Co-ordinate system for the study area was created
with Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM) projection for
zone 43 (in which the study area lies) using Everest
(India, 1956) Ellipsoid and Everest (Indian, Nepal) datum.
The toposheet was geo-reference with respect to above
co-ordinate system. The watershed boundary, drainage
and road lines were digitized on the base map and
contour, drainage as well as road maps were generated.
The satellite data (digital) was geo-referenced and
rectified with the base map.
The digitized contour and spot height information were
used to obtain the DEM as shown in figure 8. The
classified height map, the slope percentage map and
aspect map were obtained from the DEM. The percentage
slope map was further classified into seven classes as per
IMSD guidelines.
Fig. 3: Drainage Network Map
Fig. 2: Flow Chart for Remote Sensing and GIS

Methodology
Fig. 4: Land use/Land cover map
189
Table 1: Decision Rules used for Site Suitability Selection
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Structure
Check Dam
Farm Pond
Nala Bunds and
Percolation Tank
Bundis
Area
>25ha
>2 ha
>40 ha
Slope
Medium slope
Nearly level to gentle
Nearly level to very gentle
Permeability
Low
Very low
Medium
Run-off Potential
Medium/Low
Medium/Low
Medium/Low
>1 ha
Nearly level to very gentle
Very low
Medium/Low
potential map. The final cross map thus obtained was

filtered using majority filter and area-numbering
operation was performed. Now each polygon of the cross
map has a number.
In the study Farm ponds, Check dams, Bundis and
percolation tanks and Nala bunds were the structures
considered from the decision rules of ISMD guidelines,
decision rules for different water harvesting structures
were formulated and adopted as shown in the table.1.
Fig. 5: Soil Texture Map
WATER BALANCE STUDIES

The water balance of a small drainage basin underlain by
impervious rock is expressed by the equation
P= I+AE T+OF+SM+GWS+GWR
(Where P-precipitation, I-infiltration, AET-actual evapotranspiration, OF-overland flow, SM-change in soil
moisture, GWS-change in ground water storage, GWRground water runoff)
Fig. 6: Classified Slope Map
Thornthwaite-Mather model uses long-term average

monthly rainfall, long-term average monthly potential
evapo-transpiration
and
soil
and
vegetation
characteristics.
PET is calculated from the empirical equation
PET=16f [10t0/J]a where PET-monthly potential evapo
transpiration in mm
t0 monthly mean temperature in C
Fig. 7: FCC of Study Area
f-A factor to correct for unequal day length between

different months
12
J-annual heat index given by J= j
1
j-monthly heat index obtained by j= (t0/5)1.514
and a is a coefficient given by
a = [675*10-9] J3 (771*10-7) J2 + (179*10-4) J+0.492
Fig. 8: Digital Elevation Model
The cross operation was performed between land-use map

and soil textural map. The cross thus obtained was again
crossed with classified slop map and then with runoff
f can be obtained from readily available tables that

provide values of f for given location (latitude and
longitude).
190
CALCULATION OF WATER BALANCE

COMPONENTS
the area. The distribution of the three texture classes is

shown in table 3 and figure 10.
Knowing the precipitation (P) and PET values for each

month, the difference between P and PET can be
calculated. The two seasons are defined as wet and dry
seasons. The wet season when rainfall exceeds the evapotranspiration and dry season when the meteorological
demand is not satisfied by precipitation that has fallen in
the same month. The severity of the dry season increases
during the sequence of months with excessive PET, and
this is expressed as accumulated potential water loss
(APWL), which is the accumulation of negative values of
(P-PET) for dry season only. The summation begins at the
end of wet season. The difference between P and PET
will be at least partly made up by the withdrawal of soil
water. The available water capacity of soil type depends
on the texture of the soil and the rooting depth of
vegetation. The soil moisture status for each month with
evapo-transpiration exceeding precipitation is obtained by
Table 3: Different Land use classes
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
Land use
Clay
Clay Loam
Sandy Clay Loam
Percentage
area
59.24
24.28
16.49
Total:
Area (ha.)
34389.50
14095.70
9571.80
58057.00
The slope (percentage) map prepared was classified into

seven categories as per IMSD guidelines. The distribution
is shown in table.4 and figure 11.
SM = W * exp(-La/w)
Where SM-soil moisture in mm
La-accumulated potential water loss in mm
W-water capacity in mm
Table 4: Different Percentage Slope Classes
Sl.
No.
Slope Class
Slope
%
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Nearly level
Very Gentle Slope
Gentle Slope
Moderate Slope
Strongly Sloping
Moderate to steep slope
Steep slope
0-1
1-3
3-5
5-10
10-15
15-35
>35
Percentage
Area
51.57
41.22
4.25
1.26
0.46
1.01
0.24
The water balance is calculated for all the types of water

holding zones in the water shed. Once the water balance
components of the individual water holding are available,
the weighted average of all the water balance components
for the entire watershed is calculated. A 500m buffer zone
map was created for built-up areas.
Based on the land use study the area has been divided into
five categories. The distribution is shown in table.2 and
figure 9.
Fig. 9: Pie Chart of Different Land use classes
Table 2: Different Land use classes
Sl.
No.
Land use
Percentage area
Area (ha.)
1.
Agriculture
86.84
50299.12
2.
Scrubs
0.47
3.
Waste Land
0.65
377.48
4.
Water Body
12.2
7084.60
5.
Built-up Land
0.04
23.96
Fig. 10: Pie Chart of Different Soil Texture classes
271.84
Total:
58057.00
Physiographic soil texture classes were obtained by

considering land use/land cover and drainage pattern of
Fig. 11: Pie Chart of Different Slope classes
191
Table 5: Monthly Water Balanced Components for the Entire Study Area Using TM Model
Components
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
1
6
4
13
28
103
Rainfall (P)
105.08
124.84
177.08
185.4
213.04
177.4
PET(mm)
4.83
6
3.53
10.04 21.48 78.97
AET (mm)
1.79
1.13
3.13
6.58
24.06
Runoff (mm) 1.02
The PET calculations were done using Thornthwaite

method. In this method only temperature data is required.
The different type of land use/soil texture combinations
(water holding zones) are obtained after crossing the land
use/land cover map and the soil texture map. Water
balance calculations are done for each individual water
holding zones monthly water balance components are
computed for the entire study area is given in table 5 and
figure 12.
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
(mm)
719
139
135
168
94
25
100.6
96.78
118.5
119.42
105.3
100.82 1564.27
80.97
78.02
95.8
86.74
45.14
13.98
525.49
32.45
31.9
51.78
28.22
8.98
2.27
193.31
are close to drain or the drainage. Hence, water

availability for these structures can be conformed. The
buffer map created for built up are was overlaid (fig.6) on
the site suitability map. It is seen that some portion of the
identified locations of rainwater harvesting structures fall
within the buffer zones.
Hence, all the sites outside the buffer zone can be
developed for the suitable structures.
LIMITATIONS
The results obtained in this study can be improved by
incorporating the following points:
1. Due to unavailability of daily rainfall, the monthly
annual average rainfall was used for runoff potential
calculation. The results can be more accurate for the
computation of the runoff potential by using the daily
rainfall data based model instead of monthly data
based model.
Fig. 12: Monthly Water Balance Components using TM

Model
The annual run off from the study area is 193.31mm out
of the annual rainfall of 719mm. In the study, run off
from the settlement areas is calculated assuming run off
as 70% of the rain fall.
From the annual values obtained from each land use-soil
textural classes, the runoff potential map was generated
and is classified into no run off, low run off, moderate run
off and high run off potential zones.
Difference structures were identified by integrating land
use map, soil texture map, classified slope map and run
off potential map. The identified sites are given in table.6.
Table 6: Water Harvesting Potential Zones
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Land use
Check Dam
Farm Pond
Percolation Tanks
Bundis
2. The locations and area suitable for water harvesting

structures can be further modified by field checking
and
considering
the
socio-economic
and
environmental factors.
CONCLUSIONS
Rainfall in the area is very low and erratic, which shows
an annual average runoff of 26.84% from waste land
and settlement, while there is no runoff from agriculture
and scrubs. From the water balance study it is found that
there is no surplus water available for runoff in most of
the soil moisture classes (combination of land use and soil
texture). It indicates the hydrological drought condition in
the region. Since, there is no high runoff potential areas
(except built upland, which is unsuitable for water
harvesting) available in the area, no sites are suitable for
check dam.
An area of 1475 ha. is suitable for farm ponds, 100.76 ha.
is suitable for Nala bund and percolation tanks and about
1677.68 ha. area is found suitable for water harvesting
bundies.
Percentage area
Nil
1474.84
100.76
1677.68
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the sites found for various structured were checked by

overlaying the drainage map. It is found that all the sites
The author thanks the Management and Principal of

Vasavi College of Engineering for sponsoring him for the
course. The author also thanks the Dean and Scientists of
192
Water Resources Division at IIRS, Dehradun, for the

opportunity given to attend the NNRMS course. Thanks
are due to authors friend Dilip G., Durbude of NIH,
Belgaum, Karnataka and Mahesh Kumar Jat, Malviya
RECE, Jaipur for helping him in this study.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
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Rain Water Harvesting A RS approach, National
conference on the potential of water harvesting in 1998.
Ram Kumar. N (1998) Decision making in selecting
suitable sites for Water Harvesting Structures, a case study
Neyyar Reservoir Catchment, WRD IIRS, Dehradun.
Guidelines for Watershed Development by Ministry of
Rural Areas and Employment by Department of
Wasteland Development, Government of India (1994).
Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development,
Technical Guidelines (1995) by NRSA, Department of
Space, Government of India.
Jain. S.K, Dash. A.K and Singh Ranvir-GIS for
estimation of Direct runoff potential
[6]
Thornthwaite C.W. & Mather J.R. (1957) Instructions

and tables for computing potential evapo-transpiration and
water balance, Laboratory of climatology, publication no.
10, Centerton, N.J.
[7] Varma H.N. and Tiwari K.N. (1995) Current status and
prospects of Rain-Water Harvesting, Indian National
Committee on Hydrology (INCOH), National Institute of
Hydrology Roorkee, India.
[8] Dr. S.P. Agarwal and Biswas, Joydeep-Watershed
Conservation Planning and its assessment by using GIS
Project Report, IIRS, Dehradun.
[9] Mithra. S. Jane (1998), Water Balance Study of
Errakalava Catchment, A RS and GIS Approach, IIRSDehradun.
[10] Analysis of Land Soil and Water in the Neyyer
Catchment, a Case Study CESS Technical Reports (1998).
[11] Anonymous Handbook of Hydrology, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India (1972).
[12] Land and Water Management Engineering by V.V.N.
Murthy.
193
Environmental Facilities

General Circulation Models:

Are They Useful in Projecting Future Climate?
K. Shashikanth2 and P. Rajasekhar1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad.

2
RS, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai.
ABSTRACT
Climate plays a significant role in many of the earths vital resources and quality of the human life. Hence, there
is a need to study and understand the climate at a macro and microscopic levels. Due to industrialization and
excessive use of fossil fuels lead to the growth of unprecedented levels of green house gases causing the
inequilibrium of heat balance of the earth and resulted in higher temperatures, modified precipitation changes,
rise in sea level etc. Concerns are expressed by planners, politicians, administrators on the extent of these
changes on to the climate. Their concerns are not only for the present but also for the future. Assessing the
impacts of climate change essentially involves projections of climate variables in to the local scale environment.
Projections of climate variables at global scales are studied by General Circulation Models (GCMs). GCMs are
3 dimensional models encompasses fundamental laws of physics namely conservation of energy, momentum,
mass and ideal gas laws in to it. They attempt to represent the physical processes in atmosphere, oceans,
cryosphere and land surface. GCMs are a class of computer driven models for weather forecasting,
understanding and projecting climate change. GCMs are the excellent in large spatial scales however, they
represent poorly at local/ sub grid scales. GCMs simulate the climate variables reasonably well but they do not
project well the hydro meteorological variables.
INTRODUCTION
Climate system is defined as totality of atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere and geo-sphere and their
interactions. Global climate varies as a result of complex
nonlinear interactions involving water cycle in oceans,
atmosphere and land surface, snow ice, other bodies of
water and living things. Climate system evolves over time
under the influence of its own internal dynamics and due
to changes in external factors that affect climate. Solar
system powers the climate system. The intergovernmental
panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is scientific body given
the task of assessing the recent socio- technical
economical information generated worldwide and provide
information and understanding of the climate. It is trying
to provide the clear current state of climate and its effect
on environment.
General Circulation Models [GCMs] are the 3
Dimensional models representing physical processes in
the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and land surface, are
the most advanced tools currently available for simulating
the response of the global climate system to increasing
greenhouse gas concentrations[ Taylor et al 2012, Ghosh
and Mujumdar, 2008]. In the GCM model, the globe is
divided in to three dimensional grids [Fig 1] in each of the
grids basic equations of physics, fluid motion,
conservation of energy, momentum, ideal gas laws are
solved numerically and climate results are obtained.
Atmospheric models calculate winds, heat transfer,
radiation, relative humidity, and surface hydrology within

each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring
points. GCMs are the class of computer driven models for
weather forecasting, understanding of climate and
projecting the climate for future time periods.
GCMS are the latest tools which are developed to
simulate the present climate and as well as used to
simulate the future climate with forcing by green house
gases and aerosols. These global models exhibit a
significant skill at the continental and hemispheric spatial
scales and incorporate a large proportion of the
complexity of the global system. They are inherently
unable to represent local sub grid scale features and
dynamics [Shashikanth et al 2013].
The climate system is too complex for the human brain to
grasp with simple insight. No scientist managed to devise
a page of equations that explained the global atmosphere's
operations. With the coming of digital computers in the
1950s, a small American team set out to model the
atmosphere as an array of thousands of numbers. The
work spread during the 1960s as computer modelers
began to make decent short-range predictions of regional
weather. Modeling long-term climate change for the
entire planet, however, was held back by lack of computer
power, ignorance of key processes such as cloud
formation, inability to calculate the crucial ocean
circulation, and insufficient data on the world's actual
climate. By the mid 1970s, enough had been done to
197
Fig. 1: GCM Model components (Source: Wikipedia )
overcome these deficiencies so that Syukuro Manabe

could make a quite convincing calculation. He reported
that the Earth's average temperature should rise a few
degrees if the level of carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere doubled. This was confirmed in the following
decade by increasingly realistic models. Skeptics
dismissed them all, pointing to dubious technical features
and the failure of models to match some kinds of data. By
the late 1990s these problems were largely resolved, and
most experts found the predictions of overall global
warming plausible. Yet modelers could not be sure that
the real climate, with features their equations still failed to
represent [IPCC 2007].
Parameterizations are used to include the effects of

various processes. All modern AGCMs include
parameterizations for:
o convection
o land surface processes, albedo and hydrology
o cloud cover
OCEANIC GCMS
TYPES OF GCMS
Atmospheric GCMs coupled to a three- dimensional

representation of the ocean system (one in which ocean
currents and heat transport are represented) and with
simple land surface parameterization schemes (e.g.
UKTR).
Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs)
Atmospheric-Ocean GCM Models
Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere

(and contain a land-surface model as well) and impose sea
surface temperatures (SSTs). They may include
atmospheric chemistry.
AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate

models. They are the only tools that could provide
detailed regional predictions of future climate change.
However, they are still under development. The simpler
models are generally susceptible to simple analysis and
their results are generally easy to understand. AOGCMs,
by contrast, are often nearly as hard to analyze as the real
climate system.
AGCMs consist of a dynamical core which integrates

the equations of fluid motion, typically for:
o surface pressure
o horizontal components of velocity in layers
o temperature and water vapor in layers
There is generally a radiation code, split into
solar/short wave and terrestrial/infra-red/long wave
Moreover, many physical processes, such as those related

to clouds, also occur at smaller scales and cannot be
properly modelled. Instead, their known properties must
be averaged over the larger scale in a technique known as
parameterization. This is one source of uncertainty in
198
General Circulation Models: Are They Useful in Projecting Future Climate?
GCM-based simulations of future climate. Others relate to

the simulation of various feedback mechanisms in models
concerning, for example, water vapour and warming,
clouds and radiation, ocean circulation and ice and snow
albedo. For this reason, GCMs may simulate quite
different responses to the same forcing, simply because of
the way certain processes and feedbacks are modeled [
Knutii 2008].
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change in general refers to any systematic change
in long term statistics of climate elements (such as
temperature, pressure or winds) and that persists for
extended period for more than decades or longer time
periods. (American Meteorological Society, http://
www.amsglossary.allenpress.com/ glossary). It refers to
any change in climate over time, whether due to natural or
manmade (Intergovernmental panel on climate change
IPCC, 2007). The main culprits for climate change are
changes in the atmospheric emissions of green house
gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation, which
alters the energy balance of climate system. They affect
the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within
the atmosphere and at the Earth surface.
Due to improved understanding how climate is evolving
in space and time under climate change has been gained
through extensive use of data and data analysis. Changes
in the ocean and on land including observed decreases in
snow cover, thinner ice sea extent, observations of
increases in global average air and ocean temperatures,
wide spread melting of snow and rising global average
sea level has been reported. Eleven of the last twelve
years 1995-2006 rank among the twelve warmest years in
the instrumental record of global surface temperature
since 1850 ( Fig 2). It is reported that the temperature
increases is wide spread over the globe and is greater in
higher northern latitudes. Average temperature at Arctic
regions has doubled in the last 100 years. It is observed
that the global surface temperature have gone up 0.74 C
per century [IPCC, 2007]. Land regions have warmed
higher than oceans. Sea level rise is consistent with the
warming trends and global average sea level rise has risen
since at an average rate of 1.8 mm/ year since 1961 and
increased to 3.1 mm /year from 1993 onwards. Observed
decreases in snow and ice extent are also increasing due
to warming. Satellite data since 1978 show that annual
average Arctic ice extent has shrunk by 2.7 % per decade.
From 1900- 2005, the precipitation increased significantly
in eastern parts of North and South America, Northern
Europe and Northern and central Asia but declined in
Sahel, the Mediterranean, south Africa and parts of
Southern Asia. Globally the areas affected by drought
have likely increased since the 1970s.Some extreme
events of excessive amounts of rainfall have also
increased over the past 50 years The consequences of
global warming are reflected in global as well as regional
climate in terms of changes in key climatic variables such

as precipitation and atmospheric moisture, snow cover,
extent of land and sea ice, sea level and patterns in
atmospheric and ocean circulation. Therefore, study of
climate change is necessary to understand its impact on
hydrological processes. Water resources are inextricably
linked with climate so the prospect of global climate
change has serious implications for water resources and
regional development (IPCC, 2007).
Fig. 2: Variation of the Earth's surface temperature for the

past 140 years ( IPCC 2007)
(Red bars: Earth's surface temperature year by year, Black

line: moving average temperature, Black bars: Bias in
temperature)
BIAS CORRECTION TECHNIQUE
Bias correction technique is applied to a predictor
predicted by GCM. Bias indicates systematic error in the
measurement of a variable by GCM due to various
reasons but mainly due to incomplete knowledge of
physical processes and influence of numerical methods
for solving differential equations. It is necessary that it
should be removed.
DOWNSCALING TECHNIQUES
Downscaling is a process in which the hydrological
variables of interest are projected to a smaller scale based
on the outputs received from GCMs. Downscaling is of
two types
i) Dynamic Downscaling
ii) Statistical Downscaling
The poor performances of GCMs at local and regional
scales have lead to the development of Limited Area
Models (LAMs) in which fine computational grid over a
limited area combined within a coarse grid of GCM. This
procedure is known as dynamic downscaling. A major
drawback of dynamic downscaling is its complicated
design and high computational cost.
Another approach to downscaling is statistical
downscaling, in which regional or local information about
a hydrological variable is derived by first finding the
199
statistical relationship between large scale climate

variables to the regional or local scale hydrologic
variable. Then the large scale output of a GCM simulation
is fed in to this statistical model to estimate the
corresponding local or regional hydrologic characteristic
(Wilby et al 2004). Statistical methods further classified
in to weather generators, weather typing and transfer
function based technique.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
[3]
The GCMs are at present only the tools available to study

the climate at huge spatial scales. However the GCM data
products can not used directly for the study area because
of bias and absence of local scale features. Therefore
downscaling is necessary for GCM data to be used for the
study area. The climate related variables are well
simulated by the GCMs however hydrological variables
are not well simulated by the GCMs.
[1]
[2]
[4]
[5]
200
Knutti, Reto (2008) Should we believe in model

predictions of future climate change Phil.Trans.R.Soc.A,
366, 4647-4664, DOI 10.1098/rsta.2008.0169.
Taylor, Karl E., Ronald J. Stouffer, Gerald A. Meehl,
2012: An Overview of CMIP5 and the Experiment
Design. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 93, 485498.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1
IPCC (2007), climate change 2007: the physical science
base, Contribution of working Group I to the fourth
assessment report of IPCC.
Ghosh, S., and Mujumdar, P.P., (2009) Climate change
Impact assessment: Uncertainty modeling with imprecise
probability, J. Geophys. Res. Vol. 114, D18113,2009.
Shashikanth,.K, Kaustubh Salvi, Subimal Ghosh, and K.
Rajendran (2013) Do CMIP5 simulations of Indian
summer monsoon rainfall differ from those of CMIP3?
Atmos. Sci. Let. (2013) Published online in Wiley Online
Librarywileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/asl2.466.

Fuzzy Based Approach of Water Quality Assessment

in Hussain Sagar Lake
P. Raja Sekhar1, G. Shiva Kumar2 and M. Aditya3
1
Associate Professor, 2Student (B.E), 3Student (M.E)
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering (Autonomous), Osmania University, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
A fuzzy logic knowledge based approach for integrating water quality sampling data and the results from a
geographic information system (GIS) environment to predict subwatersheds at risk to various types of pollutants.
The study area was the Hussain sagar lake Watershed, located in Hyderabad. The study involved building a
large spatial database for the watershed in GIS and the results of this model were combined with water quality
parameters through the use of a weighted fuzzy logic method. This was done for three categories of pollutants
physical, chemical and biological. The fuzzy logic analysis produces pollution risk maps where watershed was
assigned a value known as fuzzy index corresponding to its risk for each pollutant group. Decision makers can
use this information to help remediate pollution.
Keywords Fuzzy logic, Risk assessment, Fuzzy sets, Water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Fuzzy logic is a many-valued complex mathematical logic
that allows solving difficult simulated problems by
assigning values to an imprecise spectrum of data in order
to arrive at the most accurate conclusion possible. It is
designed to solve problems in by considering all available
information and making the best possible decision for the
given input. Fuzzy logic is able to give results in the form
of recommendation for a specific interval of output state.
It deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than
fixed and exact. Compared to traditional binary sets
(where variables may take on true or false values like
propositions having a value of truth or falsity) fuzzy logic
variables may have a truth value that ranges in degree
between 0 and 1. Fuzzy logic has been extended to handle
the concept of partial truth, where the truth value may
range between completely true and completely false.
Furthermore, when linguistic variables are used, these
degrees may be managed by specific functions.
Irrationality can be described in terms of what is known
as the fuzzjective.
Both degrees of truth and probabilities range between 0
and 1 but fuzzy logic uses truth degrees as a mathematical
model of the vagueness phenomenon while probability is
a mathematical model of ignorance.
Linguistic variables in fuzzy logic - While variables in
mathematics usually take numerical values, in fuzzy logic
applications, the non-numeric linguistic variables are
often used to facilitate the expression of rules and facts.
The great utility of linguistic variables is that they can be
modified via linguistic hedges (which can be associated

with certain functions) applied to primary terms.
AREA OF INTEREST
Hussain sagar lake is an artificial lake that holds water
perennially fed by influent streams or canals (now called
nalas) and its outlet leads to Musi River. After 1930,
Gradually the lake became receptacle of sewage and
industrial effluents from catchment areas. Due to
eutrophication, algal bloom, growth of water weeds and
bad odour the water body became redundant for
recreation and pisci-culture. The water quality has
deteriorated considerably and the lake has become
shallow due to siltation and accumulation of plant debris.
Hussain sagar Lake Characteristics:
Coordinates: 17.45ON - 78.5O E.
Total catchment area = 240 Sq. km.
Present Water spread area @ FTL = 4.81 Sq. km.
Shore line length = 14 km.
Maximum depth of the lake is 9.75 m.
Average depth at full capacity = 5.02 m.
Full Tank Level (FTL) = 513.43 m (above MSL).
There are about 80 lakes in the catchment area of
Hussainsagar Lake.
COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
Sampling near shore, near inflows, or in the downwind
direction where prevailing winds blow algae,
201
Fig. 1: Hussain sagar lake and its catchment area
zooplankton, and debris down the lake and toward the

sampling point is avoided. If collected, samples in these
areas are less representative of the lakes overall water
quality. During sample collection things recorded are the
presence of storm water runoff pipes or culverts, types of
shoreline vegetation (lawns, native vegetation, or
agricultural land), Range of temperature change,
Probability of shadow formation on the water surface due
to adjacent structures and adjacent land use.
A total of nine samples are collected at about the same

time of day (at 9:30am) and the location of the sampling
points is fixed based on the location, Periodical change in
water level and development of pressure around the point
in the lake.
Table 1: Inflow Peak discharges at different Nalas of

Hussain sagar
S.No
Nala & Location of

I&Ds
1 Picketnala Opp: Kims

Hospital
2 Balkapur Channel
3 Yousufguda Nala near
Divyashakthi Apt
4 Bajara Nala near
Yashoda Hospital
5 Kukatpally Nala at
Fathenagar
Prakashnagar
Necklace Road (New)
Total
Peak
Enhanced for
projected
population of
2021
Peak
15 MLD
171 MLD
22 MLD
52 MLD
23 MLD
--
12 MLD
--
75 MLD
185 MLD
30 MLD
44 MLD
100 MLD
177 MLD
552 MLD
Existing
Fig. 2: Sample collection approach

Table 2: Sampling Points
Samples
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
Sample 7
Sample 8
Sample 9
202
Location/Collection Point
Kukatpally Nala at I&D Fathe Nagar
Jeedimetla Nala before Confluence Point
Kukatpally Nala before Confluence Point
Jeedimetla Nala before CETP (Narsapur
Road)
Kukatpally Nala Bridge at Necklace
Road
Balkapur nala at Khairathabad
Picket nala at I&D structure
Buddha statues front face
Surplus outlet at Liberty (BPPA office)
Fig. 3: Modelling Process
FUZZY EXPERIMENTATION
A spatial database for the watershed was constructed from
calculated (from series of experiments) and publicly
available data using ArcGIS software which included
layers for topography, land cover, water characteristics,
hydrologic features. The information from these databases
was combined to form a complete understanding of what
was known about the water quality sampling for each site.
The results of the GIS model is combined with the water
quality information and land use data layers in fuzzy logic
model. Three different fuzzy logic models were run one
each for physical characteristics, chemical characteristics
and organics or biological characteristics.
Fuzzy logic can be used as an overlay analysis technique
to solve traditional overlay analysis applications such as
site selection and suitability models. The premise behind
fuzzy logic is that there are inaccuracies in attribute and in
the geometry of spatial data. It provides techniques to
address both types of inaccuracies, but fuzzy logic, as it
pertains to overlay analysis, focuses on inaccuracies in
attribute data.
Fuzzy logic focuses on modelling the inaccuracies of
class boundaries specifically addresses situations when
the boundaries between classes are not clear. The value 1
indicates full certainty that the value is in the set, and 0
indicates with full certainty that it is not in the set. All
other values are some level of possibility, with the higher
values indicating more likelihood of membership. The
process of transforming the original input values to the 0
to 1 scale of possibility of membership is called the
fuzzification process and the the Fuzzy Membership tool
is used to transform the data.
The two main steps in fuzzy logic for overlay analysis are
the fuzzification, or the fuzzy membership process, and
fuzzy overlay analysis. These two steps correlate to the
reclassify/transform and the add/combine steps,
respectively, in the general overlay process.
The fuzzification process characterizes the imprecision of
classes for phenomena that do not have sharply defined
boundaries. It converts the original values of the
phenomenon to the possibility that they belong to a
defined set. The original values of the phenomenon are
reclassified on this membership continuum through
predefined fuzzy membership functions or through any
other reclassification techniques.
These parameters that are fuzzified with can have
different shapes. The shapes considered are triangular,
trapezoidal. Sinusoidal and exponential shapes can be also
used. The degree of membership function is determined
by placing a chosen input variable on the horizontal axis,
while vertical axis shows quantification of grade of
membership of the input variable. In the fuzzification
process, the ideal definition for membership to the set is
defined. Each value of the phenomenon more central to
the core of the definition of the set will be assigned as 1.
Those values that are definitely not part of the set are
assigned a 0. Those values that fall between the two
extremes fall in the transitional zone of the set, the
boundary. As the values move away from the ideal or the
center of the set, they are assigned a decreasing value on a
continuous scale from 1 to 0. As the assigned values
decrease, the original phenomenon value has less
possibility of being a member of that set.
The fuzzification value of 0.5 is taken as the crossover
point and any fuzzy value that is > 0.5 implies that the
original phenomenon value may be a member of the set.
203
As the fuzzification values go below 0.5, it is less likely

that the original phenomenon's value is a member of the
set; the values may not be part of the set.
dissolved oxygen, pH, BOD and suspended solids.

Finally, fuzzy inference systems similar to the one
described here were applied by Jinturkar et al. (2010) to
assess the quality of an Indian aquifer and by Lermontov
et al. (2009) to express the water quality in a Brazilian
watershed. This FQI is based on lake water parameters.
Fuzzification consists of translating numerical data into
the degree of membership (DOM) with respect to a set of
predefined functions, here labeled low, medium, and high.
The fuzzy inference consists of a set of logical rules
(Ri : i 1; 2; ::: n) where
Ri : If {DO is DOi and TSS is TSSi and BOD is BODi}
Antecedents
then {FQI is FQIi};
(1)
Consequent
Fig. 4: Fuzzy membership function diagram (Gaussian).
Universe of discourse (a range of all possible values

considered as fuzzy system input) is taken as all possible
valves of environmental parameters taken in to
consideration and the fuzzy sets (F(x) - a function from
the reference set X to the unit interval) of corresponding
parameters are recorded such that : X [0,1].The
centre of a fuzzy set F is taken as the point (or points) at
which F(u) achieves its maximum value.
The fig: 5(D) is a risk map representing fuzzy classified
pH data in which darker the shade, the basic the pH of
water is, and the lighter the shade the more acidic the pH
of water is (White colour means Acidic and black implies
alkaline).
FUZZY QUALITY INDEX (FQI)
Synthetic environmental indicators based on fuzzy logic
were preferred by Ganoulis (1994) for the ability to deal
with information imprecision and the merit of reducing
the data dimensionality. Later Chang et al. (2001)
proposed a water quality index based on fuzzy clustering
(Bezdek 1981) and a fuzzy similarity measure based on
in which the composition of the antecedents (Say

Dissolved oxygen, Total suspended solids, Biochemical
oxygen demand) implies the consequent, defined in an
arbitrary range FQIi = Ii where i= [1; 2; 3; 4; 5] (Say) with 1
representing the worst quality and 5 the best.
The inference systems is composed of a finite number of
tabulated fuzzy rules, selected after testing many
combinations and discarding the illogical ones. Finally,
the FQI is obtained by weighted average defuzzification
method.
According to the weight values and the degree of
membership for fuzzy output, the crisp value of output
i.e., defuzzified output FQI is determined by the
following formula
where each FQIi is weighted by the consequent DOM i.e.,

FQIi is the fuzzy output weighted value for output
Fig. 5: Image Showing (A)Sample collection points, (B)pH Analysis by GIS, (C)Reclassified Zones of pH, (D)Risk
assessment map (Fuzzy classified pH data).
204
singleton i; Vi resulting from the product composition of

the antecedents in each instance of Equation (1), i.e.,
Based on the information obtained from the simulation,

authorities and decision makers can design optimal
strategy in which sampling stations, and experimental
analysis costs can be reduced.
The three current quality values are fuzzified by

comparing the current value to the three memberships
(low; moderate; high) and the resulting degrees of
membership enter the inference systems of Table 3. The
subsequent defuzzification yields the FQI.
Future work will be aimed at extending the model validity

by adding more quality variables, improving the rule base,
expanding the paradigm of the scenarios, Extending the
fuzzy logic model parameter rankings by sensitivity
analysis and comparing with the Analytical Hierarchy
process.
Table 3: Inference rules defining the FQI
Antecedents
If {(DO is DOM) and (TSS is TSSL)
and (BOD is BODL)}
If {(DO is DOM) and (TSS is TSSM)
and (BOD is BODL)}
If {(DO is DOL) and (TSS is TSSM)
and (BOD is BODL)}
If {(DO is DOL) and (TSS is TSSH) and
(BOD is BODL)}
If {(DO is DOM) and (TSS is TSSH)
and (BOD is BODL)}
If {(DO is DOL) and (TSS is TSSM)
and (BOD is BODM)}
If {(DO is DOL) and (TSS is TSSH) and
(BOD is BODM)}
If {(DO is DOM) and (TSS is TSSM)
and (BOD is BODM)}
If {(DO is DOH) and (TSS is TSSM)
and (BOD is BODM)}
If {(DO is DOH) and (TSS is not TSSL)
and (BOD is BODL)}
Consequent
REFERENCES
then I is I5
[1]
then I is I4
then I is I2
[2]
then I is I1
[3]
then I is I3
then I is I2
[4]
then I is I1
[5]
then I is I3
[6]
then I is I3
then I is I2
CONCLUSIONS
[7]
This paper has presented a preliminary study for Hussain

sagar lake restoration. The exercise consisted of three
parts: the synthesis of the input time-series by creating a
multi layer geospatial database of hussain sagar lake in
GIS environment, the structuring of the free surface water
of lake in GIS model and the defining of a quality index
based on fuzzy logic to describe the lake water quality.
The hypothesis was that the multiple data layers could be
combined using fuzzy logic knowledge based analysis to
delineate the subwatersheds at high risk for pollution from
3 categories physical, chemical and Biological.
The simulation show that the lake water is moderately
polluted and can be indeed improved by changing the
quality of the water received from the drainage channels
(Nalas). The FQI proved adequate to describe the water
quality and to compare several scenarios, showing that the
mid-spring tomid-autumn period is the most critical and
conrming, with its small variations, that the lake is
robust enough to withstand signicant load uctuations.
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
205
Jinturkar, A. M., Deshmukh, S. S., Agarkar, S.

V.&Chavhan, G. R. 2010 Determination of water quality
index by fuzzy logic approach: a case of ground water in
an Indian town. Water Science and Technology 61 (8),
19871994.
Lermontov, A., Yokoyama, L., Lermontov, M. & Soares
Machado, M. A. 2009 River quality analysis using fuzzy
water quality index: Ribeira do Iguape river watershed,
Brazil. Ecological Indicators 9 (6), 11881197.
Chang, N. B., Chen, H.W.&Ning, S. K. 2001
Identification of river water quality using the fuzzy
synthetic evaluation approach. Journal of Environmental
Management 63 (3), 293305.
Ganoulis, J. 1994 Engineering Risk Analysis of Water
Pollution. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 306.
Bezdek, J. C. 1981 Pattern Recognition with Fuzzy
Objective Function Algorithms. Plenum Press, New York,
pp. 256.
A Geographic Information System-based Fuzzy Logic
Approach to Modeling Non-Point Source Pollution
Critical Areas in the Verde Watershed, Arizona by
Dr.Stuart E. Marsh, Professor of Arid Lands Resource
Sciences and Christian Will Black School of Natural
Resources the University of Arizona, U.S.A.
Ross T.J., Hassanein H., ALI A.N.,: Fuzzy logic with
engineering applications: design and stability analysis. 3rd
ed. Chichester (Royaume Uni): Wiley, 2010, xxvii, 275 p.
ISBN 978-047-0748-510.
P.Sudha Rani TH 614.7: S94E (2004), Environmental
monitoring of Hussain sagar lake water, Hyd.
Krishna Kumar TH 591.5: K92E (1979), An ecological
analysis of integration of ciliate protozoa and water quality
fluctuations in lake hussain sagar consequent influx of
industrial effluent, OU, Hyd.
Applying fuzzy logic to overlay rasters, esri ArcGIS
Resources (http://resources.arcgis.com).
Executive Engineers of BPPA and APPCB, Hyd, A.P.,
India.
Basic principles of Fuzzy logic, Vydno dne 01. 08. 2012
(5814 peten).
Kaehler S.D.,: Fuzzy Logic Tutorial. Seattle Robotics
Society [online]. 1998. ed. [cit. 2012-08-22]. Avaible at:
http://www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/mar98/fuz/flindex.
html.
Fuzzy Logic. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Stanford University. 2006-07-23. Retrieved 2008-09-30


P. Ramu1 and U. Ramesh2
1
Civil Engineering Department, 2Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies IIIT

Email: abhiram.penki@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In present era water sources are drastically decreasing, there is no abundant source to meet the present demand
of water; So we should adopt a better result yielding procedures that reduce the cost of construction &
maintenance. so the main aim is to construct a automatic drainage cleaning system this phenomena includes by
finding out supply of water to a urban area and finding out the Runoff and by providing better elevation design
to automatically clean the waste water
Instead of solely depending upon fossil fuels to produce biogas, we can go for production of environmental
friendly Biogas from the drainage waste, collected from the various sources of drainage water and solid waste
(except plastic).
In addition to above automatic cleaning drainage system where the total waste water flow is very high, by using
Microbial Fuel Cells in Aerobic and Anaerobic biological system and can be produce the electricity.
we can make use of Biomanure as fertilizers which has abundant essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium. It will increase soil fertility so that high yielding of the crops can be possible and it can accommodate
nations food scarcity.
Our theoretical study gives the new proposal for cleaning drainage and various outputs from the resultants.
Keywords Drainage Cleaning, Ductility mechanism, Electricity, Microbial Fuel Cells, Biogas and Biomanure.
DRAINAGE DESIGNING: (Refer Photograph 1)
Surface Run-Off Coefficient (C)
Catchment Areas (Assuming Area Data)
Coefficient of Bituminous Road (C1) = 0.95
Flexible Pavement Road and Shoulders
Coefficient of Build up area (C2) = 0.8
Length of the Area = 3km
Coefficient of Grass (C3) = 0.1
Width of the area = 10.5 m (2lanes+shoulders)
Coefficient of Gravel surface = 0.35
Area = Length* Width
Weighted value of Run-off coefficient
= 3*10.5
C = ((C1A1) + (C2A2) + (C3A3)) / (A1+A2+A3)

2
=. 0315 km
Area of Land on other side drains

(Build up area)
= 850 hectares
= 8.5 km2
Area covered with build-up
area another side
= 1000 hectares
= 10 km2
Area covered with grass
= 80 hectares
= 0.8 km2
Total Catchment area
= 19.3315 km2
C=((0.95*0.315)+(0.8*18.53)
+(0.1*0.8))/(0.315+18.53+0.8)
C = 0.773901204
The Run-off Coefficient C = 0.773901204
Peak Flow (Q) = 0.278*C*I*A
Where Q = Quantity of Rain water surface run-off in
m3/sec
C = Surface Run-off Coefficient
I = Maximum Rainfall Intensity in mm/hour
A = Size of Surface Area to be drained in km2
C= 0.773901204 I = 1094 mm/hour
206
A = 19.3315 km2
Here taking data from Average Rainfall Intensity of
Coastal Andhra
If Telangana = 961mm; Rayalaseema = 680 mm
The rectangular shape requires less space but needs to be

lined with rock or concrete to maintain its shape. This
shape is often used in urban areas where there is limited
space for the drainage.
Trapezoid shaped side drain carries a high flow capacity
and by carefully selecting the right gradients for its side
slopes, will resist erosion.
Q = 0.278*0.773901204*1094*19.33151
= (4550.021184308) / (60*60)
= 1.263894*1000
= 1263.894 m3/sec
Quantity of Rain water Surface run-off Q = 1263.894
m3/Sec
Drainage Design
Q = A*V
Where Q = Quantity of Rain water surface runoff in
m3/sec
Fig. 3: Road side drainage
A = Cross section area in m2

V = Velocity of flow in m/sec
Velocity of flow for lined Structure = 1.5 m/sec
Fig. 4: Super passage truff drain
1) A = Q / V
= 1263.894 / 1.5
= 842.596 m2
Consider the Trapezoidal Section
Calculation
842.596 = 0.5(42+2D) d
842.596 = 21d + d2
d2 + 21d 842.596 = 0
d = 20.36
Formula: - x=-b (root (b2-4ac))/2
So T = 21+ 2d
T = 21+2*20.36
T = 61.730m
Slope = 1:1
b = 21m
Fig. 1: Road side drain
My proposal is after designing the above we have to

identify the Highest and Lowest Elevations of the area.
Based on that providing above design values at highest
elevation and increase the depth (2cm) every 20m reduced
level up to lower elevation point. Here we are adopting
Super passage truff model drainage to the road side
drainage because of the total sewage going under
trapezoidal section. If rain is falling then the availability
of water in the road is go to plant by using rectangular
drainage (above the trapezoidal). Construct one plant at
lower elevation point why because the total waste
collected by using mechanical device. After receiving the
waste we have to produce Electricity and Biogas, after
producing this some waste will remaining in plant that is
called Bio manure.
Fig. 2: Diff cross sections of road
207
PROPOSED AUTOMATIC CLEANING OF

MECHANICAL DEVICE
Here we are applying Ductility Machine Mechanism for
Cleaning Drainage. See below Ductility Machine diagram
Photo 2: Proposed Mechanism for Drainage cleaning
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION FROM WASTE

WATER
Microbial Fuel Cell divides into 2 hands i.e. 1) Aerobic
2) Anaerobic cells
Aerobic and Anaerobic chamber:-
Bio manure Now a days, synthetic/artificial fertilizers

have become an integrated part of agriculture. These
artificial fertilizers increased the fertility and now able to
create their own identity. These fertilizers are indirectly
causing a great havoc. According to an economic survey
of 2008-09, the usage has been increased from 05
kg/hectare in 1951-52 to 117.07 kg/hectare in 2007-08.
There is a false assumption that, more the usage of
fertilizer more is the yield. This excessive usage results in
pollution of ground water, decrease in fertility of soil,
having a lot of impact on humans due to accumulation of
chemicals in food material, ground water pollution leads
to health hazards, a better alternative has been suggesting
by the scientists, to used natural fertilizers like dug, waste
obtained from animal farming, discards from bio-gas
plant, vermin compost instead of that use of these natural
organic fertilizers helps in preserving the rhizosphere of
the environment of all, the bio-gas manure has proven to
be outstanding, it comprises of N, P, K nutrients in higher
concentration. Also includes 144ppm Zn, 188ppm Mn,
and 3550ppm Fe, 28ppm Cu. It increases the fertility of
soil and helps in better yields of crop. 20% nitrogen is
present in biogas manure in form of ammonia. High
nutrients present in bio-gas manure, facilitate the required
supply of air to roots of plants and sieves strength, there
by implying better yield. It also doesnt any sort of foul
odor as a result; it doesnt facilitate the growth of insects.
Natural fertilizers have been classified into two categories
i.e.,
1) Bulky organic fertilizers which includes farm hard
manures, wastes from bio-gas plant, varmi compost,
human wastes, compost, sludge etc.,
i) The bacteria on the anode decompose organic matter

and free H+ ions and electrons
ii) The electrons flow from the bacteria to the anode.
Sometimes assisted by a mediator molecule.
iii) Electrons flows up from the anode through a wire and
onto the cathode while flowing through the wire an
electrical current is generated that can be used to
perform work.
iv) H+ ions flow through the semi-permeable membrane
to cathode this process is driven by the electrochemical gradient resulting from the high
concentration of H+ ions near the anode
v) The electrons from the cathode combine with
dissolved O2 and the H+ ions to form pure H20
Biogas sewage coming from the drainage, in this
sewage containing raw water, mud, plastics, vegetable
waste and industrial wastes etc., the electricity producing
from raw water. So that the remaining wastes whatever
coming from the drainage that contains Methane so we
can produce Biogas.
2) Green manure crops includes sesbeeniya, sunhemp,

dhaincha etc. it means plants are grown in fields and
their organic matter is mixed along with soil, before
going for a new crop if a result the nutrients and
organic matter is restored to the soil which helps in
increase in fertility of soil. Varmi compost includes
the usage of worm which feeds on organic matter and
helps in decomposing them and providing nutrient
value for the soil. Varmi compost constitutes N, P, K,
0.16% Zn, 0.03% Cu, 1.38% Fe. Varmi compost
increases the water retaining capacity of soil and
facilitates the air supply for plant. Bio-gas manure
obtained contains 92-94% humidity. It strengthens the
yielding capacity of soil. Bio-gas manure is especially
useful for growth of gardening plants, aquatic form
etc. excessive use of chemical fertilizers results in the
extension of micro flora present in soil. As a result the
ground water pollutes. Bio manure proved itself in
mushroom culture and fish farming. Bio manure is of
three types liquid, semi dry and dry. Use of bio
manure in fish ponds helps in healthy growth of
fishes. Increases the immunity towards bacterial
diseases. From 30-40% to 95% bio manure usage in
mushroom culture gave good results. It makes the
growth of mushrooms 3-4 days faster than normal. It
208
increases the yield by 19-26% than normal. It can also

be used in horticulture, kitchen gardens and in growth
of fruit plants.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
Photo 1: Prototype model
209
Design of Road side Drainage Project Report by Ordinary

Diploma in Transportation Engineering
Microbial Fuel Cells: Generating Power from Waste by
Justin Mercer
Biomanure from Vijeta competitions magazine
(September 1-15, 2011)


P. Raja Sekhar1, G. Rakesh Kumar2 and G. Shiva Kumar3
1
Associate Professor, 2Student, 3Student
Department of Civil Engineering, University college of Engineering (Autonomous), Osmania University, Hyderbad.
ABSTRACT
The Numerical Model include water quality modelling by use of geostatistical modelling techniques to
understand the spatial scales of dynamics in a watershed. This model is a GIS-based watershed load model
and is basically a mass transport model (Transport and fate model) [which uses results of hydrodymanic
circulation model] allows one to simulate parameters governing water quality like nitrogen, phosphorus loads
discharged to the lake from the surrounding watershed or from influent primary stream system (Nalas). Results
from this simulation are expected to yield a satisfactory correspondence between simulated and measured water
parameters, enables watershed managers to prioritize effective management alternatives for protecting the water
quality and in determining water quality parameters at any anonymous point on the surface. Applicability of this
model is illustrated through a case study for The Hussain sagar lake, Hyderabad.
Keywords Numerical Model, ARCGIS Mapping, Water Characteristics, Data Sampling.
INTRODUCTION
The development of water quality models has reached an
extremely important stage. Clean water is becoming more
and more precious, and although it is known that in
absolute terms there is no 'clean water', in the
management of water quality, we are trying to reduce the
level of water pollution at the lowest possible cost. To
achieve this goal, We perform a lot of numerical
simulations to find out the best trade-off management
solution. The final goal of using water quality
management models is to simulate the consequences of
different measures that can be taken to improve the water
quality, and then to determine the measure which is
optimal in both economical and environmental sense.
Another advantage of water quality models is that we can
simulate different, even not quite well known, processes
and the response of a physical system to certain forcing.
By comparing the results of such simulations with field
measurements and observations we can better understand
physical, biological and chemical processes and find more
accurate mathematical descriptions of these processes.
long-term continuous monitoring is not currently being
conducted due to high costs. Therefore, there is a need for
an alternate tool such as a basin-scale hydrologic/water
quality model that is capable of predicting the effects of
land management with reasonable level of accuracy.
It is very important that the right choice and use of
numerical models can reduce to a minimum the number
of necessary usually very expensive - field measurements.
The Numerical water quality model is a complete
integrated model for the simulation of water quality

processes and transport, dispersion and the growth or
decay processes of the relevant quantity (i.e. of a
contaminant), through interaction with the biochemical
processes.
The expression quantity or contaminant will be used for
all the quantities whose mass transport is of interest.
Water Quality models can be zero-dimensional (usually
called compartment models), where complete mixing of
all quantities inside the 'compartment' is assumed; onedimensional,
where
subsequent
connection
of
compartments is made (typically along a river reach); or
two- or three-dimensional (2D, 3D) models. As the
transport and dispersion of water parameters are
considered on lake surface only 2D model will be
discussed in this paper.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
GIS proving to be an effective tool for numerical models
offers distributed parameter and continuous time
simulation with flexible watershed configuration, interbasin water transfer, and lake water quality simulation
capabilities. It has been proven to be an excellent tool to
aggregate and organize input data for distributed
parameter hydrologic/water quality models.
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computerized
database management system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of
geographical data and display of spatial (e.g. locationally
defined) data. It digitally creates and manipulates
210
spatial areas that may be jurisdictional, purpose, or

application-oriented.
A GIS can be divided into five components: People, Data,
Hardware, Software, and Procedures. All of these
components need to be in balance for the system to be
successful. No one part can run without the other. There
are several things to consider before acquiring geographic
data. It is crucial to check the quality of the data before
obtaining it. Errors in the data set can add many
unpleasant and costly hours to implementing a GIS and
the results and conclusions of the GIS analysis most likely
will be wrong.
Spatial modeling represents the structure and distribution
of features in geographical space. In order to model
spatial processes, the interaction between these features
must be considered. There are several types of spatial data
models including: vector, raster, surface, and network
(Burrough, 1998).
The vector data model is a method of storing and
representing data on an X,Y Cartesian plane. A coordinate
and an equation defining the curvature of each feature is
stored for both the beginning and the end point of each
feature. The building block of the vector structure is the
point; lines and areas are composed of a series of points in
a specific order that gives the object direction (Clarke,
2001).
The raster data model uses a grid composed of rows and
columns to display map entities. Each cell in the grid is
equivalent to one map unit or one pixel. Spatial resolution
determines the precision of spatial representation by raster
data. The smaller the size of the pixel implies the higher
the resolution and the better the precision of spatial
representation (Lo, 2002). An entity code is assigned to
each cell that is connected to a separate attribute table,
which provides information to the user as to what entity is
present in what cell. In this model, instead of dividing the
entire area into cells of equal size, only areas with specific
details are broken down into smaller cells.
Fig. 1: Illustrative Mapping of a lake and its influent stream

by vector and raster data models of GIS
STUDY AREA
Hussain sagar lake was built in1562 A.D across a
tributary of the Musi river and joins the twin cities of
Hyderabad and secunderabad and adds historical aesthetic
dimension to twin cities. The lake was utilized for
irrigation and drinking water needs up to 1930.
Hussain sagar has become the main sewage collection
zone of the twin cities. As a result of heavy anthropogenic
pressures such as unplanned urbanization, the entire
ecosystem of Lake has changed. The water quality has
deteriorated considerably and the lake has become
shallow due to siltation and accumulation of plant debris.
Hussain sagar Lake Characteristics:
Coordinates: 17.45ON - 78.5O E.
Total catchment area = 240 Sq. km.
Maximum water spread area of the lake = 5.7 Sq. km.
Present Water spread area @ FTL = 4.81 Sq. km.
Shore line length = 14 km.
Volume of the Lake at spill level = 27.18 Mcum.
Maximum depth of the lake is 9.75 m.
Average depth at full capacity = 5.02 m.
Full Tank Level (FTL) = 513.43 m (above MSL).
There are about 80 lakes in the catchment area of
Hussainsagar Lake.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
1. Inlets and Types of pollution sources:
External Point sources include Raw sewage through nalas

viz. Balkapur, Banjara, Kukatpally & Picket Nalas,
Industrial effluents through Kukatpally Nala, Solid Waste
Dumping in Nalas Leading into Lake. External Non
point sources include Slums, Dried Flower and Garlands
Puja material, Commercial Establishments, Immersion
of Ganesh and Durga Idols, Visitors, Tourists etc. Internal
sources include Nutrient rich sediments in the lake bed
and Floating material on Lake Surface, Dissolved
chemical solvents present in the deeper layers of lake
which do not have favorable conditions to escape through
outlet.
2. Outlets of Hussain sagar lake are 1)Surplus outlet opp.
To Marriot, 2)Surplus outlet at Liberty.
211
and adjacent land use. The most critical time period in a

lake is typically during the growing season.
Fig. 2: Image showing inlets and outlets of Hussain sagar

lake.
DATA SAMPLING
A total of nine samples are collected at about the same
time of day (at 9:30am) during each time of sampling and
Sampling intervals is taken as 2 weeks. The location of
the sampling points is fixed based on the location,
Periodical change in water level and development of
pressure around the point in the lake.
During sample collection things recorded are the presence
of storm water runoff pipes or culverts, types of shoreline
vegetation (lawns, native vegetation, or agricultural land),
Range of temperature change, Probability of shadow
formation on the water surface due to adjacent structures
Fig. 3: Image showing all the nine data collection points.
Characterization of wastes is essential for an effective and

economical waste management programme. It helps in the
choice of treatment methods deciding the extent of
treatment, assessing the beneficial uses of wastes and
utilizing the waste purification capacity of natural bodies
of water in a planned and controlled manner.
Table 1: Lake water characteristics sampled on 22/07/13.
212
Domestic sewage comprises spent water from kitchen,

bathroom, lavatory, etc and the factors which contribute
to variations in characteristics of the domestic sewage are
daily per capita use of water, quality of water supply and
the type, condition and extent of sewerage- system, and
habits of the people. Municipal sewage, which contains
both domestic and industrial wastewater, may differ from
place to place depending upon the type of industries and
industrial establishment.
ANALYSIS BY GIS - EXPERIMENTATION
Fig. 5: Datasets Included
Layers along with their properties, Datasets are included

into the software and the results obtained are in the form
of a graph for the water parameters.
From the point samples (measurements), you will produce

two continuous surfaces (maps) predicting the values of
lake parameters or concentrations for every location
within the boundary of lake. The first map that is created
will simply use all the default options to introduce you to
the process of creating a surface from the sample points.
The second map that produce will allow you to
incorporate more of the spatial relationships that are
discovered among the points. When creating this second
map, the exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) tools
are used to examine sample point data. Some of the
geostatistical options that you can use to create a surface,
such as removing trends and modeling spatial
autocorrelation can also be done. By using the ESDA
tools and working with the geostatistical parameters, one
can able to create a more accurate surface.
Fig. 8: Output obtained
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Fig. 4: Representation of experimentation procedure
The ca_lake.gdb geodatabase is to be opened which

contain two datasets as
213
P.Sudha Rani TH 614.7: S94E (2004), Environmental

monitoring of Hussain sagar lake water, Hyd.
Krishna Kumar TH 591.5: K92E (1979), An ecological
analysis of integration of ciliate protozoa and water quality
fluctuations in lake hussain sagar consequent influx of
industrial effluent, OU, Hyd.
Executive Engineers of BPPA and APPCB, Hyd, A.P.,
India.
Peter A. Burrough, Prof. of physical geography, Principles
of Geographical Information systems(1998).
He, C. 2003. Integration of geographic information
systems and simulation model for watershed management.
Environmental Modelling & Software 18: 809-813.

Analysis of Water and Assessment of its Quality for Drinking around

Rajiv Gandhi International Air Port A Case Study
M. Rajasekhar1 and N. Venkat Rao2
1
Assistant Professor, 2Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Vardhaman College of Engineering, Shamshabad
ABSTRACT
Water is a vital natural resource in almost all activities in nature. Quality of water is considered to be important
criteria for various purposes like drinking, irrigation, agriculture industrial use etc. For the safety of public
health, economy and protection of various industrial processes, the water which we use should be thoroughly
checked, analyzed and to be treated properly before use or distribution. The present study focused on the
significance of water quality for drinking purpose. Samples have been collected near Rajiv Gandhi International
Air port, Shamshabad, to check its quality in terms of essential water quality parameters like pH, Chlorides,
Fluorides and dissolved solids. The paper also tries to compare the results obtained to the international water
quality standards of potable water.
Keywords Water quality, Turbidity, Total Solids, Hydro geology, Potable water
QUALITY OF WATER
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature.
Absolutely pure water is that water which contains only
two parts of hydrogen and one part of Oxygen by volume
and nothing else. But the water found in nature contains a
number of impurities in varying amounts. The rain water
which is originally pure also absorbs various gases, dust
and other impurities in varying amounts.
Impurities in Water and their Affect
Impurities in water can be classified as follows:
1. Suspended impurities
Colloidal impurities Very fine particles of size 1 to 500

nm of clay, micro organisms, decomposed organic matter,
phosphates, fluorides and certain toxicants remain
suspended in water without settling are called colloids.
These are two types hydrophobic and hydrophilic,
hydrophilic or water loving particles are removed by
gravity but hydrophobic or water hating particles
possessing no affinity for water are dependent on
electrical charges for their stability in suspension. The
electric charge is due to the presence of absorbed ions in
the surface of the solid. These colloidal impurities are
generally associated with organic matter containing
bacteria and are the chief source of epidemics.
METHODOLOGY
2. Dissolved impurities
3. Colloidal impurities
Suspended impurities These are solid particles
suspended in water include clay, algae, fungi, organic and
inorganic matter. The particles whose density is more
than the water may settle down due to gravity and the
particles having less density remains in continuous
motion in water. Suspended impurities are macroscopic
and they cause turbidity to the water. Turbidity can be
identified by measuring suspended impurities in water.
Dissolved impurities water when it moves over the
surface of the earth solids, liquids and gases are dissolved
in natural waters. These dissolved impurities may contain
organic, inorganic matter and gases etc. Carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium cause hardness
and alkalinity to the water.
The analysis of water is undertaken in order to establish

the quality of water. This involves tests for determining
the physical, chemical and bacteriological impurities
present in the water sample. A brief description of these
tests is given as follows.
pH Hydrogen ion concentration is a measure of the
acidity or alkalinity of a substance. pH is determined by
measurement of the electromotive force of a cell
comprising an indicator immersed in the test solution and
reference electrode is usually achieved by means of liquid
junction, which forms a part of the reference electrode.
The electro motive force of this cell is measured with pH
meter.
For public water supplies, pH value should be kept as
close to 7 as possible. The lower value may cause
tuberculation and corrosion, where as high values may
214
Analysis of Water and Assessment of its Quality for Drinking around Rajiv Gandhi International Air Port A Case Study
produce incrustation, sedimentation, difficulty in

chlorination and other bad effects on the human using the
water.
divalent state and liberates iodine from KI equivalent to

the original DO content. The liberated iodine is titrated
against Na2 S2 O3 using starch as an indicator.
Total Dissolved Solids The filterable solids can be

determined either from the difference of the total solids
and the total suspended solids or by using the filtrate. In
water samples it can also be estimated from conductivity
measurement.
Chlorides the presence of chlorides in natural waters

can be attributed to dissolution of salt deposits, discharges
of effluents from chemical industries, oil well operations,
sewage discharges, irrigation drainage, contamination
form refuge leachates and sea water intrusion in coastal
areas.
Turbidity turbidity is a measure of the resistance of

water to the passage of light through it. It is caused in the
water due to the presence of suspended and colloidal
matter. The degree and the intensity of turbidity is
depending on the soil over which the water has passed.
Turbidity is measured by shining light through a sample
and measuring the degree of light penetration as measured
by light detector placed in line to the original light path.
This measuring technique is known as turbidimetry.
Hardness hardness is the traditional measure of the
capacity of water to react with soap. In alkaline condition,
EDTA reacts with Ca and Mg to form a soluble chelated
complex. Ca and Mg ions develop wine red color with
EBT under alkaline condition. When EDTA is added as a
titrant Ca and Mg divalent ions get complexed resulting in
a sharp change from wine red to blue which indicates end
point of the titration.
Table 1: Classification of water based on Hardness
Total Hardness as CaCo3

<75
75-150
150-300
>300
Chloride is determined in natural or slightly alkaline

solution by titration with standard silver nitrate using
potassium chromate as an indicator. Silver chloride is
quantitatively precipitated before red silver chromate is
formed.
Fluorides fluoride ions have dual significance in water
supplies. High concentration of F- causes dental fluorisis.
At the same time a concentration less than 0.8 mg/l results
in dental caries. Hence it is essential to maintain the Fconcentration between 0.8 to 1.0 mg/l in drinking water.
Under acid condition fluorides react with Zirconium
SPANDS solution and the lake gets bleached due to
formation ZrF6. Since bleaching is a function of fluoride
ions, it is directly proportional to the concentration of
fluoride. It obeys beers law in a reverse manner.
The analysis of water is done as per the procedures
mentioned above and assessed with WHO international
standards.
Class of water
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard
Table 2: International Standards

(World Health Organization)
Parameters
pH
TDS (mg/l)
TH as CaCo3
Cl (mg/l)
So4 (mg/l)
F (mg/l)
DO ppm
Sulphates sulphate ions usually occur in natural waters.

Many sulphate compounds are readily soluble in water.
Most of them are originate form sulphite ores, the solution
of gypsum, the presence of shales, particularly those rich
in organic compounds and the existence of industrial
wastes.
Sulfate ions are precipitated as BaSo4 in acidic media
(HCL) with Barium chloride. The absorption of light by
this precipitated suspension is measured by
spectrophotometer at 420 nm or scattering of light.
Most desirable
limits
7 - 8.5
500
100
200
200
0.8-1.0
-
Maximum
allowable limits
9.2
1500
500
600
400
1.5
5 to 6 ppm
Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen dissolved in water, often

referred to as DO is a very important parameter of water
quality and is an index of physical and biological process
going on in water.
Oxygen present in sample rapidly oxidizes the dispersed
divalent manganese hydroxide to its higher valency which
precipitates as a brown hydrated oxide after addition of
NAOH and KI. Upon acidification, manganese reverts to
215
Table 3: Experimental Values
Parameters
pH
TDS (mg/l)
TH as CaCo3
Cl (mg/l)
So4 (mg/l)
F (mg/l)
DO ppm
Experimental values
6.8
730
120
150
180
1.1
7
overall quality of the water may be declared good and

potable.
Table 4: Comparison of experimental results with standard

desirable values.
Parameters
pH
TDS (mg/l)
TH as CaCo3
Cl (mg/l)
So4 (mg/l)
F (mg/l)
DO ppm
Most desirable
limits
7 - 8.5
500
100
200
200
0.8-1.0
6
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Experimental
values
6.8
730
120
150
180
1.1
7
REFERENCES
[1]
pH
TDS (mg/l)
TH as CaCo3
Cl (mg/l)
So4 (mg/l)
F (mg/l)
Most Desirable Experimental
limits
values
DO ppm
Fig. 1: Comparison of experimental values with the standard

values
Ground water samples were collected at various places of

study area by grab sampling method. The results obtained
in the experiment are tabulated below.
CONCLUSION
The results obtained for pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Total
Hardness, Chlorides, Sulfates, Fluorides and Dissolved
Oxygen are nearer to the permissible limits. But the
quantity of fluorides obtained in the experiment is 1.1
mg/l, which is little bit close to the higher end. Hence
KN Duggal (2009), Elements of Environmental

Engineering, S.Chand Publications.
[2] National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
manual.
[3] GS Birdie (2012), Water Supply and Sanitary
Engineering, Dhanpat Rai Publications, New Delhi.
[4] R. A. Freeze and J. A. Cherry, Groundwater, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1979.
[5] B. K. Kortatsi, Hydrochemical framework of
groundwater in the Ankobra Basin, Ghana, Aquatic
Geochemistry, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 4174, 2007.
[6] Z. Barkic, et al., Hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry
in the alluvial aquifer of the Zagreb area (Croatia),
Materials and Geoenvironment, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 7578.
2003.
[7] Elkrai1, O. Kheir, L. Shu, and H. Zhenchun,
Hydrogeology of the northern Gezira area, central
Sudan, Journal of Spatial Hydrology, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.
11, 2004.
[8] N. Aghazadeh and A. A. Mogadam, Evaluation effect of
geological formation on groundwater quality in the
Harzandat plain aquifer, Symposium of Geosciences of
Iran, Vol. 22, pp. 392395, 2004.
[9] M. T. Hossien, Hydrochemical evaluation of
groundwater in the Blue Nile Basin, eastern Sudan, using
conventional and multivariate techniques, Hydrogeology
Journal, Vol. 12, pp. 144158, 2004.
[10] M. A. Schiavo, S. Havser, G. Gusimano, and L. Gatto,
Geochemical characterization of groundwater and
submarine discharge in the south-eastern Sicily,
Continental Shelf Research, Vol. 26, No. 7, pp. 826834,
2006.
[11] T. Subramani, L. Elango, and S. R. Damodarasamy,
Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and
agricultural use in Chithar River Basin, Tamil Nadu,
India, Environmental Geology, Vol. 47, pp. 10991110,
2005.
216

Hydrogeochemistry of Ground Water in Jeedimetla Industrial Area,

Greater Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
G. Sharavan Kumar1, M. Anji Reddy2 and P. Madhusudhana Reddy3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad

2
Environmental Science & Technology, IST, JNTU, Hyderabad
3
Department of Geology, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
The qualitative investigations are carried out with the ground water samples collected from Jeedimetla
Industrial area of Hyderabad city. The study area being an industrial area, untreated effluents are discharging
in open areas. Fifty Seven ground water samples were collected from bore wells of the study area and analyzed
for pH, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, total hardness, chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, fluoride,
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and nitrates as N. The controlling factors on the ground water
chemistry and criteria for water uses as discussed. The results showed that the concentrations are more than the
permissible limits for drinking purposes and industrial use. The pollution of ground water may be due to large
scale discharge of untreated industrial effluents.
INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of ground water quality is as important as
quantity, since the usability of water is determined by its
chemical characteristics. The quality of ground water
depends upon the nature of rock formation, recharge and
discharge conditions in the area. About one third of
solar flux absorbed by the earths crust is used to drive the
hydrological cycle. Precipitation provides us with water
supply and reserves of fresh water. Water due to
precipitation reaching the ground water reservoir has to
pass through, soil and weathered / fractured rock. In this
process it comes in contact with several organic and
inorganic substances. During its slow movement through
the different layers below the ground, the percolating
water reacts with number of minerals, organic and
inorganic, and carries them along with it in dissolved state
(Govardhan & Sudarshan, 2003).
Dissolved minerals determine the usefulness of the
ground water for various purposes. Presence of some
substances beyond certain limits may make it unsuitable
for irrigation, domestic or industrial uses. Corrosion or
incrustation of tube well screens is another hazard related
to ground water quality.
Before using the ground water for any of the purposes, it
is essential to find out possible hazardous substances, it
may contain. Water quality studies bring out the
concentrations of hazardous elements. Some organic
components are known to be either toxic, or carcinogenic
(cancer producing) or to produce odours and tastes.
Chemical substances can be found either in suspension or
solution. Ground water gets rid of suspended particles
through natural filtration mechanism during the process of
percolation. Substances carried in the solution determine

the suitability of water for various purposes.
The study area is located 20 km north of Hyderabad city
and form part of the survey of India topo sheets 56 K/6
and 56 K/7 and lies within latitudes 17027 to 17033 N
and longitudes 78025 to 278029 E. In the study area
many industries like pharmaceuticals, plastic, paints,
polymers, chemical manufacturing units etc are
discharging effluents either treated/ untreated in open
areas causing ground water pollution. With the growing
population of Qutbullapur revenue mandal together with
considerable floating population from Hyderabad city and
surrounding areas, the water demands have increased
drastically. Small residential colonies have come into
existence all around the industrial area. Thus, the ground
water plays a vital role in water supply for domestic and
drinking water needs of the residents. The ground water
abstraction is taking place by means of dug wells and bore
wells. Some areas are having piped water supply schemes.
The climate is of humidity with monthly mean
temperature ranges from 140C to 400C. The average
annual rainfall of the area is 1033.6 millimeters
(Handbook of Statistics, Ranga Reddy District,
Hyderabad) and most of the rain receives from southwest
mansoon, during the months of June to September.
METHODOLOGY
Geochemical studies have been carried out on 57 ground
water samples (Fig. 1) collected from bore wells during
2005 with necessary precautions (Brown et al., 1974).
The samples were collected in clean two litre polythene
bottles and analyzed for chemical parameters such as pH,
TDS, Ec, TH, Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO3, Cl, F, NO3 and N
217
and SO4 as per standard methods (APHA, 1985). pH and

Ec are determined by Elico pH meter and Ec meter
respectively. All the elements except Na and K are
determined by Titration method. Na and K are determined
with flame photometer.
HYDROGEOLOGY
The study area is underlain by crystalline formations like
granites and granite gneisses of Archean Age. Granite is
of both pink and grey variety and occurs as outcrops,
boulders and as mounds. The depth of weathering ranges
from less than a meter to 16.0 m bgl. These rocks are
generally traversed by quartz veins. Three sets of joints
are observed with N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE direction.
Three major lineaments are present striking NNW-SSE,
NW-SE and NE-SW direction. Ground water occurs
under unconfined conditions in weathered and fractured
zones and is being tapped predominantly by borewells.
The hard crystalline formations lack primary porosity.
The occurrence and movement of ground water is usually

limited to secondary porosity developed through
weathering and fracturing. The aquifers are anisotropic
and non-homogeneous, as such hydrogeological
condictions vary widely. The depth of water varies from
4.7 to 20 m bgl. The yields of bore wells vary widely
depending upon the thickness of weathered and fractured
zone encountered. The total depth of bore wells ranges
from 28 to 98m. The bore wells were constructed for
domestic, irrigation, industrial and other purposes.
Obviously the borewells drilled for domestic and drinking
purposes in houses without any technical guidance. As
such, in a number of wells, discharge is less and even
become dry during the summer season. High yields are
observed in the bore wells in some areas.
HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
The chemical composition of ground water of the study
area during Pre-Monsoon and Post-Monsoon respectively
are shown in Table 1 and Table 2. Hydrochemical facies
in the bore well zone is Na HCO3. Generally the
chemical constituents of ground water are controlled by
precipitation, lithology, contact time and prevailing
physical conditions. However, the water composition may
also change due to the interference of human activity.
Quartz, K- feldspar and plagioclase feldspar occurs as
essential minerals where as biotite, hornblende, muscovite
and magnetite, occur as accessory minerals. The above
minerals contribute large amounts of cations such as Ca,
Mg, Na and K, HCO3 and total hardness. However, K
which is derived from the rocks does not go into the
ground waters because it is retained or fixed on the
surface of the clay minerals by adsorption phenomenon.
Exchange of Na for Ca is a natural process, especially
where the clay minerals are present. Mg rich minerals are
significantly present in the study area. Therefore the order
of abundancy of cations is Na>Ca>Mg>k.
Since the weathered zone in the study area has low
permeability, it supports high concentrations of Cl along
with Na. The main contribution of SO4 in ground waters
in the study area comes mainly from industries.
MAJOR IONS CONCENTRATION
The pH of water is a very important indication of its
quality and provides important information regarding
types of geochemical equilibrium or solubility calculation
(Hem, 1985)4. The pH of the ground water of the area
during Pre-Monsoon is varying between 6.51 to 7.83 and
the average pH value is 7.26. During Post-Monsoon the
pH value is ranging between 7.42 to 8.9 and the average
value is 8.25. The limit of pH value for drinking water is
specified as 7 to 8.5 (WHO, 1983). It is observed that the
ground water is alkaline in nature.
Fig. 1: Location map of the Study Area
Total dissolved solids of the ground water of the area

during Pre-Monsoon vary from 192 to 4800 mg/l and
218
Hydrogeochemistry of Ground Water in Jeedimetla Industrial Area, Greater Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
average value is 1240 mg/l. During Post-Monsoon TDS

value is ranging between 240 to 6000 mg/l and the
average value is 1520 mg/l. The acceptable limit of TDS
in drinking water is 500 mg/l (WHO, 1983). 90% of the
samples show values above the limit. The principal ions
contributing to TDS are bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate,
nitrate, potassium, calcium and magnesium (EPA, 1976).
The salt concentration of water is generally measured
with the help of Electrical Conductivlity. The
conductivity measurements provide an indication of ionic
concentration. It depends upon temperature, concentration
and types of ions present (Hem, 1991). The electrical
conductivity of the ground water in this study during PreMonsoon vary between 368 to 8080 and during PostMonsoon it varys from 460 to 10100 conductivity in
drinking water is prescribed as 1500 micro Siemens/cm
(WHO, 1983). Nearly 68% of the samples of the study
area exceed the limit.
Chloride concentration in the ground water of the area
during Pre-Monsoon is ranging from 26 to 1811 mg/l.
Average concentration of Cl in drinking water is 294
mg/l. During Post-Monsoon the value range from 37 to
2587 mg/l and the average value is 414 mg/l. The
standard of Cl in drinking water is 200 mg/l (WHO,
1983). It is observed that nearly 42% of ground water of
the area exceeds the desirable limits. The source of Cl in
ground water is due to weathering of phosphate mineral
apatite and alos due to industrial effluents (Karanth,
1987).
Bicarbonates in the ground water during Pre-Monsoon
vary between 24 to 1140 mg/l and the average value is
264 mg/l. During Post-Monsoon the value range from 37
to 1109 mg/l and average value is 376 mg/l.
Sulphate concentration in the ground water during PreMonsoon is varying from 60 to 640 mg/l and average
concentration is 152 mg/l. During Post-Monsoon the
value varys from 51 to 677 mg/l and average
concentration is 177 mg/l. The acceptable limit in
drinking water is 200 mg/l (WHO, 1983). 17% of the
ground water exceeds the limit. The excess of SO2-4
concentration may be due to sulphate soil conditioners
apart from industrial effluents.
Flouride concentration in the ground water of the area
during Pre-Monsoon varies from 0.34 to 5.82 mg/l and
average fluoride concerntraion is 2.14 mg/l. During PostMonsoon the value varies from 0.35 to 6 mg/l and
average value is 2.22 mg/l. The acceptable limit of
content in drinking water is 1 mg/l (WHO, 1983). It is
observed that 70% of the ground water exceeds the
permissible limit (1.5 mg/l). Concentration of F in ground
water may be due to presence of fluoride bearing minerals
like apatite from the granites of the study area. Ingestion
of water with high fluoride concentration above 1.5 mg/l

results in dental flourosis.
Calcium concentration of the ground water during PreMonsoon is varying between 23 to 1134 mg/l and during
Post-Monsoon is between 20 to 986 mg/l. The limit of
calcium for drinking water is specified as 75 mg/l (ISI,
1993). It is observed that nearly 53% of the ground water
exceeds the permissible limit. The concentration of
calcium is due to weathering of silicate minerals like
feldspars, amphiboles and pyroxenes (Karanth, 1987).
The concentration of calcium is due to plagioclase
feldspars present in the granites of the study area.
Hardness is an important criterion for determining the
usability of water for drinking and may industrial
supplies. TH of ground water during Pre-Monsoon in the
area ranges from 130 to 3469 mg/l and during PostMonsoon it varies from 148 to 3942 mg/l. The limit of
TH for drinking water is specified as 300 mg/l (ISI 1993).
Nearly 68% of the ground water exceeds the permissible
limit. The hardness of water is due to the presence
alkaline earths such as calcium and magnesium.
Sodium concentration during Pre-Monsoon is varying
between 12 to 655 mg/l and during Post-Monsoon it
varies from 14 to 744 mg/l. Sodium concentration in the
ground water is due to chemical weathering of plagioclase
feldspars present in the granites of the area. The natural
sources of anthropogenic activities, industrial effluents
and sewage water have contributed to sodium
concentration in ground water.
Potassium in the ground water during Pre-Monsoon varies
from 1 to 24 mg/l and average value is 5.11 mg/l. During
Post-Monsoon the value varies from 1 to 27 mg/l and
average value is 5.79 mg/l. The principal source of
potassium in ground water is due to weathering of
orthoclase feldspars.
Nitrate as N in the ground water during Pre-Monsoon is
varying from 0.94 to 115.19 mg/l and average value of
NO3 as N is 21.43 mg/l. During Post-Monsoon the value
range from 0.99 to 121.25 mg/l and the average value is
22.56 mg/l. The acceptable limit of drinking purposes is
10.12 mg/l. Nearly 55% of the ground water samples
exceeds the acceptable limit.
Magnesium in the ground water during Pre-Monsoon
varies from 5 to 527 mg/l and average value is 87 mg/l.
During Post-Monsoon the value range from 6 to 659 mg/l
and the average value is 108.59 mg/l. The acceptable limit
of Mg2+ in drinking water is 30 mg/l (WHO, 1983).
Except well No.s 1 and 8 (Papaiah yadav nagar and
Ramy reddy nagar), all the well samples in the study area
shows presence of Mg2+ in excess amounts.
219
Table 1: Results of the Chemical Analysis of Groundwater: Major ion Concentration
Jeedimetla Industrial Area, Greater Hyderabad
PRE-MONSOON, 2005. All values in mg/l except pH & EC
Well No
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
G8
G9
G10
G11
G12
G13
G14
G15
G16
G17
G18
G19
G20
G21
G22
G23
G24
G25
G26
G27
G28
G29
G30
G31
G32
G33
G34
G35
G36
G37
G38
G39
G40
G41
G42
pH
EC
at 300C (s/cm)
7.52
368
7.39
1600
7.35
1920
7.3
2000
7.27
2720
7.35
1120
7.13
1440
7.37
1120
7.04
1440
7.22
1520
7.48
2080
7.18
3040
6.81
2000
7.48
1520
7.22
4000
7.22
2080
7.39
800
7.45
960
6.86
2880
7.3
560
7.3
2720
7.32
2400
7.31
1040
7.3
2000
7.13
2480
7
3650
7.02
3680
7.08
2400
7.19
1760
7.22
1680
7.13
1440
7.57
1120
6.95
2080
7.48
880
7.22
2080
6.91
8080
7.3
1200
7.25
1120
7.44
960
7.66
1600
7.31
1760
7.06
1600
TDS
CL-
SO42
192
880
1200
1264
1680
712
840
616
880
888
1280
1840
1200
910
2480
1360
384
592
1808
328
1680
1520
592
1272
1480
2340
2320
1488
1168
1008
880
680
1256
568
1344
4800
744
632
544
1000
1040
968
26
190
172
405
233
130
146
130
146
155
397
501
379
104
1018
440
128
104
440
86
172
52
78
311
259
60
906
509
310
207
190
138
293
104
311
1811
138
120
104
172
259
224
71
171
87
277
112
76
81
90
281
79
128
216
311
60
87
117
92
83
517
95
153
114
89
137
126
160
164
176
143
143
137
111
151
98
128
269
139
133
93
138
113
86
NO3
as N
1.07
6.12
27.86
13.2
22.28
13.58
0.95
4.28
4.59
55.01
15.91
55.01
9.58
7.32
13.35
68.64
4.14
28.91
32.94
3.63
115.19
18.53
1.22
6.77
13.18
12.79
12.7
12.51
13.27
13.64
1
43.57
29.55
13.45
69.61
27.99
37.13
9.94
12.87
13.02
10.44
10.4
220
HCO3
K+
Na+
Ca2+ Mg2+
24
200
456
32
1140
200
289
168
144
184
208
304
88
265
296
56
64
152
208
40
665
40
232
289
745
200
289
208
296
265
224
80
248
128
208
632
112
128
112
272
241
241
0.82
3.3
1.07
1.94
2.47
1.36
2.62
3.73
2.04
1.79
0.58
1.31
1.07
5.24
1.79
2.91
1.94
1.31
1.16
2.09
1.46
3.69
2.09
2.91
1.16
1.12
2.38
2.04
2.23
1.36
2.72
2.57
1.94
1.84
3.15
1.46
0.82
1.36
1.07
3.88
0.53
1.31
5
4
4
4
4
6
4
2
4
4
8
4
6
4
6
4
4
9
8
10
5
4
6
6
4
4
5
5
5
14
4
2
2
2
2
4
1
2
2
4
4
4
13
293
355
146
464
117
197
184
12
91
47
457
173
163
398
104
56
120
466
48
553
52
163
293
466
407
585
352
233
202
167
106
202
56
318
458
55
84
48
281
117
144
23
35
114
159
114
124
35
68
102
182
261
114
182
35
374
215
23
35
102
35
23
23
23
68
91
193
170
141
156
139
91
114
182
114
91
1134
159
114
91
68
114
136
18
34
34
110
72
34
57
5
124
67
129
115
101
52
173
129
48
62
124
34
86
38
38
96
52
86
144
96
82
48
57
38
77
38
77
288
57
38
48
38
106
67
TH as
CaCO3
130
216
369
942
542
391
326
151
759
607
1084
737
803
304
720
997
260
347
759
216
434
216
216
564
412
759
976
650
607
477
434
391
911
391
520
3469
564
391
391
304
693
564
G43
G44
G45
G46
G47
G48
G49
G50
G51
G52
G53
G54
G55
G56
G57
7.13
7.04
7.3
7.13
6.51
7.66
7.57
7.32
7.74
7.13
7.83
7.44
7.37
6.95
7.3
5200
3280
3280
1440
1400
1920
2040
800
1280
3300
1360
1600
1120
2080
2480
3200
1920
2024
936
888
1200
1288
512
760
2000
784
960
624
1376
1520
690
517
603
190
172
259
276
104
155
510
104
328
104
276
397
640
178
129
77
97
110
159
66
91
153
76
102
86
128
501
34.17
6.33
2.16
52.67
53.09
59.03
7.44
5.85
5.24
53.23
0.94
13.1
2.91
23.97
14.21
1120
441
456
176
152
192
320
144
168
289
272
160
200
424
160
1.65
0.34
4.66
2.52
3.15
2.72
2.09
0.82
1.65
2.67
5.82
2.33
2.67
2.67
2.38
10
24
4
2
4
2
2
13
4
4
2
8
4
4
9
158
55
655
190
71
143
261
75
59
168
127
163
137
269
331
114
431
91
136
68
159
204
91
114
170
56
91
45
238
79
527
173
57
38
115
106
48
29
77
149
72
96
38
57
149
3010
1604
434
434
650
781
607
304
672
997
434
607
260
715
781
Fig. 2
Table 2: Results of the Chemical Analysis of Groundwater: Major ion Concentration
Jeedimetla Industrial Area, Greater Hyderabad
POST-MONSOON - November, 2005. All values in mg/l except pH & EC
Well No
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
G8
G9
pH
EC
at 300C (s/cm)
8.54
460
8.4
2000
8.35
2400
8.3
2500
8.26
3400
8.35
1400
8.1
1800
8.37
1400
8
1800
TDS
CL-
SO42
240
1100
1500
1580
2100
890
1050
770
1100
37
271
246
579
333
185
209
185
209
84
203
104
330
133
90
97
84
335
NO3
as N
1.13
6.44
29.33
13.89
23.45
14.29
1
4.51
4.83
221
HCO3
K+
Na+
37
308
702
49
1047
308
444
259
222
0.85
3.4
1.1
2
2.55
1.4
2.7
3.85
2.1
6
5
4
5
4
7
4
2
4
15
333
403
166
527
133
224
209
14
Ca2+ Mg2+
20
30
99
138
99
108
30
59
89
23
42
42
138
90
42
71
6
155
TH as
CaCO3
148
246
419
912
616
444
370
172
862
G10
G11
G12
G13
G14
G15
G16
G17
G18
G19
G20
G21
G22
G23
G24
G25
G26
G27
G28
G29
G30
G31
G32
G33
G34
G35
G36
G37
G38
G39
G40
G41
G42
G43
G44
G45
G46
G47
G48
G49
G50
G51
G52
G53
G54
G55
G56
G57
8.2
8.5
8.16
7.74
8.5
8.2
8.2
8.4
8.47
7.8
8.3
8.3
8.32
8.31
8.3
8.1
7.96
7.98
8.05
8.17
8.2
8.1
8.6
7.9
8.5
8.2
7.85
8.3
8.24
8.45
8.7
8.31
8.02
8.1
8
8.3
8.1
7.4
8.7
8.6
8.32
8.8
8.1
8.9
8.46
8.38
7.9
8.3
1900
2600
3800
2500
1400
5000
2600
1000
1200
3600
700
3400
3000
1300
2500
3100
3500
4600
3000
2200
2100
1800
1400
2600
1100
2600
10100
1500
1400
1200
2000
2200
2000
6500
4100
4100
1800
1750
2400
2550
1000
1600
3200
1700
2000
1400
2600
3100
1110
1600
2300
1500
810
3100
1700
480
740
2260
410
2100
1900
740
1590
1850
2140
2900
1860
1460
1260
1100
850
1570
710
1680
6000
930
790
680
1250
1300
1210
4000
2400
2530
1170
1110
1500
1610
640
950
1900
980
1200
780
1720
1900
222
567
715
542
148
1454
628
123
148
628
123
246
74
111
444
370
86
1294
727
407
296
271
197
419
148
444
2587
197
172
148
246
370
320
986
739
862
271
246
370
394
148
222
493
148
468
148
394
567
94
152
257
370
51
103
139
110
99
616
113
182
136
106
163
150
191
195
209
170
170
163
132
180
117
152
320
166
158
111
164
134
102
627
212
154
92
115
131
189
79
108
182
90
121
102
152
596
57.9
16.75
57.9
10.08
7.7
14.05
72.25
4.36
30.43
34.67
3.82
121.25
19.5
1.28
7.13
13.87
13.46
13.37
13.17
13.97
14.36
1.05
45.86
31.1
14.16
73.27
29.46
39.08
10.46
13.55
13.7
10.99
10.95
35.97
6.66
2.27
55.44
55.88
62.14
7.83
6.16
5.52
56.03
0.99
13.79
3.06
25.23
14.96
222
283
320
468
136
407
456
86
99
234
320
62
1023
62
357
444
715
308
444
320
456
407
345
123
382
197
320
973
172
197
172
419
370
370
1109
678
702
271
234
296
493
222
259
444
419
246
308
653
246
1.85
0.6
1.35
1.1
5.4
1.85
3
2
1.35
1.2
2.15
1.5
3.8
2.15
3
1.2
1.15
2.45
2.1
2.3
1.4
2.8
2.65
2
1.9
3.25
1.5
0.85
1.4
1.l
4
0.55
1.35
1.7
0.35
4.8
2.6
3.25
2.8
2.15
0.85
1.7
2.75
6
2.4
2.75
2.75
2.45
4
9
5
7
5
7
5
5
10
9
11
6
5
7
7
5
5
6
6
6
16
5
2
2
2
2
5
1
2
2
5
5
5
11
27
4
2
4
2
2
15
4
5
2
9
4
4
10
103
53
519
197
185
452
118
64
136
530
55
628
59
185
333
530
462
665
400
265
229
190
121
230
64
361
521
62
95
55
319
133
164
180
62
744
216
81
163
297
85
67
191
144
185
156
306
376
158
227
99
158
30
325
187
20
30
89
30
20
20
20
59
79
168
148
123
136
121
79
99
158
99
79
986
138
99
79
59
99
118
99
375
79
118
59
138
177
79
99
148
49
79
39
207
69
84
161
144
126
65
216
161
60
78
155
42
108
48
48
120
65
108
180
120
102
60
71
48
96
48
96
360
71
48
60
48
132
84
659
216
71
48
144
132
60
36
96
186
90
120
48
71
186
690
1232
838
912
345
1700
1133
296
394
862
246
493
246
246
641
468
862
1109
739
690
542
493
444
1035
444
591
3942
641
444
444
345
788
641
2957
1823
493
493
739
887
690
345
764
1133
493
690
296
813
887
Fig. 3
GIBBS DIAGRAM
The mechanism controlling the chemical relationships of
ground waters based on aquifer lithology has been studied
following Gibbs (1970). Three kinds of fields are
recognized in the Gibbs diagram namely atmospheric
precipitation, evaporation-crystallization dominance and
rock water dominance. Figure 2 and 3 presents Gibbs
plot of ground water quality data for Pre-Monsoon and
Post-Monsoon of Jeedimetla Industrial area. The plots
drawn with ratios of Na+K / Na+K+Ca for cation and
Cl/Cl+HCO3 for anion of the water samples data plotted
against relative values of total dissolved solids indicate
that many wells are controlled by rock dominance
category reflects the influence of the chemistry of aquifer
lithology.
CRITERIA FOR WATER USE
water samples are exceeding the upper limit of 500 mg/l.

Hence the water causes incrustation and corrosion.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The gensis of the ground water quality is mainly due
to the lithology and some of the samples were
influenced by the industrial activity.
2. The hydrochemistry of the samples shows that
remarkable number of samples are not suitable either
for driking or for industrial purposes.
3. Fluride concentrations are also showing excess levels
in some samples.
4. As the quality of water are deteorating with the
industrial effluents proper environmental legislations
are required to be implemented in the study area.
REFERENCES
For Drinking Purposes

For drinking purposes, the concentration of TDS, TH, Ca,
Mg, Nitrate as Na and Cl in most of the water samples are
found to be greater than the desirable limits (mg/l)
allowed (500,300,75,30,10 and 250 for TDS, TH, Ca, Mg,
Nitrate as N and Cl respectively as per WHO, 1983 and
ISI, 1993). Generally it causes distaste ness and gastrointestinal irritation.
For Industrial Purposes
Corrosion and incrustation are the two important chemical
properties which disallow the utilization of water for
industrial purposes (Johnson, 1983). The chemical
constituents in the study are showed that most of the
ground water samples are exceeding the upper limts (TDS
1000, HCO3 400 and TH 300) (mg/l). In case of Cl, 9
[1]
APHA. 1985. Standard method for the examination of

water and wastewater, American Public health
Association, American Water Works Association, Water
Pollution Control Federation. Washington, D.C. 16th
Edition.
[2]
Gibbs. R.J. 1970. Mechanisms controlling world water

chemistry. Science. 170 : 1088 1090.
[3]
Brown.E, Skougstad.M.W and Fishman.M.J.1974.

Methods for collections and analysis of water samples for
dissolved minerals and gases. U.S. Dept. Of Interior. Book
no.5.1 pp 160.
[4]
WHO 1983. Guidelines to drinking water quality World

Health Organization, Geneva.
[5]
EPA. 1976. Quality criteria for water. Environmental

protection Agency, Washington D.C. USA.
223
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Hand book of Statistics, 2005-2006, Compiled and

published by Chief Planning Officer, Ranga Reddy
District, Hyderabad
Hem J.D. 1985. Study and interpretation of chemical
characteristics of natural water. 3rd edition. US Geological
Survey Water supply. Paper 2254. pp117-120.
Hem. J.D. 1991. Study and interpretation of the chemical
characteristics of natural water. Scientific Publishers,
Jodhpur.
Govardhan Das.S.V and Sudarashan.V, 2003. Major ion
Geochemistry of fluoride rich ground water, Markapur

area, prakasam district, A.P, India. Environmental
Geochemistry vol.6, No. 1 & 2 : pp13-20.
[10] ISI. 1993. Indian standards specification for drinking
water. Indian standard institute New Delhi.
[11] Karanth. K.R. 1987. Ground water Assessment,
Development and Management. Tata Mc Graw Hill
publishing Company Limited. New Delhi.
[12] Johnson. E.E. 1983. Groundwater and wells. Jain
Brothers, Udaipur (1st edn). 440 pp
224
Foundation Techniques


Sanjay W. Thakare1 and Rani B. Wath2
1
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engg., Govt. College of Engineering, Amravati.
M. Tech. (Civil- Geotech) Scholar, Department of Civil Engg., Govt. College of Engineering, Amravati (M.S)
ABSTRACT
Earthen dam is a very huge structure built to impound water and therefore the stability of dam is of almost
importance. The design of earth dams involves many considerations that must be examined before initiating
detailed stability analyses. Such as geological and subsurface explorations, the earth and materials available for
construction should be carefully studied. For achieving greater stability geotextile is used as reinforcement in
earthen dam. This paper focuses on use of geotextile as reinforcement in earthen dam, geotextile as
reinforcement is used to improve the mechanical properties of an earth structure by interacting with soil through
interface shear.
INTRODUCTION
Dams are manmade structure build to impound water.
They are build for many purposes such as irrigation, flood
control, hydroelectric power generation, power generation
etc. Dams may also be multifunctional surviving two or
more purposes. Among the different types of dams
embankment dams are most common type of dam build
across the world since they are generally build of locally
available earth or soil with minimum of processing.
Embankment dams may be earth fill or rock fill dams,
depending on primary material used in their construction.
Earthen dam have been build since early times. However,
early earth dams were of low heights as these were
designed by empirical methods and their construction was
based on experience. Developments of geotechnical
engineering and new construction techniques have been
helpful in creating confidence among the engineers to
build dams of very large heights. Tehri dam in India is
216 m high.
Earthen dams can be constructed on almost all types of
foundation provided suitable measures are taken. Earthen
dams more suitable than gravity dam if strong foundation
at reasonable depth is not available at the site. Earthen
dams are usually cheaper than gravity dam if the soil in
abundant quantity is available near the construction site.
Modern developments in earth moving equipments have
resulted in decrease cost for earthen dams.
Earthen dams are mostly rolled filled dams which consist
of an embankment constructed in successive mechanically
compacted layers of soils. The suitable material is
transported from borrow pits to the construction site by
earth moving machinery which is then spread by
bulldozers to from layers of limited thickness. These
layers are then thoroughly compacted at suitable water
content by means of suitable rollers.
Generally a preliminary section of earth dam is selected

and checked it whether it satisfied all design criteria. If
does not satisfy the safety criteria, it is not modified &
check again. A preliminary section of dam is selected
considering various factors such as foundation condition,
availability of materials, physical properties of materials,
safety factors with respect to stability, method of
construction etc. In the preliminary section the various
parameters are decided which includes crest width, free
board, upstream (U/S) & downstream (D/S) slopes, cutoff
trench, d/s drainage system, central impervious core,
provision of riprap etc.
Various methods are available for checking the stability
of slopes of earthen dam such as friction circle method,
Swedish slip circle method, Janbu method, Spancer
method etc. Swedish slip circle method is most commonly
used method for checking stability of slopes because of its
simplicity. Nowadays computer based software are also
available for stability analysis of slopes such as Geostudio
2004, SAS-MCT 4.0, STABL5M, and UTEXAS3.
This softwares are widely used nowadays because of
simple graphical user interface because of simple
graphical user interface, accuracy & speed. Also the
stability problems can be analyzed using various input
parameters & methods by using this softwares. The
softwares gives results of analysis in the graphical form
at which gives a better idea of the solution and failure
mechanism if any. Using these softwares one can also
analyze earth dam for slope stability, seepage analysis,
seismic analysis with different conditions such as full
reservoir, sudden drawdown etc.
Need
The conventional method of constructing embankment to
a stable slope for given height or adding berms can
involve considerable expenses in materials, plants,
227
Table 1: Details of Parameters Study
Sr. No.
Slope
01
Downstream Slope
02
Upstream Slope
Condition
Empty reservoir with and without earthquake
Steady seepage with and without earthquake
Empty reservoir with and without earthquake
Full reservoir with and without earthquake
Sudden drawdown with and without earthquake
construction time & extension to base area of

embankment. While for the low heights of dams, this may
not be of much concern, but for high dams there may be
considerable increase in cost of dam and also the time of
construction due to much flatter slope of embankment. In
some cases, if the suitable construction material is not
available nearby the site then there will be an additional
increase in the cost due to transportation of suitable
material from quarries located at greater distance.
One of the solutions to this issue is to make the
embankment slopes much steeper than obtained by the
conventional design procedure. The slopes of
embankment dam can be made steeper by following
methods.
i) By strengthening the slopes by providing the
reinforcement in the form of anchoring and nailing.
ii) By strengthening the slopes by providing the planer
reinforcement such as geotextile, geogrid and metal
grid.
One of the primary requirements for the embankment
slope is the stability of slope. Thus it is necessary that
when slopes are made steeper by reinforcing them by any
method, the slope should remain stable thus it becomes
necessary for a civil engineer to analyse the various forces
induced due to provision of reinforcement & take into
account these forces in the stability analysis of slopes.
The effect of provision of reinforcement in the form of
anchoring & nailing for strengthening the slopes of
embankment dam has been studied by few researchers &
its effect on stability of slopes & economy achieved has
been investigated however strengthening of slopesof
embankment dam by providing horizontal layers of planer
reinforcement such as geotextile and geogrid has not been
investigated yet.
Theme
The software OASYS will be used to evaluate factor of
safety for upstream and downstream slope for various
conditions and will be compared with Existing design
results. The various conditions of the study as shown in
table no.1.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ya-lin Zhu et.al. (2009)10 conducted a research to study
the antiseismic measure of geogrid in high rockfill dam
Remark
Changing length and spacing
of geotextile layers
using elastoplastic analysis method. By studying the

dynamic response of high earth rockfill dam in area of
high seismicity, the concern aspects are installing
geogrids in dam slope responding during strongly
earthquake. Tension, permanent deformation &
acceleration response are taken into account during
earthquake & used as criteria evaluate the antiseismic
measurement. High rockfill dam used in their study 200 m
height, 916 m in length & 1:1.8 slope with u/s & d/s &
completely symmetric core wall. The analysis was carried
out using total stress method neglecting water load &
water seepage on u/s. The uniaxial geogrid was used in
construction of high earth rockfill dam & it was modeled
as cable element. After analysis concluded that the level
of shear strain can be reduced significantly, collapse of
elements at the top of slope can be effectively controlled,
horizontal permanent displacement 9near the top of the
dam & downstream slope can be greatly reduced, stability
of casing material can be improved at top of the dam.
Srivastava Amit et.al (2011) et.al.presented a case study
where the soil reinforcement technique has been used to
reconstruct and stabilize the upstream slope of water
impounding reservoir in Karnataka which was failed by
sliding under sudden drawdown condition during rainy
season. Using finite element method of analysis in the
plaxis 2D software, it was demonstrated that the provision
of reinforcement provides higher stability to the structure.
The reinforcement used in their study was in the form of
24 mm diameter torque steel rods & length of bars
varying from 5 m to 25 m. the bars were provided
horizontally at spacing of 1 m & the vertical spacing
between layers of reinforcement was 1.5. Tensile force
mobilized in the reinforcement interacts via friction
between soil & reinforcement & reducing driving forces
as well as increases resisting forces. This results in
improved factor of safety of section.
S.P.Tatewar & L.Pawade (2012)2 studied the analysis &
design of existing earth dam section of Bhimadi minor
irrigation dam situated near Warud in Amravati district.
Existing dam section was stable in all respect however the
study was conducted to investigate the effect of various
parameters such as change in berm width, strengthening
the d/s & u/s slope by anchoring & nailing under different
condition of stability. The slopes of dam section provided
with reinforcement were changed & its effect on stability
was evaluated. Also parameter of reinforcement such as
length & spacing were changed to study its effect on
228
stability. The stability analysis was carried using Geo5

software. The models of original dam section as well as
dam section with reinforced slope were developed in
Geo5 software & stability analysis was carried out. Based
on the study, it was concluded that, the factor of safety of
stability of slopes is increased with anchoring and nailing.
However, the improvement in factor of safety is
continued up to certain limit. Also cost saving of 3% to
15% may be achieved using the anchoring & nailing to
the slopes.
seepage condition, for upstream slope during sudden

drawdown condition. The geotextile may increase the
factor of safety for both slopes during construction. The
geotextile may increases the factor of safety for
downstream slope and upstream slope with earthquake
effect.
[1]
A.B. Tewary,(1989) Geotextiles in Earthen Dams,

International Workshops on Geotextiles, 29-39.
METHODOLOGY
[2]
i. Data of existing dam to be collected from Irrigation

department.
Dr.S.P.Tatewar and Laxman N.Pawade (2012) Stability

Analysis of Bhimdi Earth Dam,International Journal of
Engineering Innovation & Research (IJEIR) published in
ISSN: 2277-5668. Volume No-1, Issue -6, and Nov- Dec.
2012.
[3]
ii. Modeling of existing earthen dam section without

reinforcement in Oasys software.
Dr. G. Venkatappa Rao, Geosynthetics (1990), Tata

McGraw Hill,New Delhi.
[4]
Engineer Manual, Earth and rock-fill dams - general

design and Construction considerations, 1110-2-2300
(1994) pp.1- 78.
[5]
Ennio M. Palmeira, Advances in Geosynthetics Materials

and Applications for Soil Reinforcement and
Environmental Protection Works, Electronic journal of
geotechnical engg.
v. Slope stability analysis of existing section with

reinforcement.
[6]
Sanjay Kumar
application.
vi. Slope stability analysis of existing section with

reinforcement for earthquake effect.
[7]
H. Hasani,J. Mamizadeh and H. Karimi, Stability of

Slope and Seepage Analysis in Earth Fills Dams Using
Numerical Models (Case Study: Ilam DAM-Iran),
World Applied Sciences Journal 21 (9), pp. 1398-1402,
2013.
The analysis to be carried out to calculate slope stability

of zoned earthen dam without reinforcement. And when
Geotextile is to be used as reinforcement in zoned earth
dam to calculate slope stability of zoned earthen dam with
reinforcement also calculates slope stability of zoned
earthen dam with reinforcement for earthquake effect.
Effect of reinforcement on slope stability of zoned earthen
dam during construction.
[8]
Hamed Niroumand, The Role of Geosynthetics in Slope

Stability, Electronic journal of geotechnical engg vol.
17(2012) pp. 2739-2748.
[9]
Sivakumar Babu G. L. and Amit Srivastava (2011)

Remediation of Upstream Slope of An Impounding
Reservoir
Using
Soil
Reinforcing
Technique,
Proceedings
of
Indian
Geotechnical
Conference December-2011, Kochi (Paper No. J-307), pp.
589-592.
EXPECTED RESULTS
[10] Ya-lin Zhu, Xian-jing kong The Anti-seismic Effect of

Geogrid Reinforced on High Earth-rockfill Dams,
Electronic journal of geotechnical engg.Vol.14(2009) pp.
1-13.
REFERENCES
The method to be carried out consists of following steps

for slope stability analysis of zoned earth dam.
iii. Slope stability analysis of existing section without

reinforcement.
iv. Modeling of existing earthen dam section with
reinforcement in Oasys software.
OBJECTIVES
By using geotextile as reinforcement may increase the

factor of safety for downstream slope during steady
229
Shukla
Geosynthetic
and
their

A Study on the Geotechnical Properties of Tannery Effluent

on Black Cotton Soil
K.V.N. Laxma Naik1, S. Bali Reddy2 and A.V. Narashima Rao3
1
Assistant Professor, P.V.P.S.T., Vijayawada, India.
Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India.
3
Formerly Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, S.V.University, Tirupathi.
Email: 1laxman.srinu@gmail.com, 2sodom@iitg.ernet.in
2
ABSTRACT
Ground Pollution is perpetuated by humans due to many reasons. Industrial activity is necessary for the socioeconomic progress of a country, but at the same time, it generates large amount of solid and liquid wastes.
Among various means available, disposal through land is simple and widely used. All types of pollution have
either direct or indirect effect on soil properties. Behaviour of any contaminant in soil depends upon the
Physical and Chemical properties of the contaminant as well as its interactivity with that of soil. The effect of
tannery effluent on compaction, Plasticity, Swelling, Strength Characteristics and California Bearing Values of
Black Cotton Soil has been presented in this paper. The soil used in this investigation falls under SC group as
per I.S. Classification and its Differential Free Swell Index is 80% indicating very high degree of expansiveness.
The tannery effluent used in this investigation is a colourless liquid and soluble in water. It has a sour taste and
a pungent smell.
INTRODUCTION
The index and engineering properties of the ground gets
modified in the vicinity of the industrial plants mainly as
a result of contamination by the industrial wastes
disposed. The major sources of surface and subsurface
contamination are the disposal of industrial wastes and
accidental spillage of chemicals during the course of
industrial operations. The leakages of industrial effluent
into subsoil directly affect the use and stability of the
supported structure.
Extensive damage to the floors, pavements and
foundations of a light industrial building in Kerala State
was reported by Sridharan et al. (1981). Joshi et al. (1994)
reported that severe damage occurred to the
interconnecting pipe of a phosphoric acid storage tank in
particular and also to the adjacent buildings due to
differential movements between pump and acid tank
foundations of fertilizer plant in Calgary, Canada. A
similar case of accidental spillage of highly concentrated
caustic soda solution as a result of spillage from cracked
drains in an industrial establishment in Tema, Ghana
caused considerable structural damage to a light industrial
building in the factory, in addition to localized subsidence
of the affected area [Kumaplay & Ishola (1985)].
Therefore, it is better to start ground monitoring from the
beginning of a project instead of waiting for complete
failure of the ground to support human activities and then
start the remedial actions.
Black cotton soils have high shrinkage and swelling

characteristics. In general, these soils are very much
sensitive to changes in environment. The environment
includes the stress system, the chemistry of pore water in
the system, the seasonal variations in ground water table
and temperature variations.
Hence, an attempt is made in this investigation to study
the effect of Tannery effluent on the Geotechnical
Properties of a black cotton soil.
MATERIALS USED
The soil used for this investigation is obtained from near
Tirupati (India). The soil is classified as SC as per I.S.
Classification indicating that it is clayey sand. It is highly
expansive as the Free Swell Index is 254.5 %. The
properties of the soil are given in Table- 1.
Tannery effluent is a colourless liquid and soluble in
water in proportions. It has sour taste and pungent smell.
The chemical properties of the effluent are shown in
Table 2.
PROCEDURE FOR CONTAMINATION
The soil from the site is dried and the pebbles and
vegetative matter present, if any, are removed by hand. It
is further dried and pulverized and sieved through a sieve
of 4.75 mm to eliminate gravel fraction, if any. This dried
and sieved soil is stored in air tight containers for use
for contamination. The soil sample kept for contamination
230
WATER CONTENT (%)
is mixed with different percentages of tannery effluent,

from 0 to 100 per cent, in increments of 20 percent. The
contaminated soil prepared thus is stored for a day in air
tight containers for uniform distribution of tannery
effluent.
Table 1: Properties of Soil
S.No
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
3
Property
Value
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limits
77%
Plastic limit
29.2%
Plasticity Index
47.8%
Compaction Characteristics
Maximum dry Unit
Weight
18.48kN/m3
Optimum Moisture
13%
Content
Specific Gravity
2.65
90
LIQUID LIMIT
80
PLASTICITY INDEX
PLASTIC LIMIT
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
TANNERY EFFLUENT (%)
100
Fig. 1: Variation of LL, PL and PI with per cent Tannery

Effluent
300
Table 2: Chemical composition of tannery effluent
Parameter
Color
pH
Chromium
chloride
Sulphite
Total Hardness
BOD
COD
Suspended Solids
250
Value
Dark color liquid
3.15
250 mg/l
496.3 mg/l
152.8 mg/l
520 mg/l
120 mg/lit
450 mg/lit
1200 mg/lit
200
DFSI(%)
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
150
100
50
0
0
TESTS CONDUCTED
The following tests are conducted in the presented
investigation:
1. Liquid limit tests
2. Plastic limit tests
3. Differential Free Swell Index Tests
4. Compaction Tests and
5. Unconfined Compression Test
The effect of tannery effluent in varying proportion with
soil has been studied and the variation in Liquid Limit
(LL), Plastic Limit (PL) and Plasticity Index (PI) for
various mixes is presented in Fig. 1. It is found that as the
percentage of tannery effluent increases the LL, PL, and
PI of soil mix is decreased marginally.
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 2: Variation of DFSI with the percent Tannery Effluent

(%)
The Optimum Pore- fluid Content (OPC) and Maximum

Dry Unit Weight (MDU) for soil may vary with various
proportions of tannery effluent. The results of the
Standard Proctors Compaction tests for soil conducted at
different percentages of tannery effluent are reported in
Fig. 3. The bottom most curve corresponds to 0 % of
tannery effluent followed by 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and
100% respectively. From these curves, it is seen that the
peak points are shifted towards right with per cent
increase in effluent.
The relationship between optimum pore fluid content and
different percentages of tannery effluent is shown in
Fig.4.It is found that the Optimum Pore fluid
Content(OPC) increases with per cent increase of tannery
effluent. The per cent decrease in OPC for 100% of
tannery effluent is about 10.4%.
231
22
DRY UNIT WEIGHT (kN/m3)
Undrained Cohesion with respect to different percentages

of tannery effluent for various curing periods is shown in
0% EFFLUENT
20% EFFLUENT
40% EFFLUENT
60% EFFLUENT
80% EFFLUENT
100% EFFLUENT
ZERO AIR VOID LINE
21
20
Fig.3.From the figure, it is observed that the strength of

the soil decreases with increase in percentage of tannery
effluent irrespective of curing period. The variation in
Undrained Cohesion with respect to different curing
periods for various percentages of tannery effluent is
shown in Fig.4.From the figure it is observed that the
strength of the soil decreases with increase in curing
period irrespective of per cent tannery effluent. The
maximum reduction in Undrained Cohesion occurs on the
soil samples treated with 100% tannery effluent and cured
for 15 days.
19
18
17
16
15
4
12
16
20
PORE FLUID CONTENT (%)
Fig. 3: Compaction Curves for different Percentages of

Effluent
OPTIMUM PORE FLUID CONTENT(%)
12.6
12.4
12.2
12
11.8
11.6
Fig. 5: Variation of Undrained Cohesion with Per cent

Tannery Effluent for Different curing periods
11.4
11.2
11
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 4: Variation of OPC with Per cent Tannery Effluent
The variation in maximum dry unit weight with

percentage of tannery effluent is shown in Fig.5. From the
figure, it is seen that the maximum dry unit weight
decreases slightly with the increase in percentage of
tannery effluent. The percentage decrease in MDU at
100% of tannery effluent is about 6 %.
Unconfined Compressive Strength test is, carried out to
study the strength behaviour of soil treated with different
percentages of effluents are critically discussed. The
effect of curing on the strength behaviour of soil treated
with different percentages of effluents is also studied.
Five different curing periods are considered for the study
namely 0 day, 1day, 3 days, 7 days and 15 days. The tests
are conducted at the optimum pore fluid content. The
effluents are varied from 20% to 100% in increment of
20%.In order to compare the results of treated soil, tests
are also conducted on untreated soil. The variation in
Fig. 6: Variation of Undrained Cohesion with curing period

for different percentages of tannery effluent
In general the shear strength of a soil can be considered to

have three components viz: cohesion, friction and
dilatancy. Cohesion in general is considered as a part of
the shear strength that can be mobilized due to forces
arising at particle level and is independent of the effective
stress and hence, is regarded as a physico-chemical
component of the shear strength. Undrained cohesion is
estimated as half of the Unconfined Compressive
Strength.
232
Basically, two mechanisms control the undrained strength

in clays, namely (a) cohesion or undrained strength is due
to the net attractive forces and the mode of particle
arrangement as governed by the interparticle forces, or (b)
cohesion is due to the viscous shear resistance of the
double layer water (Sridharan, 2002). The Undrained
shear strength behaviour of kaolinitic soils is shown to be
quite opposite to that observed for montmorillonitic soils
under different physico-chemical environments.Concept
(a) operates primarily for kaolinitic soil, and concept (b)
dominates primarily for montmorillonitic soils.
In general fine grained soils consist of different clay
minerals with different exchangeable cations and varying
ion concentration in the pore water and varying non clay
size fraction. In view of this while both concepts (a) and
(b) can coexist and operate simultaneously, or one of the
mechanisms dominates.
In the case of tannery effluent reduction in Undrained
Cohesion value could be attributed to absorption of
chromium ions present in the effluent. Due to its higher
valence chromium ions causes decrease in double layer
thicknesswhich in turn reduces the viscous resistance for
the same water content under undrained condition
(Sridharan, 2002). The reduction in strength of specimens
with age was due to the long-term interaction between
clay particles and effluent and predominant role of
chromium ions in decreasing double layer thickness and
viscous resistance.di
effluents generated from industrial activities are

discharged either treated or untreated over the soil leading
to changes in soil properties causing improvement or
degradation of engineering behavior of soil. If there is an
improvement in engineering behaviour of soil, there is a
value addition to the industrial wastes serving three
benefits of safe disposal of effluents, using as a stabiliser
and return of income on it. If there is degradation of
engineering behaviour of soil then solution for
decontamination is to be obtained. Based on experimental
study the following conclusions are drawn. If increasing
tannery effluent Liquid limit and Plastic limits are
decreased. Undrained Cohesion of the soil decreases with
increase in percentage of Tannery Effluent irrespective of
curing period.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
CONCLUSIONS
The rapid growth in population and industrialization
cause generation of large quantities of effluents. The bulk
233
Joshi, R.C.,Pan, X., and Lohinta, R.(1994)Volume Change

in Calcareous Soils due to Phosphoric Acid
Contamination, Proc.of the XIII CSMFE, New Delhi
Vol:4, pp1569-1574.
Kumapley, N.K. and Ishola, A.(1985)The Effect of
Chemical Contamination on Soil Strength,Proc. XI
ICSMFE, San Fransico.,A.A.Balkema, Rotter dam,
Vol:3,pp1199- 1201.
Sridharan, A., Nagaraj, T.S. and Sivapullaiah, P.V.(1981)
Heaving of Soil due to Acid Contamination, ICFMFE,
Stockholm,6,383-386.
Sridharan, Asuri and El-Shafei, Ahmed and Miura,
Norihiko (2002),Mechanisms controlling the Undrained
strength behavior of remolded Ariake marine clays,
In: Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 20(1).
21-50.


M. Nagalakshmi1, D.V. Sivasankara Reddy1, E. Anusha1 and M. Chittaranjan2
Students, 2Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla
ABSTRACT
In olden days if soil is problematic to maintain stability of structure it is simply avoided. But now-a-days due to
increase in population and industrialization there is great demand for site. Hence we cannot avoid the site; we
should find out the solutions to maintain stability of structures when constructed over this type of soils.
In problematic soils regular pattern of design, conventional or commonly used foundations are not suitable. It
requires special type of ground improvement techniques, special design and special type of foundations to
counteract its effects. Hence it becomes a challenging for civil engineers particularly for geotechnical engineers
to maintain stability of structures when constructed over problematic soils.
After extensive research work it is observed that certain soils such as Expansive soils, Liquefiable soils,
Collapsible soil, Contaminated Soils, Soils subjected to Frost heave and Frost boil, Soft ground poses several
problems to Civil Engineering Structures which are constructed on them. In this paper the nature of these soils
and different foundation practices adopted on these soils to counteract their effects are critically discussed.
Keywords Problematic soils-Expansive soils-Liquefiable soils-Collapsible soil-contaminated soils -Soft
ground.
Collapse of buildings
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of every civil engineering structure is
located within the soil. Hence the stability of the structure
not only depends on its effective design and quality of
material used it also depends on the nature of the soil. If
the soil is problematic then even though the structure is
designed effectively the structure may cracks, heave,
settle or in severe conditions it may collapse. Hence it is
essential to know the behavior of problematic soils and
suitable foundation or effective ground improvement
technique to counteract the effect of problematic soil.
Hence it becomes a challenging task for civil engineers
particularly for geotechnical engineers to maintain
stability of structures when constructed over problematic
soils.
Damages of floors and pavement

Chemical attack on foundations
Landslides
Lateral spreads
TYPES OF PROBLEMATIC SOILS
Expansive soils
Liquefiable soils
Collapsible soils
Soft ground fills
Dispersive soils
Contaminated soils
PROBLEMATIC SOIL-DEFINITION
Soils subjected to frost heave and frost boil
A soil is termed as problematic if it has undesirable

engineering properties. It causes architectural and
structural damages to the structures constructed over such
soils.
EXPANSIVE SOILS
Problematic soils causes

Cracks in buildings
Sudden/Excessive Settlement
Tilting and Sinking of buildings
Expansive soils are those soils, which have tendency to

increase in volume when water is available and decrease
in volume when water is removed. These volumetric
changes are due to the presence of Montmorillanite clay
mineral in expansive soils. These volume changes of
expansive soils cause severe damage to structures resting
on it. The expansive soils of India are commonly known
as Black Cotton Soils because of the colour and their
property of growing Cotton.
234
Mitigative Measures
Under Reamed Piles A pile which has an enlarged base
at its bottom is known as under reamed pile. This type of
foundation is suitable when there are alternate layers of
expansive and non expansive soils.
construction is easy and is more economical when

compared to other techniques. This technique uses anchor
rod anchor plate made of steel.
The mechanism for this type of foundation is, the bulb

portion of the under reamed piles is provided in the stable
zone. During expansion of soil, the soil exerts uplift
pressure on the pile and tries to lift it up but the bulbs
provided in the stable zone acts an anchor and prevents
the uplift of the pile there by prevents swelling of soil.
Fig. 3
The mechanism for this type of foundation is, the uplift

pressure due to swelling nature of expansive soil is
resisted by the weight of the granular anchor pile and the
friction between the pile and the soil. The uplift pressure
is also resisted by the lateral swelling pressure and
prevents it from lifting.
Fig. 1
Belled Piers The pier which has enlarged base at its

bottom is known as belled pier.
The mechanism for this type of foundation is, the belled
portion is constructed in non-expansive zone. When the
soil expands it applies an upward drag on the pile. But the
belled portion in the non-expansive zone acts as an anchor
and counteracts the upward drag on the pile, so that the
building constructed on this ground is not affected by
expansive soil.
Fig. 4
Soil replacement by CNS layer In this method,

expansive soil is replaced by cohesive and non-swelling
soil.
Lime treatment Lime stabilization is quite effective in
reducing the liquid limit and the plasticity index of the
soil. Consequently, the swelling potential also reduces.
Fig. 2
Raft Foundations This type of foundation is suitable

when soil is highly expansive in nature and where other
foundations are not suitable. A concrete bed is laid over
the entire area of construction. This does not allow the
seepage of water into the soil there by prevents swelling.
Granular Anchor Piles Granular anchor pile is a new
innovative technique suitable for soils having either
expansive or non expansive strata at the bottom. Its
Prewetting Before construction expansive soil is wetted

by ponding at water content equal to equilibrium moisture
content so that most of potential heave would occur.
Compaction Control Swelling potential of soil can be
reduced if it is compacted wet of optimum water content.
Compaction is effective only in cases when the probable
expected heave is less than about 40mm.
Prevention of Ingress of Water In this method the
swelling of expansive soil can be reduced by preventing
entry of water to seep through it. It can be done by using
235
Horizontal moisture barrier, Vertical moisture barrier,

Sand drains, and Sub-surface sand drains.
1. The soil is cohesionless.
LIQUIFIABLE SOILS
3. The soil is saturated.
Liquefaction is phenomenon due to which water saturated

loose sandy soils acts as a dense viscous fluid rather than
as a solid when they are subjected to earthquake ground
shaking.
2. The soil is loose.

4. There is shaking of ground of the required intensity
and duration.
5. The undrained conditions developed in the soil due to
its limited Permeability.
Mechanism of Liquefaction
Mitigative Measures
During an earthquake the application of cyclic shear

stresses induced by the propagation of shear waves causes
the loose sand to contract resulting in increasing pore
water pressure. The increasing pore water pressure causes
an upward flow of water to the ground surface in the form
of mud sprouts or sand boils. The development of high
pore water pressure due to ground shaking and upward
flow of water may turn the sand into liquefied condition
which has been termed as liquefaction. For this state of
liquefaction the effective stress is zero. Hence the shear
strength of cohesive less soil is equal to zero. The
individual soil particles are released from any
confinement as if the soil particles were floating in water.
Preventive measures to be taken in under to control

liquefaction are
i)
Providing deep foundations The structure should

be supported on deep foundations, such as Piles that
extend through the liquefiable soil to the deeper
strong and stable strata.
ii)
Compaction of soils Liquefaction occurs in loose

sands. By compacting the soil we can increase the
relative density of the soil and the chances of
liquefaction can be minimised. Compaction can be
done by means of vibratory rollers, compaction
piles, blasting and vibro floatation.
iii) Replacing the liquefiable soil If the depth of the

liquefiable soil is limited it can be excavated and
replaced with a well compacted soil. But this method
is not economical, if the depth of the liquefiable soil
is large.
iv)
Grouting the soil In this method, the soil is

stabilised by injecting the chemicals or cement grout
into the soil. The chemical reaction between the soil
and chemicals increase the cohesion consequently
the shear strength of the soil.
v)
Providing stone columns In this method a number

of holes are bored into the soil deposit and later
filled with gravel & stones and then compacted, thus
stone columns are formed. The stone columns have
high permeability and are quite effective for rapid
drainage of pore water, thus the effective stress is
increased. Stone columns also increase the bearing
capacity of the soil.
vi)
Drainage of soil The liquefaction hazard can be

reduced to some extent by providing coarse sand
blanket in the soil deposit. The dynamic pore water
pressure is thus easily dissipated when water escape
through these and the effective stress is increased.
Fig. 5
Liquefaction Phenomenon can be explained in terms

mathematical expression as
Shear Strength, =c + ntan
Effective stress gives more realistic behavior of soil,
Shear strength can be expressed as
1
=c + (n-u) tan
During the ground motion due to an earthquake, Static

pore pressure may be increased by an amount udyn,
then
=c1 + (n-(u +udyn)) tan1
Let us consider a situation when u +udyn= n, then = c1
In cohesion less soil, c1=0, hence = 0.
Liquefaction occurs in the following conditions
vii) Ground water pumping The effective stress at a

point increases as the water table is lowered, so that
by pumping the ground water, the liquefaction can
be prevented to some extent. However, this method
is cost effective only when the water that is pumped
can be used for municipal and industrial purposes.
viii) Application of surcharge When a surcharge load is
applied to a soil deposit, the effective stress is
236
increased, thus the possibility of liquefaction can be

reduced.
Pre Ponding In this method, low dikes are constructed

around the construction site and the whole site is flooded
with water to cause collapse of soil before construction is
started. This method is effective only when there is an
impervious stratum beneath the collapsible soil to prevent
seepage.
Drilled piers and piles For collapsible soils having
large depths pipe ponding or precollapsing becomes
difficult. In such cases foundations are extended beyond
the depth of zone of possible wetting using drilled piers
and piles so that damage of structures constructed over
such soils can be prevented.
Fig. 6
COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
In arid or semi-arid areas, temporary bonds develop
between soil grains. These bonds dissolve upon wetting
under pressure. This type of soil is known as collapsible
soils. The temporary bonds are due to very small coating
of clay or other bonding materials. Collapsible soils
contain low water content and high void ratio in natural
state. Sudden decrease in volume takes place when it
becomes saturated.
Aeolian soils for example Loess contain honey comb
structure in which porous structure is maintained by water
soluble bonds between soil particles. When it becomes
saturated the bond between soil particles is broken and the
soil mass suddenly decreases in volume causing its
collapse.
Stone-Columns In this method, holes are bored into the

soil deposit and later filled with large boulders & then
compacted, thus stone columns are formed. These large
boulders penetrate the collapsible soil deposit and they
transfer the load of structures to stable soil layers beneath
the collapsible soil.
Densification Collapsible soils are densified by
vibroflotation in order to increase the cohesion. This
method is effective only for free-draining soils.
Stabilization Soil is stabilized by using solution of
sodium silicate and calcium chloride. Due to stabilization,
the collapsible soil behaves like a soft stone and resists
collapse after saturation. This method is quite effective
for fine sands.
Control of Drainage Potential water sources which
cause wetting may be controlled by providing suitable
drainage. Infiltrations wells are used for drainage.
SOFT GROUND FILLS
It is highly sensitive clay which has a tendency to change
from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is
disturbed. It has a high water content of about 80%.
Fig. 7
Mitigative measures Preventive measures to be taken in

under to control liquefaction are
Soil replacement If the depth of the collapsible soil is
limited it can be excavated and replaced with a well
compacted soil. But this method is not economical, if the
depth of the collapsible soil is large.
Fig. 8
Mitigative Measures
Bypassing the soil The structure should be supported on
deep foundations, such as Piles that extend through the
soft soil to the deeper strong and stable strata.
237
Soil reinforcement cohesion and friction of soil can be

improved by providing micro piles, compaction piles etc.
Grouting Chemical grouts are introduced under
pressure into the soil.
Soil replacement If the depth of the soft soil is limited it
can be excavated and replaced with a hard soil, stone dust
with fly-ash.
Soil stabilization soil can be stabilized by means of
cement, fly-ash, lime, sodium silicate etc, in order to
improve the engineering properties of soil and make it
stable.
CONTAMINATED SOILS
Due to increase in population, industrialization huge
quantities of wastes are generated. These wastes are
disposed directly on to the land without any treatment.
During rainy seasons the rain water mixed with wastes
and creates a toxic chemical known as leachate. The
leachate moves down under gravity and contaminates the
site. Soil contamination decreases the engineering
properties of soil. The modification of soil causes
settlement or tilting or sinking or cracks and collapse of
building. Hence decontamination is essential before the
construction of a building.
Decontamination Techniques
Bio-Remediation In this method the contaminated soil
is supplemented with cultured aerobic microorganisms.
The pollutants are degraded and mineralized by these
microorganisms.
Electro-Kinetic Remediation In this method electrodes
are implanted into the soil. The ionic species and charged
particles in the soil migrate to one electrode and water
migrates towards cathode. The contaminants arrived at the
electrodes can be removed by adsorption or precipitation
at the electrode or pumping of water near the electrode.
Incineration Technologies Hazardous wastes can be
volatilized and combusted in incinerators such as the
rotary kiln, infrared furnaces, liquid injection, plasma arc,
fluidized bed etc at temperatures that range from 870 to
1200 C. Incineration at these temperatures can break the
chemical bonds of organic compounds and other
substances.
In-Situ Grouting Over the long term, voids are created
in the backfill and waste matrices of landfills, creating
surface depressions and areas prone to water infiltration.
In-situ grouting of shallow landfills [17] has been used to
effectively control the inflow of surface water, thus
reducing leach rates, into hazardous waste sites. Grouting,
or the injection of matter to fill the voids, can be done
with chemical grouts, in solution form, or slurry grouts
that are in particulate form.
In-Situ Vitrification In this method, the contaminated

soil is meted to render the soil nonhazardous. Soil is
electrically heated to a temperature of 1600 to 2000 C.
the high temperatures destroys the organic pollutants.
SOILS SUBJECTED TO FROST HEAVE AND
FROST BOIL
Frost Heave
When temperature falls below the freezing point the water
in the capillary zone converts into ice crystals resulting in
increase of volume of soil. The increase in volume results
in expansion of soil i.e.; frost heave. Due to frost heave
the soil at the ground surface is lifted. Lightly loaded
structures constructed over such soils are lifted due to
frost heave. Silts and fine sands are mostly prone to frost
action. These soils have large capillary rise due to
relatively fine particles and good permeability. Clayey
soils have large capillary rise but their permeability is
very low. Hence they have relatively small frost heave.
Frost Boil
After the occurrence of frost heave, if the temperature
rises, the ice crystals start melting. Ice is converted into
liquid. Hence water content increases and the soil
becomes soft. The process of softening of soil due to
liberation of water during thawing is known as frost boil.
The effect of frost boil is more pronounced on highway
pavements. A hole is generally formed in the pavement
due to extrusion of soft soil and water under the action of
wheel loads. Frost heave and frost boil occurs in case of
fine sands and silts.
Mitigative Measures
Soil Replacement Replace the frost-susceptible soil by
coarse grained soils such as gravels or coarse sands. This
method is not economical if the depth of frost-susceptible
soil is more.
Providing Coarse grained or insulated blanket
Insulating blanket is provided between the water table and
the ground surface. It consists of gravel and reduces
capillary action and hence the migration of water and the
formation of ice lenses.
Providing good drainage system It prevents the frost
action by lowering the water table and the water liberated
during thawing is drained away quickly.
Use of dispersive agents Dispersive agents such as
sodium poly phosphate when mixed with soil decease the
permeability of soil there by reducing the frost action.
CONCLUSIONS
The following broad conclusions are drawn and
recommendations are made for the design of safe
buildings on problematic sites:
238
1. For a building projects adequate amount of fields and

laboratory studies must be carried out to Investigate
the possibility of the presence of problematic soils.
2. In case the presence of problematic soils confirmed
supplementary testing for quantification of the
relevant parameters must be carried out.
3. The most cost effective remedial measures must be
subsequently evolved, in keeping with the indigenous
technology.
4. The engineering institutions must be considered
launching a comprehensive research Program, for a
detailed study on problematic soils and preparation of
national guidelines, for the design buildings in such
conditions.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
REFERENCES
[1]
D.M.Ham by site remediation techniques supporting

environmental restoration activities-a rivew.
239
Geotechnical engineering by Manoj Dutta & gulati S.KTata McGraw-Hill Publishers New Delhi.
Faisal-I.Khan, Thair Husain, Ramzi hejazi An overview
of site remediation technologies, journal of
environmental management 71(2004)95-122.
Foundations on problematic soils by Sohail Kibria
M.Sc.Civil Engg. General Manger, Geotech. &GeoEnvironmental
Engg.Division,
NESPAK
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/rizwankhurram
-508398-foundation-problems/
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by B.C.
Punmia.
Soil mechanics and foundation engineering by
Dr.K.R.Arora Standard publishers.
Soil Mechanics & foundation engineering by Gopal
Ranjan & Rao. New age international publishers.

Characterisation and Behavioural Analysis of Granular Pile Anchors

in Terms of Heave and Strength
Aswari Sultana1, B.R. Phani Kumar2 and A. Srirama Rao3
1
Assistant Professor in Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad, A.P.
2
Professor of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamilnadu
3
Formerly Principal & Professor in Civil Engineering, JNT University College of Engineering, Kakinada, A.P
Email: 1aswari.sultana@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Expansive soils are one of the most problematic soils and the structures constructed on these soils experience
distress and develop cracks due to alternate swellings and shrinkages of the soil. Due to this reason, the bearing
capacity of the soil will be high in the dry state and quite low in the swollen state. Granular Pile-Anchor (GPA)
system is a successful technique to arrest heave and to improve the overall engineering behaviour of expansive
clay beds. Granular piles, anchored at the bottom to a steel plate, through a steel rod fastened to the surface
footing are called granular pile-anchors. In this study, an approach has been developed to analyses the behavior
of granular pile anchors in terms of heave and strength aspects. Heave has been found to vary curvilinear with
depth and approach a zero value at the bottom of the pile, in a laboratory test. A mathematical equation was
developed for heave which gave a curvilinear variation at various depths. Two cases are considered with respect
to variation of shear stress i.e.; a constant shear stress with a linear variation.
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils experience alternative volumetric change

corresponding to increase or decrease of moisture content.
Lightly loaded structures constructed on expansive soils
suffer cyclic swell and shrink movements due to alternate
wetting and drying of these soils. Hence, an alternative
foundation technique in the form of granular pile-anchors
has been suggested (Phani Kumar, 1995) for reducing
heave of foundations. So far, granular piles have been
used as a ground improvement technique for improving
the engineering performance of soft soils and loose
cohesionless deposits, where the problem is large
settlements and poor bearing capacity. But in expansive
soils the problem is uplift of foundations, where the
upward force exerted by the swelling soil and the
foundation is tensile in nature. A mere granular pile,
which can take only compressive loads effectively, cannot
resist the upward force. On the other hand, if it is
modified into a granular pile-anchor by anchoring the
foundation to a mild steel plate at the bottom of the
granular pile with the help of a mild steel anchor rod, it
will be able to resist the tensile upward load. The granular
pile-anchor must be with respect to shear stress, in order
not to fail to in uplift. This shear stress is assumed to be
constant with depth and vary linearly with depth. The
shear strength which is dependent upon the swelling
characteristics of expansive clay is determined at different
depths based on the heave at those depths. Heave has
been found to vary curvilinearly with depth and approach
a zero value at the bottom of the pile, in a laboratory test.
An equation developed for heave also gave a curvilinear
variation (Dr Phani Kumar, 1995).
Several innovative techniques such as physical alteration,

chemical alteration, and tension-resistant foundations
were recommended to minimize the swell-shrink
problems posed by expansive soils. The sand cushion
technique (Satyanarayana 1966) and the Cohesive NonSwelling (CNS) layer technique (R. K. Katti Lecture
1978) are examples of physical alteration. Blending
expansive soils with chemicals such as lime, CaCl2, fly
ash, and Portland cement (SriRama rao, 1984) fall under
the category of chemical alteration. Many well-known
tension-resistant foundations in practice are under-reamed
piles (Sharma et al. 1978), belled piers, and drilled piers
(Chen 1988).
While the alteration techniques either replace the
expansive soils or change the mineralogy of the clay
particles and thus reduce the volume changes in expansive
soils, tension-resistant foundations absorb tensile uplift
force caused on the foundation by the swelling soils. A
granular pile-anchor (GPA), which is a modification of
granular pile, is a recent foundation technique that has
been found to be quite effective in reducing heave and
improving the engineering behavior of expansive clay
beds (Phanikumar 1995).
CONCEPT OF GRANULAR PILES
The Concept of Granular Pile Anchor is shown in the
following figure 1.
240
Characterisation and Behavioural Analysis of Granular Pile Anchors in Terms of Heave and Strength
Where, Pu = uplift load

psm = mobilized swelling pressure and
Df = annular area of a square plate of side
.. z = 4z Pu / D2pLp
(6)
= 2 Pu Lp/D2pEp
(7)
The deformation, can be predicted for the given

placement conditions of the soil and the granular pile. The
placement conditions for the granular soil are an initial
dry unit weight of14 kN/m3, and an initial water content
of 14%. The granular pile is of length 0.3m and
compacted at a relative density of 0.6. For these
placement conditions, the Youngs modulus of the pile as
suggested by Phani kumar, 1995 is 30 MPa.
Fig. 1: The Concept of Granular Pile Anchor
ANALYSIS OF THE FORCES ACTING ON THE

GRANULAR PILE ANCHOR
Various forces acting on the granular pile anchor are
vertical stress and shear stress as shown in figure 2 below.
z is the vertical stress acting on the pile at depth z and
is the shear stress.
For the placement conditions considered, Pu has been

calculated as 786.8 N. the mobilized swelling pressure has
been found from the relation between swell potential and
surcharge pressure. Based on the measured deformation in
the laboratory psm and Pu have been determined.
It is important to know the variation of heave, with
depth. Because of the overburden pressure varies
either curvilinear or linearly with depth approaching zero
or a minimum value at some depth. The depth where
heave becomes negligible is important in the design of
foundations.
In this work, both the curvilinear and linear variations
have been considered based on the suggestions given by
Poulos (1973) and the depths where becomes zero
have been arrived at analytically. The analysis is as
follows:
Fig. 2: Forces Acting on the Granular pile
Considering an element of the pile of thickness dz at a

depth z below the top of the pile, the equilibrium equation
of forces acting on the element is
(z Dp2/4 + Dp dz) = (z + dz ) Dp2 /4
(1)
Or, dz/ dz = 4 /Dp
(2)
Or, dz = 4 dz /Dp
(3)
Firstly, the straight line variation of heave with depth is

considered. This is assumed to decrease linearly with
depth (Figure 3). If 0 is the heave at top then the heave at
any given depth z from the top (z) can be written as
z = 0 (1 z/L)
(8)
Where, Dp = dia of the pile

This is the basic differential equation governing the
equilibrium. Here two cases can be considered
i) When is uniform throughout the depth, and
ii) varies linearly with depth.
Case (I): When is uniform throughout the depth
Average shear stress, av = Pu/DpLp
(4)
Where, Pu = psm (D2f D2p/4)
(5)
Fig. 3: Assumed Linear Deformation with Depth
Swell potential is the ratio of the deformation of any

given layer to the thickness of that layers, i.e, H/H, and
is expressed as a percent. The mobilized swelling pressure
at different depths also varies with the swell potential.
This can be studied from the relation between the
surcharge pressure and swell potential. Based on the
mobilized swelling pressure value, the factors of safety
with respect to shear strength, max can be determined as
241
F. S = (max /z )
(9)
max is given by
When z = Lp
z = 4 0z/Dp (1+ /2)
max = C' + h tan '
(10)
But, z. D2p/4 = Pu
where, h (horizontal stress) = (k v + Psm)
(11)
Pu = 0zDp (1+ /2)
(16)
(17)
Where, C' and ' are the shear parameters of the soil
interface, v the overburden stress and k the co-efficient
of lateral earth pressure.
When z = Lp
Pu = 0 LpDp (1+ /2)
(18)
As the contribution of overburden stress in comparison

with that of swell pressure is insufficient, in cases of short
granular pile-anchors, the shear strength is given by
0 = Pu / LpDp (1+ /2)
(19)
max = C' + psm tan '
(12)
The heave, , of the expansive soil layer which is

recorded at the top is not constant throughout the depth.
Based on its variation, psm has been determined and max
arrived at the factors of safety with respect to shear
strength are also calculated.
The shear parameters of soil-pile interface C' and ', for
the given placement conditions, are 16 kN/m2 and 26
respectively, as determined from the results of shear box
test.
This is the general equation for Pu for different values of

.
However, if = 0, Pu = LpDp av
(20)
Where, is uniform throughout the depth.

Where varies linearly with depth,
z = 4 0z/Dp + 4 0 2z/ 2DpLp
(21)
Being a cubic equation, this gives a curvilinear variation

of with depth (Figure 4)
Considering Eq. (8) which gives the linear variation of

heave with depth, which can be defined as depth
factor reflecting the behaviour of different soils is given
different values as 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. These different values
of , give three different linear variations by which the
depth where becomes zero changes in every case.
Fig. 4: Assumed curvilinear variation of deformation ()
In each variation z at different depths has been

determined and based on this psm and max have been
arrived at. The corresponding factors of safety at different
depths have also been determined.
Considering the curvilinear variation also, the depths

where becomes zero have been arrived at analytically
by equating the first derivative of with respect to z i.e,
z/dz to zero.
Case (II): Where linearly varies with depth
Therefore, = 4 0/ED[z2/2] + 4 0ED /2. . [z3]
Assuming linear variation of shear stress () with depth,

the shear stress mobilized at the top is taken as = 0 and
that at any depth 'z' as
d/dz = 4 0/ED(z) + 4 0ED /2. .(z3) = 0
z = 0 (1+z/Lp)
z(1+z /2.L) = 0
(13)
Therefore, at the bottom of the file, z = Lp, the shear stress

is,
= 0 (1+)
(14)
Where is a co-efficient called the depth co-efficient,

which reflects the behavior of different soils. Therefore,
the basic differential equation becomes,
z = 4 0z/Dp + 4 0 2z/ 2DpLp
(15)
(22)
z + /L. z2/2 = 0
i.e either z = 0,
or, (1+ /2.L) = 0
Where, z = 0, heave becomes zero at the bottom of the
pile.
When 1+ /2.L = 0, heave becomes zero or minimum
When, z = -2L/
242
(23)
will be given different values to find out the depths at

which heave becomes zero or minimum. Here, for the
sake of convenience, is taken as -4, -5 and -6. Only
three cases are felt enough, as they give the trend
sufficiently clearly.
Based on the above values of , 0 has been determined.
This '' gives the minimum values of heave at the depth z
for different values of . For example, when = -4,
z = L/2. At this depth, heave has been found to be the
minimum most value. The maximum value of heave
occurs at the top of the pile, i.e, when z = L, the values of
heave at intermediate depths have been obtained by
substituting different values of 'z'. This gives the
curvilinear variation of '' for the given value of .
Swell potential of each layer has been calculated based on
the value of at that depth. The mobilized swelling
pressure has been obtained from graph based on the swell
potential. The shear strength max at different depths has
been calculated. The factors of safety with respect to
shear strength have also been determined for curvilinear
variation of '' also.
APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY
Fig. 6: Linear Variation of deformation and swell and Shear
Stress and Shear Strength with depth =1.5
1. Linear variation of heave and corresponding variation

of shear strength Figures 5 to 7 shows the variation of
, H/H %, 0 and max for = 1.5 and 2.0.


It can be seen from figure 6 that for = 1.5, the pile

movement occurs only up to a depth of 0.2 m from the top
or the active zone in this case can be written as Za = 5d.
The swell potential is constant up to a depth of 2L/3 = 5d
243
from top and gradually approaches zero at the bottom of

the active zone. Figure 7 shows that for = 2, the pile
movement occurs only up to a depth of 0.15 m from the
top or the depth of active zone in this case can be written
as Za = L/2 4d. It is interesting to note that as
increases, swell potential in the top layers increases
though the heave at the top is constant. But, the active
zone decreases as increases. This means that the pile
should be embedded below the active zone to obviate the
danger posed by increased swell potential. For example,
when = 1, the maximum swell potential is 1.0 %. The
active zone is equal to the length of the pile. When = 1.5
and 2.0, the swell potential increases to 1.56 % and 2.1 %
respectively. Hence, in these two cases, the length of the
pile is greater than the active zones and which are
respectively Za = 5d and Za 4d
Similarly, curvilinear variation of heave and

corresponding variation of shear strength at different
depths of a pile calculated. Figures 8 and 11 shows the
variation of , H/H %, 0 and max for = 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 4.0, -5.0 and -6.0.
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show variation of increase max with

depth. It can be seen as increases max in the top layers
reduces. This is understandable because the pile-soil slip
should be more for increased swell potential to occur in
the top layers. However, as swell potential decreases in
the bottom layers max increases.
From the above discussion, it follows that at some value
of , the shear strength becomes equal to shear stress as
swell potential in the top layers goes on increasing. To
preclude this possibility, it is important that the pile
should be embedded below the active zone as increases
from 1.0.
Fig. 9: Curvilinear variation of deformation and swell and

Shear Stress and Shear Strength with depth (-4.0)

Fig. 8: Variation of deformation and swell and Shear Stress
and Shear Strength with depth (0.0, 0.5 & 1.0)
244
strength max becoming equal to shear stress at the

increased swell potential values and full slip
occurring.
6. Shear stress can be assumed either to be constant with
depth or to vary linearly. The shear strength, max
mobilized can be obtained from the shear parameters
of the interface and the mobilized swelling pressure,
psm as well max vary with depth.
7. In curvilinear variation of heave with depth, the heave
is expressed as
= 40(Z2/2)/ED+40(z3/3)/2LED
Where, is the depth factor.
8. As increases the maximum swell potential in the top
layers decreases and the depth of active zone
increases. In soils exhibiting such behavior, it is
necessary to anchor the pile well below the active
zone. This is clearly reflected in the variation of swell
potential and heave.
9. In both the linear and curvilinear variations, the
granular pile-anchor is safe with respect to shear
strength.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
CONCLUSION
1. Granular pile-anchors are an effective foundation

technique in expansive soils because the upward load
caused by the soil on the foundation is enormously
resisted by the shear resistance mobilized along the
pile-soil interface due to shear strength of the interface
and also due to the lateral swelling pressure, which
confines the granular pile-anchor and prevents the
uplift.
2. The heave or the movement of granular pile-anchor
varies with depth. This variation can be assumed to be
either linear or curvilinear. The heave is maximum at
the top of the pile-anchor and reaches a minimum
value at some depth of the pile.
3. The linear variation of heave is expressed by the
equation
z = 0 (1-Z/L)
Where is the 'depth factor' governing the swelling
characteristics of different clays.
4. As increases swell potential in the top layers
increases ensuring a greater amount of slip, and a
study of soil-movement profile shows that the depth of
active zone decreases as increases.
5. It is necessary to embed the pile below the active zone
at higher values of as there is a possibility of shear
A general expression for the swelling potential of the

given expansive soil at an initial water content of 14%,
reinforced with a granular pile-anchor, can be given in the
form of equation developed in the study. A good
correlation was obtained with the above expression.
REFERENCES
[1]
Phani Kumar B.R. (1995), A Study of Swelling

Characteristics of and Granular Pile Anchor- Foundation
System in Expansive Soils, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the
lawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada.
[2]
Satyanarayana, B. (1966), Swelling pressure and related

mechanical properties of black cotton soils, Ph.D. Thesis,
I.I.Sc., Bangalore.
[3]
Katti, R.K. (1978), Search for solutions to problems in

black cotton soils, First I.G.S. Annual Lecture, Indian
Geotech. S9ciety at I.I.T., Delhi.
[4]
Sharma, D., Jain, M.P. and Prakash, C. (1978),

Handbook on under-reamed and bored compaction pile
foundations, Central Building Research Institute,
Roorkee.
[5]
Chen, F.H.(1975),Foundations on expansive soils,

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
[6]
Poulos (1973) in the Chapter on Piles in Swelling Clays

In his book on pile Foundations (pp 294 - 310).
245
Transportation Systems

Lane Distribution Factors A Case Study on NH7 &NH9

S. Ramesh Kumar1 and K.V. Krishna Reddy2
1
Associate Prof., 2Professor
Dept. of Civil Engg MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad, AP,
Email: 1rksonikar@gmail.com, 2kvkr2004@rediff.com
ABSTRACT
Lane distribution factor (LDF), defined as percentage of the annual average daily truck traffic in a lane along a
road way is assumed as per the codal provisions. This is basically due to inadequate and inconclusive data of
commercial vehicles in traffic on Indian roads with mixed traffic conditions. LDF is assumed until reliable data
of commercial vehicles on the carriage way lanes are available and the actual value is taken based on traffic
studies. The Paper aims at presenting a case study on fixation of Lane Distribution Factor for 2-lane and 4-lane
divided and undivided highway pavements on NH7 and NH9.
Keywords Lane Distribution Factor
INTRODUCTION
Traffic survey reports average the total traffic count in
both the directions. However for design purposes the
traffic along a particular lane needs to be considered. This
factor is called Lane distribution factor and is defined as
percentage of the annual average daily truck traffic in a
lane along a road way. This is multiplied by the total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions to
obtain traffic along a single lane. Due to inadequate and
inconclusive data of traffic for Indian conditions, IRC-372001 suggests to assume LDF until reliable data on
placement of commercial vehicles on the carriage way
lanes are available. In this study an attempt is made to
evaluate LDF for NH-7 and NH-9.
for data collection. Various 2 lanes and 4 lane stretches

were located on both NH7 and NH9 highways and data
was collected in the format depicted in Table 1.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As stated in the introduction, NH7 and NH9 are
considered for evaluation of LDF. The standard
dimensions of various vehicles were obtained from the
websites of vehicle manufacturers. In pilot study, it was
observed and determined to divide the road width into
stretches of 0.75m grids leaving a safe distance of 0.5m
from the median. Figure 01 and Figure 02 depict in
photograph and sketch, the grids arrangement considered
Fig. 2: Stretch marking on two lane Highway

Table 1: Format for Data Collection
Date:
weather
Day:
Vehicle
code St1
Lane:
Grid no
St2
St3
Loading
Characte
ristics
DATA ANALYSIS
The data collected was analyzed and is presented by plots
vide Figures 03 to 26.
Fig. 1: Stretch marking on Four lane Divided Highway
249
Fig. 3: Distribution of Loaded Vehicles on NH9-TwoLanes at

Koilagudem (Vijayawada to Hyderabad)

Manoharabad (Bangalore to Nagpur)
Fig. 4: Distribution of empty Vehicles on NH9-TwoLanes at

Koilagudem (Vijayawada to Hyderabad)
Fig. 8: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH7-TwoLanes at

Manoharabad (Bangalore to Nagpur)

Koilagudem (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)

Manoharabad (Nagpur to Bangalore)
Fig. 6: Distribution of empty Vehicles on NH9-TwoLanes at

Koilagudem (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)
Fig. 10: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH7-TwoLanes

at Manoharabad (Nagpur to Bangalore)
250
Lane Distribution Factors A Case Study on NH7 & NH9
Fig. 11: Distribution of Loaded Vehicles on NH9-Four Lane

divided at Abdullapurmet (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)

divided at Batasingaram (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)
Fig. 12: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH9-Four Lane

divided at Abdullapurmet (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)

divided at Batasingaram (Vijayawada to Hyderabad)

divided at Batasingaram (Hyderabad to Vijayawada)
Fig. 19: Distribution of Loaded Vehicles on NH9- Two Lanes

(Both ways)

divided at Batasingaram (Vijayawada to Hyderabad)
Fig. 20: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH9-Two Lanes

(Both ways)
251
end of the road with a value of 0.42. On NH9 the width

was 7m and the maximum load distribution was found to
be at 4.5m from left end and is 50% of the total vehicles.
Four lane divided section of NH9 was found 12.6m wide
with a maximum load distribution at 6m from left and is
34% of the total vehicles. LDFs obtained are reported in
Table 2 as depicted below
Table 2: LDFs Obtained from Data Analysis
Fig. 21: Distribution of Loaded Vehicles on NH7- Two Lanes

(Both ways)
Highway
Stretch
NH7 Both Ways

NH9 Both ways
NH9 Both ways
Single lane
Single lane
Four lane - Divided
Lane
Distributi
on Factor
42%
50%
34%
CONCLUSION
Lane Distribution Factor for two lane section of NH7
has been evaluated to be 42% as against 75%
suggested by IRC
Lane distribution Factor for two lane section of NH9
has been evaluated to be 50% as against 75%
suggested by IRC.
Lane distribution Factor for four lane divided highway
section of NH9 has been evaluated to be 34% as
against 40% suggested by IRC.
Fig. 22: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH9-Two Lanes

(Both ways)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the outset the author would thank the Head, CED
MVSREC, Dr. Bhavnarayana, CT, MCH for their
valuable guidance and encouragement during the study.
Final year student group with rolls10,12,22,25,36and59
are acknowledged for their efforts in data collection.
REFERENCES
divided (Both ways)
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Fig. 24: Distribution of Empty Vehicles on NH9-Four Lanes
divided (Both ways)
RESULT
On NH7 with two lanes, the width was 9m and the
maximum load was observed at 1.5m and 5.25m from left
[5]
252
Goodrich, B. L., and J. A. Puckett, Comparison of LFR

and LRFR Bridges, paper presented at National Concrete
Bridge Conference, National Concrete Bridge Association,
Nashville, TN (October 2002).
Huo, X. S., S. O. Conner, and R. Iqbal, Re-Examination of
the Simplified Method (Henrys Method) of Distribution
Factors for Live Load Moment and Shear. Final Report for
Tennessee DOT Project TNSPR-RES 1218, Tennessee
Technological University, Cookeville, TN (June 2003).
IRC 37 - 2001: Guidelines for Design of Flexible
Pavements
Puckett, J. A., M. Mlynarski, C. M. Clancy, B. L.
Goodrich, M. C.Jablin, W. Smyers, and K. Wilson,
Bridge Software Validation Guidelines and Examples,
Transportation Research Record 1696: Fifth International
Bridge Engineering Conference, April 3-5, 2000,Tampa,
Florida,Vol. 1, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C. (2001).
Zokaie, T., and R. A. Imbsen, NCHRP Research Results
Digest 187:Distribution of Wheel Loads on Highway
Bridges, Transportation Research Board (1992).

Use of Trip Generation and Trip Distribution Analysis in Solving

Transportation Problems for Selected Areas of Kurnool City
Sowjanya1 and Shaheena Parveen2
1
Assistant Professor, 2B.Tech (Civil Engineering)
G.Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool
Email: sowji_anush@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The first phase of the transportation planning process deals with surveys, data collected and inventory. The next
phase is the analysis of data so collected and building models to describe the mathematical relationship that can
be discerned in the trip-making behaviour. The analysis and model building phase starts with the step commonly
known as Trip Generation. It is desirable to understand the exact meaning of the various terms. A trip is oneway ends, an origin (the starts of the trip) and destination (the end of the trip). After having obtained an estimate
of the trips generated from and attracted to the various zones, it is necessary to determine the direction of the
travel. The number of trips generated in every zone of the area under study has to be apportioned to the various
zones to which these trips are attracted. With this background, an attempt is made to understand the reasons
behind the trip making behaviour and to produce mathematical relationships to synthesis the trip making and
trip direction pattern in Kurnool city on selected study areas. For trip generation the selected study area is CCamp and the trips were observed on home and non-home. It is concluded that the number of trips are based
affected by income, size and vehicle ownership of household. For trip distribution the selected study area are
Rajvihar, C-Camp, Bellary Chowrastha and Old bus stand. Trip direction between the zones is observed and
forecasting is done for further two years. It is concluded that the number of trips maximum towards Rajvihar and
minimum towards Old busstand.
Keywords Tripgeneration,Ttrip distribution, Uniform, Average and Detroit models.
INTRODUCTION
The four-step travel forecasting model sequence has
received extensive use in urban transportation planning.
This method first focuses on trip generation, which aims
at estimating the total number of trips generated from a
zone which is one cell of a region. The amount of trip
generation is the total number of trips generated over the
region, and has been called trip production. Therefore,
trip production has an important role of establishing the
level of demand for travel. Actually, trip generation has
been studied at two sequential phases; trip production and
trip generation.
Trip generation is a general term used in the
transportation planning process to cover the field of
calculating the number of trip ends in a given area. The
objective of the trip generation stage is to understand the
reason behind the trip making behaviour and to produce
mathematical relationships to synthesise the trip making
pattern on the basis of observed trips land use data and
household characteristic.
The goal of trip generation model development is to
establish a functional relationship between travel and land
use and socio economics characteristic of the units to and
from which the travel is made.
Intensity is the amount of activity to be found in a given

areal unit zone)and is usually stated in terms of density
measure such as the number of employees per square foot
of floor area or per acre of a particular land use category,
or the number of dwelling unit per acre.
Trip distribution analysis is the process by which trips
originating in one zone are distributed to other zones in
the study area. Trip distribution methods have evolved in
the two decades from a total reliance on growth factor
techniques to wide use of interaction travel models.
When growth factor techniques are used, it is necessary to
make adjustment to account for zones now vacant but
which are expected to be developed, as well as for the
zones in which future land uses will be materially
different from the existing land uses. When an urban area
is expected to experience significant growth, the
adjustments to the present trip pattern become difficult
and, to a considerable extent, speculative.
The greatest advantage of the growth factor techniques is
that they reflect the many unique travel relationships that
exist in any urban area. They are most applicable in
slowly growing areas, for short range TSM, planning, and
for external travel forecasting. However, many cities are
253
expe riencing rapid growth in the form of significant

suburban development coupled with extensive downtown
redevelopment. These land use changes make extensive
adjustments to the procedure necessary. For this reason,
many of the major urban studies have turned to
mathematical travel models.
Trips are made for different purposes and a classification
of by purpose is necessary. The following are some of the
important classes of trip purpose:
Work
Journey is an out way movement from a point of origin to

a point of destination, whereas the word ``trip denotes an
outward and return journey. If either origin or destination
of a trip is the home of the trip maker then such trips are
called home based trips and the rest of the trips are called
non home based trips. Trip production is defined as all the
trips of home based or as the origin of the non-home
based trips. See figure 1.
TRIP PRODUCTION AND ATTRACTION
The two types of generated types are:
School
1. Trip production: Those trips which are generated by

residential zones, where they may be origin trip or
destination trip, i.e.,Atrip that has one end at
home.(home based)
Business
Social or recreational activities
Others.
2. Trip attraction: This term is used to describe trips

generated by activities at the none home end from
work to shop, employment to other offices etc.
TYPES OF TRIPS
Some basic definitions are appropriate before we address
the classification of trips in detail. We will attempt to
clarify the meaning of journey, home based trip, nonhome based trip, trip production, trip attraction and trip
generation.
The generation is considered as the sum of trip produced

(Pi)and trip attracted (A j).
Ti=Pi+Aj
Productions and Attractions

Residential
1
Non-residential
8
A worker leaves Zone 1 in the morning to
go to work in Zone 8
Non-residential
Residential
This results in 2 trip ends:
One Production for Zone 1
One Attraction for Zone 8

Total Number of Trip Ends
When that same worker leaves Zone 8 in
the evening to go to home to Zone 1
This results in another 2 trip ends:
One Production for Zone 1
One Attraction for Zone 8
Zone 1: 2 Trip Ends (2 Productions)

Zone 8: 2 Trip Ends (2 Attractions)
Norman W. Garrick
Fig. 3: Productions& Attractions
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Fig. 1
A zone produces and attracts trips
Zone i
# of
dwelling units
Shopping
center
employees
Etc.
Depending on the activities in the

zone, it can produce and/or attract
trips. Transportation planners
estimate these trips first.
Fig. 2
Category Analysis at Kallur

Trip Generation Based on Auto Mobile Ownership
In our study, Kallur zone is selected as study area. The
details of the selected area are given below and the
number of households data is collected from the chief
planning office (CPO) from collector complex.
The above data gives the total number of households with
different family sizes and with number of automobile
ownership.
Household trip rate is calculated from the number of
household and the number of trips
254
Use of Trip Generation and Trip Distribution Analysis in Solving Transportation Problems for Selected Areas of Kurnool City
Household trip rate= number of trips / number of

household
Table 1
State District
28
28
28
21
21
21
Level
Name
Mandal
Mandal
Mandal
Kallur
Kallur
Kallur
Table 5: Future number of trips from Kallur zone
No of
house hold
Urban
15177
Rural
10248
Total
25425
Total
No of house hold and total trips made categorized by

house hold size and auto ownership
Table 2: No of trips made by house holds
0
No of
Family
house
size
hold
1.
925
2.
1471
3.
1268
4 or
745
more
1
No of
trips
1098
2105
1850
1509
No of
house
hold
1872
1934
3071
4181
The above values give the future daily number of trips

after one year from the selected zone of Kallur Mandel in
urban region.
No of
trips
4821
6129
13989
18411
2 or more
No of
No of
house
trips
hold
121
206
692 1501
4178 19782
4967 25106
Automobile ownership
2(or)
0
1
more
29
107
14
14
161
232
16
141
748
6
75
1560
Family
size
1
2
3
4(or)
more
Regression Analysis in C-Camp
Table 6: Collected Socio-Economic data
S.
No
Table 3: House hold trip rate based on Automobile

ownership
2(or) more
1.19
1.43
1.45
2.02
2.57
3.16
4.55
4.40
1.70
2.17
4.74
5.05
Forecast number of household in one zone, categorized by

house hold size and auto ownership level
Table 4: Future No of house holds
Family size
1
2
3
4(or)more
Automobile ownership
0
1
24
42
10
51
11
31
3
17
150
407
905
1641
Establishing the Trip Generation Equation for C Camp

Zone in Kurnool Town
The following data gives the total number of households

based on automobile ownership and household size (or)
family size of a small selected zone in kallur mandal.
from which we can easily calculate the future number of
trips by multiplying the trip rate with households having
automobile ownership and households are not having
automobile ownership.
Size of
family
1
2
3
4(or)more
Total
2(or)more
8
107
158
309
65 484 2554 3103
255
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Household
monthly
income x1
200
250
150
100
250
340
180
150
200
240
250
100
150
200
250
350
150
100
250
350
300
200
150
250
200
350
300
200
150
300
Househol
d size x2
4
6
6
8
4
4
9
7
6
4
5
8
4
5
5
6
5
7
4
3
5
5
5
4
4
4
6
5
7
7
Household Total
Business Daily
Trip y
2
4
5
6
2
3
6
4
4
5
6
6
6
8
7
6
4
3
4
10
8
6
4
3
6
5
9
7
4
6
Where,
I yx1 =yx1 (yx1 /N) = 36260-(159*6660/30) =962
y =Dependent variable (Trip per day to be associated )
lX1X2x22 =x22 ((x2)2/N) = 938-(1582/30) =105.86
X1=Per capita income per household
lyx2=yx2-(yx2/N) = 861-(159*158/30) =23.6
Y=Trips per day
lX1X2=X1X2-(X1X2/N) = 33190-(6660*158/30) =1886
X2=Persons in Household
Taking only 30 number of households and there per capita
income per household and size of household is taken as
independent variables. Number of trips is the dependent
variable. This data is collected from the direct survey
method.
Above are the socio-economic data collected for the trip
generation of a zone in the study of a city.
X1
1 200
2 250
3 150
4 100
5 250
6 340
7 180
8 150
9 200
10 240
11 250
12 100
13 150
14 200
15 250
16 350
17 150
18 100
19 250
20 350
21 300
22 200
23 150
24 250
25 200
26 350
27 300
28 200
29 150
30 300
6660
X2 Y
X12
4 2
6 4
6 5
8 6
4 2
4 3
9 6
7 4
6 4
4 5
5 6
8 6
4 6
5 8
5 7
6 6
5 4
7 3
4 4
3 10
5 8
5 6
5 4
4 3
4 6
4 5
6 9
5 7
7 4
7 6
158 159
40000
62500
22500
10000
62500
115600
32400
22500
40000
57600
62500
10000
22500
40000
62500
122500
22500
10000
62500
122500
90000
40000
22500
62500
40000
122500
90000
40000
22500
90000
1625600
X22 x1 x2
16
36
36
64
16
16
81
49
36
16
25
64
16
25
25
36
25
49
16
9
25
25
25
16
16
16
36
25
49
49
938
Yx1
800 400
1500 1000
900 750
800 600
1000 500
1360 1020
1620 1080
1050 600
1200 800
960 1200
1250 1500
800 600
600 900
1000 1600
1250 1750
2100 2100
750 600
700 300
1000 1000
1050 3500
1500 2400
1000 1200
750 600
1000 750
800 1200
1400 1750
1800 2700
1000 1400
1050 600
2100 1800
33190 36260
The Regression equation is: Y=a+b1x1+ b2x2
Yl=y/N =159/30 =5.3

X1l=x1/N = 6660/30 =222
X2l=x2/N =158/30 =5.26
b1= (I yx1l x22-lyx2lX1X2)/ (lx12l x22-l (X1X2)2)
=0.0076
Table 7: Analysis of trip generation
S.
No
lx12= - ((x1)2/N) = 1625600-(66602/30) =147080
Yx2
Y2
8
24
30
48
8
12
54
28
24
20
30
48
24
40
35
36
20
21
16
30
40
30
20
12
24
20
54
35
28
42
861
4
16
25
36
4
9
36
16
16
25
36
36
36
64
49
36
16
9
16
100
64
36
16
9
36
25
81
49
16
36
953
b2=(lyx22lx12-I yx1lX1X2)/ (lx12lx22-l (X1X2)2)

=0.27
a= yl- b1x1l- b2x2l =5.3-(0.0076*222)-(0.27*5.26) =2.19
COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
r = [(b1x1y-x1y/N) +b2 (x2y-x2y/N)]/ [Y2(Y2/N)]
r= [0.007*(36260-(6660*159/30)+0.27(861-(158*15/30)]
/ (953-1592/30)
r=0.2
r=1( perfect relationship between variables)
r=0 (no relationship between variable)
The r value is in between 0 and 1 and it is nearly equal to
0 hence there is no good relationship between these
variables.
TRIP DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS
The trip distribution analysis for Kurnool town is given
below.
The four zones are taken in which
A=Bellarychowrastha
B= Rajvihar
C= C camp
D= Old busstand
A study area has been divided in four zones A, B, C&D.
The results of the trip generation analysis and the present
trip distribution matrix are included in the following
tables.
256
Use of Trip Generation and Trip Distribution Analysis in Solving Transportation Problems for Selected Areas of Kurnool City
Table 8: Present trip produced and attracted
Produced
Trips
Attracted
Trips
Present
Future
Present
Future
A
11620
35400
9377
27860
B
13329
39600
10715
31000
Fi factors for zones =
C
D
9941 7940
29500 23500
12743 9995
37800 29000
FA=35400/11620 =0.34
FB=39600/1332 =2.9
FC=29500/9941 =2.96
FD=23500/7940 =2.95
Trip Distribution matrix (present)
Attraction factors of zones
Table 9: Present trip distribution matrix
2345
2887
2945
1200
4545
2890
1940
1340
2400
3943
4000
2400
2330
3609
1056
3000
O
A
B
C
D
Fj factors for zones=

FA=27860/9377 =2.971
FB =31000/10715 =2.893
FC = 37800/1274 =2.966
Trip Distribution matrix (Future)
FD = 29000/9996 =2.90
Uniform growth factor method
Table 11: Future trips
Average growth factor method
Detroit method
A(2.97)
B(2.89)
C(2.96)
D(2.9)
7046
8473
8732
3552
13475
8366
5674
3913
7200
11414
11840
7092
6921
10466
3094
8775
A(3.04)
B(2.9)
C(2.96)
D(2.95)
Uniform Growth Factor Method:

TIJ=TIJF
F=
Detroit Method
TFij=TIJ (FI+FJ)/F
F=
F=
=2.96
Using this value of F all the values of the present

distribution matrix should be multiplied to get future
interzonal trips
The individual growth factors as worked out above along

the overall growth factor F of 2.96 as calculated before,
the future trip distribution matrix using this method can
be developed as:
Table 12: Future trips
Table 10: Future inter zonal trips
D
O
A
B
C
D
6940
8540
8700
3550
13450
8555
5743
3967
7104
11672
11840
7104
6890
10683
3125
8880
Average Growth Factor Method

TFij=TIJ (FI+FJ)/2
Individual growth factor for each zone.
Production factors of zones
D
O
A(3.04)
B(2.9)
C(2.960)
D(2.95)
A(2.97)
B(2.89)
C(2.96)
D(2.9)
4762
5725
5899
2400
9105
5653
3834
2645
4865
7806
8000
4792
4676
7653
2091
5929
A comparative listing of results is the following (using the

three methods):
CONCLUSION
From the analysis of trip distribution we can conclude
that the vehicular traffic is increasing rapidly at every
zone and it is difficult to distribute traffic for future
257
hence the adequate network design is required for

future.
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
Table 13: Future Trips (using three methods)
Uniform GF
Average GF
Detroit GF
A
6940
7046
4762
B
13450
13475
9105
C
7104
7200
4865
D
6890
6921
4676
Uniform GF
Average GF
Detroit GF
8540
8473
5725
8555
8366
5653
11672
11414
7806
10683
10466
7653
Uniform GF
Average GF
Detroit GF
8700
8732
5899
5743
5674
3834
11840
11840
8000
3125
3094
2091
Uniform GF
Average GF
Detroit GF
3550
3552
2400
3967
3913
2645
7104
7092
4792
8880
8775
5929
In trip generation the number of trips are more for the

house holder having own vehicles.
The study reveals that there is further scope for improving

the content trip generation and distribution studies, to
cover more areas of traffic improvement and easing up of
traffic congestion near the busy junctions.
The study may be extended further to analyse the trip
Assignment and Mode split models.
This trip generation and distribution analysis may be
done based on other methods like geographical
information system (GIS) and global positioning
system (GPS).
This trip generation and trip distribution may be done
based on pedestrians, age of households and
occupation.
REFERENCES
[1]
It is observed that the number of trips produced and

attracted more at Rajvihar zone, as it is Central
Business District (CBD) area.
[2]
[3]
It is observed that number trips produced and attracted

less at Old Bus Stand zone compare to other zones.
[4]
In trip analysis it was observed that the number of

trips between the zones or terminals is based on
income of house holders.
[5]
The numbers of trips are increased as the size of

family is increases.
258
Text book of Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning,

Dr. L.R. Kadiyali, Khanna publishers.
Text book of Traffic Planning and Design, Saxena.
Dhanpat Rai& sons.
A.A. Douglas and Lewis, Trip Generation Techniques, 4
category analysis, Traffic Engineering And Control,
Vol.12.No. 10,1971.
Wooton, H.J. and G.W.Pick, A Model For Trips
Generated By Households, Journal Or Transport
Economic And Policy, May, 1967.
A.A. Douglas and R.J. Lewis, Trip Generation
Techniques, 2-zonal least squares regression analysis,
Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 12, No.8, 1970


M. Rajesh, P. Ramu, I. Hussen and G. Krishna Parandhama
Civil Engineering Department, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies IIIT
Email: abhiram.penki@gmail.com, morampudi.rajeshiiit@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Many agencies are only testing the bitumen properties by following traditional methods like penetration,
viscosity, ductility, Ring & Ball tests etc, which are not much simulated to filed, results of which cannot be much
helpful in determining pavement failure performance. So, there is need to test the bitumen through filed
simulated testing methods which are classified as Short-term and Long-term aging with TFOT and PAV
equipments, which are cost ineffective. So, they may not be available for many agencies to test these properties.
We made an attempt on providing a cost effective method for short-term aging by simulating TFOT results with
NORMAL OVEN. Generally in short term ageing, the bitumen is tested in TFOT, which results simulates the
ageing of bitumen during plant mixing, production, transportation and construction and predict binder rutting
performance. In this method VG-10 sample has tested in TFOT and NORMAL OVEN and it is found that results
of them got approximately similar and also observed that when compared to original binders properties, shortterm aged binder properties has changed in their penetration values, as gets decreased and softening point has
increased.
Keywords TFOT, Normal Oven, Short-term aging
classified as Two types i.e., 1) Short-term aging 2) Longterm aging
INTRODUCTION
Need Finding
What is the problem or need Short-term ageing of
bituminous binders is a well-accepted concept that
represents ageing of binders during plant mixing,
production, transportation and construction. Simulation of
this ageing is carried out in controlled laboratory
conditions and these aged binders are used to predict
binder rutting performance [1].
Who has the problem or need Thin film oven
equipment is costly and may not be available to different
agencies and thereby it has become difficult to adopt any
studies involving short-term ageing of binders [1].
Short-term aging Short-term ageing of bituminous

binders is a well-accepted concept that represents ageing
of binders during plant mixing, production, transportation
and construction. Simulation of this ageing is carried out
in controlled laboratory conditions and these aged binders
are used to predict binder rutting performance [1].
Long-term aging The simulation of long-term ageing of
binders accounts to ageing of the binder during service
life of the pavements and these binders are used to
characterize the binder response to fatigue performance
[1].
Why it is important to solve Transportation facilities are

required for the economic development of a country,
Population growth and economic development result
extensive development of asphalt-paved roadways, where
Bitumen is using as major pavement construction
material.Bitumen serves as a satisfactory binder in
improvement of physical interlocking of aggregate
bitumen mixes and Its properties changes as it ages in
bulk storage, transport and storage on site and rest of its
life. The ageing of bitumen then leads to deterioration of
pavement.
As Project object is mainly concerns on providing costeffective method for short-term aging by using Normal
Oven instead of Thin Film Oven.
Aging Asphalt/bitumen properties change over time on

exposure to high temperature and the atmosphere. This
process is referred to as ageing. Generally Aging
2. Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) Simulates shortterm ageing by heating a moving film of bitumen in an
oven for 85 minutes at 163 0C (325 0F)
IDEATION
Existed Aging Simulation Tests
Short-Term Aging:[2]
1. Thin Film Oven(TFO)[3] Simulates short-term
ageing by heating a film of bitumen in an oven for 5
hours at 163 0C (325 0F)
259
Table 1: Testing conditions as per ASTM Standards
Test Type
Heating Temp (C)
Penetration[4]
Softening
TFOT
75-85
75-85
75-85
Time of Exposure to
Air(27oC)
1.5hours
0.5 hour
3 Minutes
3. Stirred Air-Flow Test (SAFT) The RTFOT and

TFOT tests required a lengthy amount of time to
properly age samples, SAFT expedites the process by
using bitumen air blowing. The blowing air oxidizes
the crude oil products in the asphalt and ages the
samples for 35 min.
Long-Term Aging:[2]
1. Pressure ageing Vessel (PAV) Simulate the effects
of long-term bitumen ageing that occurs as a result of
5 to 10 years HMA pavement service.
Proposed Alternate Aging Method
Any alternative procedure developed that provides similar
ageing effects comparable to the SUPERPAVE method
would help highway agencies to adopt and study the
effect of ageing on binders. Keeping this as the main
concern, an attempt is made to develop a cheap and
generalized method for short-term ageing effects using a
Normal laboratory oven.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Li, Zofka, Marasteanu, and Clyne (2006) were conducted
tests to evaluate the rheological properties of the
recovered binders as well as original binders aged in
laboratory conditions using standard testing procedures
(RTFO and PAV) as well as additional test methods. The
results indicated significant differences between the
recovered and the laboratory-aged binders. Suleiman
ArafatYero, 2 Mohd Rosli Hainin (2012)
The short-term aging properties of neat bitumen were
investigated using the rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT)
to simulate aging during mixing, compaction and laying
of asphalt mixtures, though the actual time of short-term
aging in the field varies depending on haulage distances
or paving times. The results from the study also indicated
that the magnitude of the short-term aging depends on the
binder source, and aging time, as with longer aging time,
the binder hardness and viscosity increases, thereby
decreasing the penetration and increasing the binder
softening point.that aging resulted in oxidation of the
bitumen with increase in the stiffness of the binder.
Pramod Kumar Behera, A.K. Singh and M. Amaranatha
Reddy(2013)
Time of Exposure to
Water bath(25oC)
1.5hours
Placed in container at 5oC
Test
Conditions
27+/- 5oC
Start at 5oC
163oC for 5hr
Study included predicting the aging of binders with

alternate method for aging. The study revealed that it is
possible to correlate ageing methods of SUPERPAVE
with a normal oven method. In order to compare the
actual short-term ageing of one of the modified binders,
bituminous mixes were collected from the field during
mix production, transportation and compaction, and
binders from these were extracted. Rheological
parameters of the extracted bitumen from field samples
collected during different stages of construction, RTFO
and normal oven-aged samples were evaluated and
compared. It was found that the actual ageing is different
from RTFO and a normal oven ageing and thereby there
is a need to carry out a detailed study on ageing
characteristics of Indian binders.
METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
Testing Procedure
1. Heat the grade of (VG 10) bitumen sample at 75o C85oC and pours it in respective moulds of TFOT[3],
Oven and tests at 163oC for 5 hours.
2. Complete the traditional testing methods
appropriate ASTM test methods( Appendix 1)
by
Once after TFOT and Oven test completed at a standard

temperature of 163oC for 5 hours, residue of TFOT and
Oven, filled in moulds of traditional tests, complete it by
appropriate ASTM test methods and Results reported in
table 3, 4 respectively.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Table 2: Results of Virgin Bitumen Grades
i) Penetration Test
Initial
381
373
385
Final
68
71
74
Penetration Value
87
98
89
ii) Ring & Ball Test
260
Ball 1(o C)
48
Ball 2(o C)
48
Softening Point (To C)

48
an alternative for TFOT. From our limited study it has

observed that:
Table 3: Results of TFOT residue
i) Penetration Test
Initial
399
394
395
Final
81
78
78
1) TFOT and OVEN residue properties of Penetration

and Softening Point tests results are approximately
same
Penetration Value
82
84
83
2) Compare to original binder properties, aged binder

properties of penetration and short-term aged binder
properties has changed in their penetration values, as
gets decreased and softening point has increased.

Ball 1(o C)
48
Ball 2(o C)
49
So, It can be concluded that NORMAL OVEN can be

used as cost-effective for short-term aging preferable for
VG-10 sample not sure about other grade of bitumen but
it can be expected to use for other grades of bitumen also.

48.5
Table 4: Results of Oven residue
REFERENCES
i) Penetration Test
Initial
374
375
368
Final
54
62
58
[1]
Penetration Value
80
81
80
[2]
[3]

Ball 1(o C)
49
Ball 2(o C)
49

49
[4]
[5]
CONCLUSION
As of our aim is concern providing a cost effective
method for short-term aging by showing normal oven as
261
An alternative method for short- and long-term ageing for

bitumen binders by Pramod Kumar Behera, A.K. Singh
and M. Amaranatha Reddy
AF2903 Highway Construction and Maintenance
Laboratory: Binder rheology and ageing by Prabir Kumar
Das
Standard Test Method for Effects of Heat and Air on
Asphaltic Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test) D 1754 97
(Reapproved 2002)
Standard Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous
Materials ASTM D 5 06
Test Method for Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-andBall Apparatus) ASTM D 36

Analysis of Flexible Pavement using Kenlayer Software

for Bypass in Kurnool City
Sowjanya and P. Manjula
Asst. professor, Civil Engineering Dept, G.Pulla Reddy Engg. College (Autonomous), Kurnool.
ABSTRACT
Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any region. Progress
follows the line of transportation. Attempts are being made of decentralize the population centers away from the
sides of the main transportation routes. Of all the means of transportation, the transportation by road is the only
mode, which could give maximum service to one and all. The present study deals with the analysis of flexible
pavement using KENLAYER software developed by Dr. Young Huang for a bypass connecting NH 18 and NH
44. The main purpose of this road is to provide a convenient way to the heavy commercial vehicles, with out
entering in to the Kurnool city and also reduce the traffic in Kurnool thereby decreasing the delay. The proposed
road is at 9.9 Kms from the Kurnool town. In this project the road is categorized as the National High way and it
is designed as a flexible pavement according to the IRC guidelines. The total length of project actually is 18 kms.
Thickness of the pavement is carried out as per IRC 37:2001 and the stresses and strains are analyzed using
KENLAYER software.
Keywords KENLAYER software, flexible pavement, IRC 37 :2001.
INTRODUCTION
The KENLAYER software programme was introduced by
Dr. Young Huang. The KENLAYER computer program
can be applied only to flexible pavements with no joint
for rigid layers, such as PCC and composite pavements,
the KENSLABS program described in chapter should be
used. The back bone of KENLAYER is solution for an
elastic multilayer system under a circular loaded area. The
solutions are super imposed for multiple wheels, applied
iteratively for nonlinear layers. as a result KENLAYER
can be applied to layered systems under single, duel, dueltandem, or duel-tridem wheels with each layer behaving
differently either linear elastic, nonlinear elastic or visco
elastic damage analysis can be made by dividing each
year in to a maximum of 24 load groups, either single or
multiple. The damage caused by fatigue cracking and
permanent deformation in each period over all load
groups is summed up to evaluate the design life.
A major change in KENLAYER is the inclusion of the
Mohr's Coulomb failure theory to adjust the stress
invariant for computing the elastic modulus. This method
is used when the granular base is not subdivided and the
stress point is located at the mid height of the layer,
instead of at the upper third or quarter point.
ELASTIC MULTILAYER SYSTEM
Fig. 1 shows an n-layer system in cylindrical coordinates,
the nth layer being of infinite thickness. the modulus of
elasticity and the poisons ratio of the ith layer are E and vi
respectively.
For axisymmetric problems in elasticity, a convenient
method is to assume a stress function that satisfies the
governing differential equation and the boundary and
continuity conditions. After the stress functions is found,
the stress and displacements can be determined.
The governing differential equation to be satisfied is
fourth-order differential equations. The stress function for
each layer has four constants of integration, Ai, Bi, Ci and
Di, where the subscript i is layer number. Because the
stress function must vanish at an infinite depth, the
constants An and Cn should be zero, i.e., the bottom most
layer has only two constants. For an n-layer system, the
total number of constants or unknowns is 4n-2, which
must be evaluated by conditions are that the vertical stress
under the circular loaded area is equal to q and that the
surface is free of shear stress. The four conditions at each
of the n-1 interfaces are the continuity of vertical stress,
vertical displacement, shear stress, and radial
displacement. If the interface is frictionless, the continuity
of shear stress and radial displacement is replaced by the
vanish of shear stress both above and below the interface.
SUPERIMPOSITION OF WHEEL LOADS
Solution for elastic multilayer system under a single load
can be extended to cases involving multiple loads by
applying the super position principle, Fig shows the plan
of a view of a set of dual-tandem wheels, The vertical
262
Fig. 1: Elastic Multilayer System
stress and vertical displacement under point A due to the

four loads can be easily obtained by adding those due to
each of the loads because they are all in the same vertical,
or z, direction. However, the radial stress r, the tangential
stress t, and the shear stress rz,, due to each load cannot
be added directly because they are not in the same
direction.
Damage Analysis
Damage analysis is performed for the fatigue cracking
and permanent deformation
Multiple Axils
Due to the large spacing between the two axils, the
critical tensile and compressive strains under multiple
axles are only slightly different those under multiple axils
are only slightly different from those under a single axles
is assumed to be one repetition, the damage caused by an
80-KN single axle is nearly same as that caused by 160KN tandem axles or 240 KN tridem axles.
Nonlinear Layers
It is well known that granular materials and Subgrade
soils are nonlinear with an elastic modulus varying with
the levels of stress. The elastic modulus to be used with
the layered system is the resilient modulus obtained from
repeated unconfined or triaxial compression tests. Details
about resilient modulus are presented in table. The
resilient modulus of granular materials increases with the
increase in stress intensity, while that of fine grained soils
decreases with the increase in stress intensity. If the
relationship between the resilient modulus and the state of
stress is given, a method of successive approximation can

be used, as explained previously for the nonlinear
homogenous mass. Non linear material properties, which
have been incorporated in KENLAYER, are described
below.
It is well known that most granular materials cannot take
any tension. Unfortunately when they are used as a base
or sub base on a weaker Subgrade, the horizontal stress at
the bottom of these materials are more likely in tension. It
should be noted that the use of layered system for
nonlinear analysis is an approximate approach. It is
desirable to have more exact solution system for the
nonlinear analysis is an approximate approach. It is
desirable to have more exact solutions so that the results
of KENLAYER can be compared. Theoretically, the
finite element method should be best solutions for such
nonlinear problems but it have serious defects and cannot
be used for the accuracy of solution.
Program Description
KENLAYER was written in FORTRAN 77 and requires a
storage of 509k. There are 12 command buttons on the
Main Screen. The three on the left belong exclusively to
asphalt pavements, while the five on the right apply only
to concrete pavements. The remaining four between are
for general use. If the same Data Path is used for asphalt
and concrete, as in the case of these 12 examples, be sure
that the correct file is shown on the Filename box. If file
LAY1.DAT is used to run KENSLABS, or SLA1.DAT to
run KENLAYER, the program will not run or an error
message will appear.
Table 1: Properties of materials
Property
Unit weight (KN/m3)
Coefficient of earth
pressure at rest
Poissons ratio
Modulus (kpa)
Hot Mix Asphalt

0
40 F
700F
1000F
22.75
22.78
22.78
Crushed
Stone Base
22
Stiff
19
Subgrade Soils
medium
soft
18
18
Very soft
18
0.37
0.67
0.85
0.60
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.27
9660
0.40
3450
0.46
690
0.38
9000
0.45
3105
0.45
3105
0.45
3105
0.45
3105
263
As per IRC, For the CBR 3.6% and total thickness of

pavement 640 mm
Thickness of
a) Bituminous surfacing = 25mm+55mm
b) Base course = 240 mm
c) Sub base = 320 mm
+ Sub grade compacted at OMC = 500mm
Total = 1140mm
For Sample 2
Total thickness of pavement at CBR value of 3.5% and
traffic 3.95 msa, as per IRC: 37-2001 =650 mm
Fig. 2: Main screen of KENLAYER Software
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
As per IRC, For the CBR 3.5% and total thickness of

pavement 650 mm
Design of Flexible Pavement Thickness

Soil samples were collected from the site at every 50m
intervals. Liquid limit, plastic limit, proctor and CBR tests
were conducted on the collected samples in the soil
mechanics laboratory for the design of flexible pavement.
The test results are tabulated as below
a) Bituminous surfacing = 25mm+55mm

b) Base course = 250 mm
c) Sub base = 320 mm
+ Sub grade compacted at OMC = 500mm
Total = 1150mm
Table 7.1: Test results of soil samples
Type test
sample: 1
44%
29%
15%
17.8%
1.76
3.6%
LL
PL
PI
OMC
MDD (g/cc)
CBR (soaked)
Analysis of Stresses Due to Wheel Load Under the

Pavements by Kenlayer Software
Figure 7.1 shows the Main Menu of LAYERINP for
creating and editing data file. This menu appears when the
LAYERINP button on the Main Screen of KENPAVE is
clicked. The data is divided into groups and can be found
by clicking the appropriate menu. Always start from the
left menu to the right because data entered in the left
menu may affect the type of form to be used in the right
menu. When we finish reading this page, you can use the
scrollbar or the PgDn key to read down the page. To edit
an existing file click 'File' and 'Open' and a dialog box
showing a list of data files will appear.
sample:2
56.2%
39.9 %
16.2%
23.8%
1.53
3.5%
Analysis of Traffic Volume

Vehicle damage factor for a plain terrain = 3.5
Distribution factor = 0.75
Growth rate r = 7.5%
Traffic in the year of completion of construction = 158
CV/day
( Traffic flow from NH 7 to NH 18 )
Vehicle damage factor, D = 3.5
n = design life of pavement = 15years
Cumulative
number
of
standard
axles,
ADF
]
= 3.95 msa
Fig. 3: Main menu of KENLAYER
For Sample 1
Total thickness of pavement at CBR value of 3.6% and
traffic 3.95 msa, as per IRC: 37-2001 =640 mm
Give the input data for every data entry file by carefully
studying the instructions given. After completing the data
entry for a given menu, the 'input' on the label will be
264
changed to 'done'. Click the 'Save' or 'Save As' button

before exit.
Input Data
Figure 4.shows the input given to KENLAYER software
in a graphical form. For the damage analysis of 1 period
the analysis of stresses at each layer were carried out.
Here the thickness of each layer obtained as per the IRC
are given as input data.
1. They are bituminous asphalt layer (80 mm), base
course (250 mm), sub base (320mm) and lastly the
subgrade which has a infinite thickness.
2. In the Moduli file Poisons ratio and Modulus of
elasticity of each layer should be given as input data.
Fig. 5: Input data (sample:2)
3. The data related to wheel loads (i.e., contact pressure,

dual and tandam spacings and contact radius are also
given in the file loads.
Output from KENLAYER programme for the above input

data :
Fig. 4: Input data (sample:1)
Output from KENLAYER programme for the above input

date :
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study an approach road to the bypass of NH
18 & NH 44 is analyzed using KENLAYER software.
Where a s the depth of pavement is carried out as per IRC
37:2001.
1) The displacements, major principle stresses and
principle strains were observed as maximum at the
inter face of wearing coarse and base coarse.
265
2) The analysis was carried out for sample1 &sample2. It

is observed that the displacements are slightly
decreased and the stresses were slightly increased at
the interface of wearing coarse and base course.
Limitations
Poissons ratio and elastic modulus of pavement
materials are obtained from the text book of Principles
of Pavement Design by E.J. YODER.
Scope for Further Studies

Conduct the Triaxial compression test on soil samples
and Check whether stresses and strains coming from
KENLAYER software are less (safe) than the
principle stresses and strains in the soil
Considering the damage and Tridem axle load
pavement may be analysed.
REFERENCES
Dual tandem vehicle load is considered as maximum

wheel load on the top of the pavement.
[1]
Damage analysis is not considered as the part present

study.
[2]
[3]
[4]
266
Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements

IRC37:2001.
KENLAYER Computer Program by YANG H. HAUNG,
university of Kentucky, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, K.R. Arora,
Standard Publishers.
Principles of pavement Design by E.J. Yoder.
Emerging Technologies
in Infrastructure


K. Madhavi Reddy1, K. Jayasree2 and B. Sridhar3
1
Academic Assistant, 2Associate Professor, 3Professor and Head
Department of Civil Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad.
ABSTRACT
Recent advances in technology have enabled the development of automated equipments, means and methods in
infrastructure construction. Although adaption of automation in the building construction sector has been slow,
principles of industrial automation are applicable to this domain, both to building construction, civil
engineering, and to prefabrication of construction components. Improved sensor technologies offers new
possibilities to cover various needs and operations taking place throughout the infrastructure life cycle. This
paper reviews a survey of potential sensor technologies for building construction automation, highlighting their
potential also with contributions from robotics.
INTRODUCTION
Effective utilization of technologies is essential for
economic development of any nation. Engineering skills
possessed by community is vital. It can be said that most
of the infrastructure need detailed planning adoption of
latest technologies with deployment of modern
machineries for better reliability, quality and speed. This
can be provided only by sophisticated technologies and
their utility to get the real time assessment and evaluation
during construction and maintenance.
Wireless sensor networks(WSN) are the networks of
smart and wirelessly connected devices equipped with
reduced communication, computation and sensing
capabilities for communication control and monitoring
applications. A variety of wireless technologies have used
in the construction industry. These technologies include
circuit switched technologies. Health and safety are the
major issues in any industry especially in the construction
industry. This occurs due to fall of material, wrong use of
construction material in the construction. These can be
prevented by use of sensor applications in the
construction. An important application of WSNS that
attracts the interest of construction process is the
measurement of relative humidity (RH) in the curing
process of concrete slabs or precast production. The
curing of concrete is one of the most critical elements
within the building process and a system that could
reliably deliver the status of the curing would greatly
optimise the work flows and reduce the failure rates. The
common practice related to the measurement of the (RH)
is to use manual methodologies or involve a specialist
humidity consultant. Due to the inefficiency of these
approaches in terms of accuracy and flexibility, a new
WSN technology is used to ease the monitoring process
by signalling the status of curing.
The construction industry is characterised by a number of

problems in crucial fields such as health, safety and
logistics. Since these problems affect the progress of
construction projects, the construction industry has
attempted to introduce the use of innovative information
and communication technologies on the construction site.
RFID is innovative scientific technology with a number of
scientific and technical fields. This belongs to the field of
wireless sensing technologies and its operation is based
on transmission of sensing and electro-magnetic energy.
RFID tagging is a technology capable of tracking items.
The technology has been applied on the construction site
for various applications, such as asset tracking.
LITERATURE RIVIEW
Westermo and Thompson (1997) presented a technology
using peak strain sensors, which can be used to assess
structural health. Their network consisted of three gauges,
which, along with a digital junction, were installed on a
three-storey, wood-frame building. The system was
powered by a 12-VDC battery pack; it was intended to
routinely interrogate all sensors and store pertinent data or
changes on each cycle. To transmit the information, the
wireless system was connected to a cellular modem that
was set to receive incoming calls from a PC for data
downloading or reprogramming.
Pines and Lovell (1998, 1999) discussed an approach
using sensors and wireless communication technology to
monitor the health of large civil structures remotely using
spread-spectrum wireless modems, data communication
software, and conventional strain sensors. Their work
described examples of condition-based health-monitoring
systems that use cellular and through wire for data
retrieval. A simple yet inexpensive device was realized
and validated on a laboratory test structure at a range of
269
up to approximately
communication signal.
mile
without
loss
of
Williams et al. (1998) presented a novel idea in which

self-sufficient (i.e., generates its own power) wireless
sensors were achieved. In their approach, the vibrational
energy of the structure was used to power an
accelerometer. The feasibility studies on reinforced
concrete bridges indicated that the resonant frequency of
the electric generator should match the fundamental
frequency of the bridge so as to maximize the power
generation.
Subramanian (1997) and Varadan et al. (1997, 1998,
1999, 2001) showed the wireless integration of MEMS
and surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices employing
inter digital transducers (IDT). These devices have a
unique advantage in that they do not require an on-board
power supply at the sensor location. The acceleration is
measured when a wave (produced by a wave generator
localized at the base station) is reflected by the sensor; the
phase change in the reflected wave is proportional to the
acceleration. This sensor has a wide dynamic range. The
fabrication of the accelerometer is discussed. The wireless
accelerometer provides an attractive opportunity to study
the response of a dummy in automobile crash tests and
may be potentially useful in the deployment of smart
skins (intelligent fuselage) for aircraft.
Krantz, et al. (1999) presented the Remotely-Queried
Embedded Microsensor (RQEM). The objective of this
research was to develop a microsensor that could retrieve
data from embedded strain gauges. This system consisted
of two main parts: the sensor package and the reader. The
sensor package consisted of a microsensor (conventional
strain gauge), signal conditioner, receiver/transmitter, data
encoder, and power supply. The reader consisted of an
external antenna coil attached to a Trovan RFID Tag
Reader. The measurement occurred when the reader
antenna was placed 3 - 12 inches from the embedded
sensor.
Lemke (2000) described a remote vibration monitoring
system integrated with the internet in order to acquire
field data, which was then uploaded to a web server using
a wireless connection. The selection of the ground motion
transducer with respect to the desired frequency response
was discussed. The network was wired, but the
transmission from the field site was performed by cellular
telephony. Battery power considerations were also studied
and the results showed that the system could be dialed just
over 5000 times. With a peak transmission every thirty
minutes, the system could last for over 200 days.
Oshima et al. (2000) also presented a monitoring system
that could be interrogated via a mobile telephone. This
system consisted of a photocell, an accelerometer, and a
displacement sensor. The sampling frequency was 200
Hz. Experimental results for the structural frequencies and
mode shapes were presented that closely agreed with the

analytical results. A comparison between a fiber-optic
strain sensor and a standard strain gage for crack
propagation was presented. A difference of 510% in
strain measurements between theses sensors was found.
Evans (2001) provides a very good compendium of the
various alternatives that can be used for wireless
transmission of data, including free bandwidth
frequencies, such as 915 MHz and 2.45 GHz, cellular
phone lines, two-way paging, and satellites services. A
description of the available sensors, such as the micro
machined and force balance accelerometers, is also
provided. The author indicates the performance and cost
of each one of the wireless devices. Finally, two examples
of wireless networks are presented: an application to a
highway bridge used to determine damage, and free-field
measurements to produce a real-time seismicity map for
Oakland, California.
Mita and Takahira (2001) presented a wireless peak strain
and displacement sensor.This sensor consisted of a
variable capacitor made of an outer cylinder and an inner
cylinder, in which the capacitance depended on the
overlapping length. In order to retrieve data, a inductor
was added to the variable capacitor, creating a resonant
circuit. This circuit was excited by a dip meter and a
frequency was read (a dip meter is the equipment which
measures the frequency of the resonance circuit). A
comparison of measurement results between a laser
sensor and the peak strain sensor was presented. The
agreement of these measurements assured the feasibility
and accuracy of the system.
Some of the first efforts in developing a smart sensor for
civil engineering applications were presented by Straser
and Kiremidjian (1996, 1998), Straser et al. (1998), and
Kiremidjian et al. (1997). This research sought to develop
a near real-time damage diagnostic and monitoring
system which evaluated both extreme and long-term
structural health. Two types of monitoring systems were
identified: (i) extreme event, and (ii) longterm monitoring
systems. Damage detection methods were further
categorized into global and local methods. Several
damage detection methods were discussed, as well as
strategies for optimal sensor placement. The authors noted
that one complicating aspect of long term monitoring
indicated that the characteristics of a structure could vary
significantly due to environmental changes such as
loading, boundary conditions, temperature, and humidity.
The hardware was designed to acquire and manage such
data, while the software was designed to facilitate damage
detection diagnosis. The proposed network provided ease
of installation, low per unit cost, portability, and broad
functionality. The sensor unit consisted of a
microprocessor, radio modem, data storage, and batteries.
One of the problems in having many sensors trying to
communicate simultaneously with the base is time
270
synchronization of the signals. To solve this problem, a

second AM type radio was implemented to perform
synchronization. The authors found that the time delay for
this approach was 0.05 millisecond, which for the
frequency spectrum of interest, namely 1- 50Hz,
represented a maximum phase delay of less than one
degree. To save battery life, the sensor unit remained in
sleep mode most of the time, periodically checking its
hardware interrupt to determine if there were external
events that require attention. The analysis software
determined the maximum inter-story drift ratio over the
entire time history, as well as the cumulative normalized
Arias Intensity to measure of the total kinetic energy of
each floor. A damage detection algorithm called
DIAMOND was developed in MATLAB.
Maser et al. (1997) proposed the Wireless Global Bridge
Evaluation and Monitoring System (WGBEMS) to
remotely monitor the condition and performance of
bridges. WGBEMS used small, self-contained, battery
operated transducers, each containing a sensor, a small
radio transponder, and a battery. The complete system
consisted of a local controller placed off a bridge with
several transducers distributed throughout the bridge. The
data collection at the transducer involves signal
conditioning, filtering, sampling, quantization, and digital
signal processing. The radio link used a wide band
Agre et al. (1999) presented a prototype wireless sensor
node called AWAIRS I This smart sensor could support
bidirectional, peer-to-peer communications with a small
number of neighbours. The current device consists of a
processor, radio, power supply and sensors (seismic,
magnetic and acoustic). Multiple portals for transporting
information in or out of the sensor network can be
established. The authors discussed some of the
networking problems in a wireless sensor network, which
include limited battery energy, size of the overhead of the
messages communication protocols, and non-real-time
delivery, among others. This prototype will run
approximately 15 hours continuously on two 9V batteries.
The time-division multiple access (TDMA) scheme used
allows nodes to turn off their receiver and/or transmitter
when they are not scheduled to communicate.
Mitchell et al. (1999) presents a wireless data acquisition
system for health monitoring of smart structures. The
authors developed a microsensor that uses an analog
multiplexer to allow data from multiple sensors to be
communicated over a single communication channel. The
data is converted to a digital format before transmission,
using an 80C515CO microcontroller. A 900 MHz spread
spectrum transceiver system, capable of transmitting
serial data at the rate of 50Kbps, is used to perform the
wireless transmission, over a range of approximately 0.25
miles. Damage can be detected via variations in the
natural frequencies of the structure. The system employs
the Numerical Algorithms for Subspace State Space
System Identification (NASID) method. The main

advantage of this algorithm is that it is non-iterative and
does not involve nonlinear optimization. This health
monitoring system has been applied to a cantilever beam
in which a loss of mass represents the damage of the
structure. Mitchell et al. (2001) have continued this work
to extend the cellular communication between the central
cluster and the web server, allowing web-control of the
network. The proposed Web-Controlled Wireless
Network Sensors (WCWNS) consist of two main parts:
the wireless network sensors and the web interface.
Building on the work of Kiremidjian et al. (1997), Lynch
et al. (2001) demonstrated a proof-of-concept wireless
sensor that used a standard integrated circuit component.
This unit consists of an 8-bit Motorola 68HC11E1
microcontroller with a 3MHz CPU that can accommodate
a wide range of analog sensors. The systems
communicate via direct sequence spread spectrum radio
multiplied by a pseudo noise spreading sequence (also
known as a chirp code). This approach allows multiple
users to access the same bandwidth simultaneously
without interference. For the spread-spectrum modems to
operate properly, both the sending and receiving modems
must be self-synchronized and follow a prescribed
sequence of frequencies. Some units use the ADXL210
accelerometer along with a duty cycle modulator that
provides a 14-bit output with an anti-aliased digital signal.
In other units, a high performance planar accelerometer is
used along with a 16-bit A/D converter. This
accelerometer has a resolution of 20 g at a bandwidth of
650 Hz. The whole system can be accommodated within a
sealed package with a roughly size of 5 by 4 by 1 The
sensor unit was validated through various controlled
experiments in the laboratory.
Kiremidjian et al. (2001) indicates that pushing data
acquisition and computation forward is fundamental to
the smart sensing and monitoring systems but represents
radical departure from the conventional instrumentation
design and computational strategies for monitoring civil
structures.
CATEGORISATION OF SENSOR
TECHNOLOGIES USED IN CONSTRUCTION
Different types of sensors that can be used are classified
as below.
Thermal sensors
Radio frequency sensors
Magnetic sensors
Laser frequency sensors
Ultra sound sensors
Electric sensors
271
Some of the sensor technology used in the construction

process are :
Thermal Sensors
Measurement of relative humidity in the curing
process of concrete slabs or precast production
Highly accurate techniques to measure water level
inside the concrete during its drying
Radio Frequency Sensors
Propagation variations of radio-signals
concrete when humidity increases
through
Ground penetrating radar (GPR)

GPR is the general term applied to techniques that employ
radio waves, typically in the 10 to 2000MHz, to map
structures and features buried in the ground or manmade
structures. It uses electromagnetic waves generated into
surface of the object studied by means of antenna moving
along the surface. Configuration consists of an antenna
connected via a signal or power cable to a computer based
system control unit. Surveys are conducted by towing an
antenna across a surface as it is repeatedly transmitting
radar pulses into the subsurface. Whenever a radar pulse
strikes a boundary interface of contrasting dielectric, a
portion of the pulse is reflected back to the surface and a
receiving antenna. Subsurface profiles will be generated
by simultaneously towing the antenna across the surface
and displaying the resulting echoes of individual pulses as
a composite image displays on the controls units monitor.
GPR uses the same principle by processing the signal
reflected from various depths of a structural element.
Magnetic Sensors
Equipping construction helmets with sensors can
detect onset of carbon dioxide poisoning
This wearable computing system in helmet protect the
workers and tool users from carbon dioxide poisioning
which results to a serious threat in industry. All this
happens because of exhaust from the gasoline powered
hand tools that easily built up in enclosed places.
Installation of pulse oximetry in the typical wearable
helmet helps to diagnoise the workers blood gas
saturation levels. The use of this sensor in the helmet
showed that it will warn from occurring of carbon dioxide
poisioning.
Fig. 1: Construction helmets with sensors can detect onset of

carbon dioxide poisoning
Laser Frequency Sensors

Propagation of light waves through concrete pipes and
assume to know the length of the pipe through proper
channel
This is also applicable for
Ultra Sound Sensors
Measure thickness of slab
Long Range Ultra-Sonic testing(LURT) is a sensor that

can measure significant lengths of pipe from a single
point to rapidly locate areas of corrosion
Void identification
Inspection, locating metallic and non-metallic targets
in walls, ceilings and floors
Inspection of structures: bridges, towers columns and
beams.
GPR is thus valuable in locating defects and voids in
concrete structures. Masonry structures can be scanned
for predicting problems in inner layers of the structure.
Any void or crack in concrete or in any product results in
an interface with air or moisture with a variation if in
dielectric constant. Reinforcement embedded in concrete
present interfaces with large variation in conductivity due
to larger density of steel then of concrete. In such cases
distinct and clear images indicate the location of
subsurface objects such as pipes and bars or even cracks
and voids. Corrosion of embedded steel in concrete too
can be located with the help of radar image.
Fig. 2: Long Range Ultra-Sonic testing
In LRUT, a pulse guided ultrasonic wave mode is

propagated in a pipe wall from a ring of equally spaced
ultrasound probes supported by a collar wrapped around
the pipe. It is a technique in which the loss of metal
272
features is detected such as corrosion and erosion in pipes.

significantly it can measure up to length of 350m long
pipe at single point in which the areas are corroded. It is
capable of detecting 9% of metal loss, once the area
which effected is located then the inspection is done to
know the reasons for defects.
Magnetic Sensors
Soil moisture sensor is used to measure the water content
in the soil the instrument used for this is a frequency
domain sensor which consist of an oscillating circuit. The
sensing part is embedded in the soil and the cable is
connected to the operating system. The moisture content
is thus detected by the data logger. thus the sensor is most
widely used in the western countries as it gives 100%
probability result.
Sensors can be used in order to alert the owner of a
building when there is emission of large amount of gas or
if there is smoke. In this case, they can alert the owner of
the house by triggering the alarm. The detection of smoke
can be done by the use of optical and ionisation detectors.
Gas detection is achieved by the use of gas sensors which
are capable of sensing different gas particles. An array of
gas sensors which consists of semiconductor metal oxide
sensors for the detection of CO, H2 and NH3, can be used
on this case. A signal-processing method is also used in
order to distinguish situations of fire and non-fire.
The monitoring of the living conditions inside a house is
important for its residents. Wireless sensor networks can
be used in order to monitor the light, the temperature and
the indoor air pollution so that useful conclusions are
extracted about the quality of the indoor environment.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has deployed a
wireless sensor network in a part of the Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory at Washington in order to examine
the advantages and disadvantages of the technology in
heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems.
the areas which are to be monitored, which records each

tags position. The system is for indoor use only.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Mita, A. and Takahira S. (2001). Peak strain and

displacement sensors for structural health monitoring.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on
Structural Health Monitoring: The Demands and
Challenges. 10331040.
Kiremidjian, A.S., Straser, E.G., Meng, T.H., Law, K. and
Soon, H. (1997). Structural damage monitoring for civil
structures. International Workshop Structural Health
Monitoring. 371382.
Maser, K., Egri, R., Lichtenstein, A. and Chase, S. (1997).
Development of a wireless global bridge evaluation and
monitoring system (WGBEMS). Proceedings of the
Specialty Conference on Infrastructure Condition
Assessment: Art, Science, Practice. 91100
CONCLUSION
Wireless Sensor Networking Technology is a field which
is still at the research stage in the construction industry. It
is characterised by a number of advantages, such as the
quick handling of information and the integration of a
number of processes, but also by a number of
disadvantages, such as routing issues especially in large
sensor networks. However, even in these cases, the
introduction of a number of techniques, such as ground
penetrating radar and Ultra wide band, has enabled the
resolution of these issues. In general, the application of
the Wireless Sensor Networking technology in the field of
construction is expected to produce a number of benefits.
REFERENCES
[4]
[5]
[6]
Wireless Sensor Networks can be implemented for the

purpose of tracking of items on the construction site. In
addition, they are capable of gathering data, either for the
purpose of monitoring the site or for reasons of item
identification. Wireless sensor networks are able to
provide security on the construction site, either by
constantly monitoring the site or by alerting the engineers
when an item has been stolen.
[7]
Researchers have developed a new tool to improve safety

on construction site using remote sensing technology in
tracking things to monitor movement in the construction
site. The use of ultra wide-band(UWB) radio frequency
develops a new system which helps to reduce accidents in
the work place and also helps in recovery of theft items.
The tag readers or transceivers are placed in the corners of
[9]
[8]
273
Westermo, B. and Thompson, L.D. (1997). A peak strain

sensor for damage assessment and health monitoring.
International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring.
515526
Pines D.J. and Lovell P.A. (1998). Conceptual
framework of a remote wireless health monitoring system
for large civil structures. Smart materials & Structures
Vol. 7. No. 5. 627636
Williams, C.B., Pavic, A., Crouch, R.S. and Woods, R.C.
(1998). Feasibility study of vibration-electric generator
for bridge vibration sensors. Proceedings of the 16th
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274
Construction Techniques
and Management


M. Venu Gopal1 and V.S.S. Kumar2
1
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, M.V.S.R. Engineering College, Nadergul, Hyderabad.
2
Principal, University College of Engineering (Autonomous), Osmania university, Hyderabad.
Email: modalavg@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Decisions in construction industry take place under conditions of risk and uncertainty. Financial appraisals of
long term duration infrastructure projects are made using a variety of assumptions about the future. Some of
these assumptions may be statistical in nature even if statistical data is not used in reaching the assumption and
some are considered opinions based on experience and knowledge. The construction contractors face situations
in which there may be statistical data available. In such circumstances, it is possible to attach probabilities to
alternative outcomes and decisions made under such situations deal with random uncertainty. However, all
uncertainty is not random in nature. Some forms of uncertainty associated with complex systems like
environmental issues, costs related to macro and micro economic issues which knowledge experts address
linguistically in the decision making process is non random in nature. The decisions in such situations are made
under very high uncertainty. The cost estimation starts with a realistic assessment of all uncertainties associated
with the data using fuzzy logic. Cost estimation of concrete is demonstrated using fuzzy logic approach.
INTRODUCTION
Decision making is most important scientific, social, and
economic endeavor. Selecting correct alternative amongst
available choices is the essence of any decision making
process under uncertainty. The problem in making
decisions under uncertainty is that the bulk of the
information about the possible outcomes, about the value
of new information, about the way the conditions change
with time, about the utility of each outcome, and about
preferences for each outcome is typically vague,
ambiguous and otherwise fuzzy. Here an attempt is made
for making decision in fuzzy environment. There is a need
to incorporate fuzziness in human decision making, as
originally proposed by Bellman and Zadeh (1970). In
most decision situations the goals, constraints, and
consequences of the proposed alternatives are not known
with precision. Much of this imprecision is not
measurable, and not random. The imprecision can be due
to vague, ambiguous, or fuzzy information. Methods to
address this form of imprecision are necessary to deal
with many of the uncertainties within humanistic systems.
UNCERTAINTY
Decision making in engineering involves uncertainty and
it is important and diverse. Uncertainty arises because of
the gap between the information required to assess an
outcome and the information possessed by the decision
maker. Availability of information that is necessary for
reducing the complexity of the system to a manageable
level is expressed in uncertainty. Therefore the concept of
uncertainty is concerned with complexity and
information. The uncertainties can be broadly categorized

into two types: Random uncertainty and non- random
uncertainty.
Random uncertainty is also termed as the predictable
uncertainty for the reason that it follows the
characteristics of random process in which an outcome of
a process is only a matter of chance. The prediction of
risk associated with this uncertainty is possible
quantitatively based on the availability of historical data,
information and experience. In such assessment, the
accuracy of results is expressed in terms of confidence
limits. This random uncertainty can be modeled by using
statistics and probability theory.
The non-random uncertainty arises due to incomplete
data, imprecision, non availability of data. This leads to
unpredictability of outcome. Such unpredictable
uncertainties are assessed qualitatively as enough
information is not available to predict the risk associated
quantitatively. The project complexity in construction
industries which lacks the back ground of experience of
similar projects and past records because of which the
outcome of a situation becomes uncertain. Such
uncertainty condition is difficult to assess compared to
random uncertainty. For example assessment of variations
in ground conditions, price escalations, labor productivity,
wages, and weather conditions etc., This uncertainty can
be subjectively assessed and evaluated by the decision
maker in consultations with knowledge experts.
The non-random uncertainty is broadly categorized (Klir
and Folger, 2004) into vagueness and ambiguity.
277
Vagueness is associated with the difficulty of providing a

sharp and precise distinction of a specific event or
phenomenon due to complexity involved in the project.
The other related words associated with vagueness are
fuzziness,
haziness,
cloudiness,
unclearness,
indistinctiveness and sharplessness. The ambiguity
describes the situation in which there is difficulty in
making a specific selection or decision between two or
more related alternatives due to their ambiguity. Some of
the concepts connected with ambiguity are nonspecificity, one to many relation, variety, generality,
diversity and divergence. The ambiguity is classified into
three categories, 1. Non-specificity in evidence, 2.
Conflict or dissonance in evidence and 3. Confusion in
evidence
METHODS TO MODEL UNCERTAINTY
Methods to model uncertainty are classified as classical
set theory, probability theory, fuzzy logic and set theory,
neural networks, neuro-fuzzy techniques etc. Probability
theory is a simple and good approach to represent
information or knowledge whose boundaries are clearly
defined. In probability theory, there is a need to assume
correlation among all input variables and there is
disadvantage in sensitivity to uncertainty about
probability distribution function of input variables
(Ferson, 2002). Random uncertainty is modeled by using
statistics and probability theory. This approach provides
rigorous tools to evaluate the statistics of the model.
However, this method requires development of
probability density function for each uncertain parameter
and also all possible dependencies between the uncertain
parameters. Such knowledge and information is rarely
available. On the other hand, modeling uncertainty using
fuzzy arithmetic is computationally simple, not very
sensitive to moderate changes in the shapes of input
distribution and does not require analyst to assume
particular correlation among inputs. Therefore Fuzzy set
theory can be used to circumvent the limitation due to the
choice of a unique probability density function.
The uncertainty due to lack of information (stochastic
character) is addressed appropriately by statistics and
probability theory. This type of probability is essentially
based on set theoretic considerations. Koopmans
probability refers to the truth statements and therefore is
based on the logic. The events (elements of sets) or the
statements are assumed to be well defined in both the
types of probabilities. This type of uncertainty is also
called the stochastic uncertainty and is concerned with the
usage of the linguistic words for the description of the
events, perceptions or statements. This is called fuzziness
in fuzzy set theory (Zimmermann 2001). Fuzzy set theory
is also known as possibility theory which is used to
represent knowledge or information whose boundaries are
not clearly defined.
The complexity associated with large amount information

coupled with uncertainty due to long term duration of
projects are part of the future construction activity and
this becomes the ground for many of the problems that the
industry faces. The fuzzy set theory is very much useful
in such situations.
FUZZY SET THEORY
Fuzzy Set Theory was first introduced by Lofti Zadeh in
1965 to convert the linguistic descriptions of complexity
associated with real world projects into useful
mathematical propositions for assessing, predicting or
controlling the system behavior.
A fuzzy logic proposition is a statement involving some
concept without clearly defined boundaries. Linguistic
statements that tend to express subjective ideas and that
can be interpreted slightly differently by various
individuals typically involve fuzzy proportions.
Statements describing low heat, Medium heat, and High
heat can be used as example of fuzzy prepositions and
these prepositions are assigned to fuzzy sets. Fuzzy logic
theory provides foundation for approximate reasoning
with imprecise propositions using fuzzy set theory as
principal tool. In classical set theory, the grade of
membership of an element is binary either one or zero.
Here, precise boundaries exist that separate the elements
belonging to the set and not belonging to the set. For
example, the grade of membership of element x in set A
in classical theory is described by its membership
function A(x) in the following manner:
1, if the element x belongs to set A
A(x) =
(1)
0, if the element x does not belong to set A
However, it is difficult to make a sharp distinction

between the members and non members of a set. Here,
Zadeh introduced the concept of degree of membership in
the range between 0 and 1. The infinite number of values
in between the end points represent various degrees of
membership of element x in a fuzzy set. This value or
grade of membership indicates the degree to which an
element belongs to a fuzzy set (Paek et al.1993, Ayyub
and Haldar, 1984). Such sets which take into account
grades of membership (strength of belongingness of
element to the set) are defined as fuzzy sets. Zadeh (1965)
defined a fuzzy set as a class of objects with a
continuum of grades of membership [] and
characterized by a membership (characteristic) function
which assigns to each object a grade of membership
ranging between zero and one. Zadeh (1965) provided the
following definitions related to fuzzy sets. Suppose X is a
space of objects and a generic element of X is denoted by
x. Then fuzzy set A is defined as a set of ordered pairs
A= {x, A(x) | x
278
R}
(2)
where A(x) is the grade of membership function of

element x in fuzzy set A. The membership has grades in
the real continuous interval [0,1] i.e., A(x) [0,1]. The
degree of belongingness of element x to the fuzzy set A is
represented by the membership function. Therefore the
central theme of fuzzy set is development and
construction of membership function (Paek et al. 1993).
Zadeh (1965) extended the definitions for ordinary sets to
derive definitions for fuzzy sets. These definitions are
consistent with topological concepts such as equality,
complementation, containment, union, intersection,
algebraic product, and algebraic sum, normality, support,
relation, composition, mapping, convexity, and concavity.
FUZZY NUMBER (MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION)
A fuzzy number is continuous fuzzy set that contains two
properties: (1) convexity and (2) normality. These two
properties make the concept of fuzzy numbers attractive
and naturally suitable for modeling imprecise quantity
such as approximately one lakh rupees or more or less
than fifty thousand rupees. Theoretically fuzzy numbers
can take various shapes. In modeling real life problems,
however, linear approximations such as the trapezoidal
and triangular fuzzy numbers are frequently used. A fuzzy
number is also defined as a bell-shaped, triangular and
trapezoidal shaped fuzzy set representing a central value.
Membership functions (MFs) characterize the fuzziness in
a fuzzy set whether the elements in the set are discrete or
continuous in a graphical form for eventual use in the
mathematical formalisms of fuzzy set theory (Ross 1997).
The main features of membership function (Fuzzy
Number) are as shown in Fig. 1. There are many ways to
graphically represent the membership function that
describe fuzziness. There are more ways to assign
membership values or functions to fuzzy variables than
there are to assign probability density functions to random
variables.
Core (most likely interval)
1.0
A(x)
Domain of
consequence of
- cut
cut level
0.0
sets d) Neural Networks e) Genetic algorithms f)

Inductive reasoning g) Soft partitioning h) Meta rules i)
Fuzzy statistics. Out of all the above methods the
assignment of membership functions to fuzzy variables
based on experience and intuition of human is one of the
fundamental issues in the FST. Constructing membership
function is mainly dependent on the knowledge
acquisition from knowledge engineer and it involves one
or more experts in the application area and knowledge
engineering. The membership function assessment
involves eliciting subjective information about parameters
of interest in each work package of contract from an
estimator, and elicitation is a corner stone of fuzzy set
theory. The literature is rich in this topic (e.g. Kaufmann
and Gupta 1988; Pedrycz and Gomide 1998). In these
methods, experts are expected to give answers to some
questions necessary to construct the MF of the variable
under consideration. For example, Kaufmann and Gupta
(1985) proposed the answering of the following three
questions for the subjective construction of membership
function. What is the smallest value given to the uncertain
variable? What is the highest value? If we are authorized
to give one and only one value, what value should be
given? The above questions lead to construction of a
triangular/Trapezoidal fuzzy number and this can be
refined to suit the subjective variable of the problem.
Based on the above questions, an expert gives the smallest
value, the highest value and the value with maximum
level of presumption. Therefore it is the triangular
numbers that are more realistic to use. The -cut is the
horizontal cross section at various levels of membership
function.
The membership value is not simply a quantitative
variable. Its measurement level is complex and does not
fit easily in the standard classification of scale types. A
membership is not a probability despite being normalized
to the unit interval. Probability gives the mass of a
particular event. In a normalized space, a membership is a
generalized truth value. when a fuzzy number maintains
the range and the shape of a bounded or a truncated
probabilistic distribution, the defuzzified value of the
fuzzy number using centre of area will be equal to the
mean value of the probabilistic distribution. The variance
of the fuzzy number is also equal to the variance of the
related probability distribution. Methods to assign
membership functions are broadly subdivided into the
following three categories.
DIRECT ASSIGNMENT METHOD
x
Support (largest likely interval)
Fig. 1: Features of Fuzzy Number
Some of the methods described in the literature to assign

membership values or functions to fuzzy variables are: a)
Intuition b) Inference c) Rank Ordering d)Angular fuzzy
In this, a judge or a Knowledge Engineer provides a

numeric or linguistic membership value based on his
experience or knowledge after considering the objects and
relevant evidence. The main disadvantages of direct
assignment (Verkuilen 2005) are 1) interpretation of
directly scaled numbers is difficult and contentious issue.
2) It is too hard for the judges to do reliably, particularly
279
for very abstract concepts such as economic development,

forecasting cost over long-term periods etc., 3) the direct
assignment with regard to other methods of assignment is
frequently biased. It is also argued that direct assignment
is to tap into a judges expertise, which in a sense is a
bias. 4) Many direct scaling methods do not generate
uncertainty estimates that would allow users to put error
bars on assigned scores. To overcome this disadvantage, a
simple procedure can be developed to elicit a range of
possible values from the judge (e.g. low, medium and
high values of membership for each variable). 5)
Combining the results of direct assignment by multiple
judges to generate a composite membership functions is
not recommended if the standard deviation is quite wide.
The differences probably reflect the systematic
differences in meaning across subject experts.
INDIRECT SCALING METHOD
Indirect scaling method elicits responses of some kind
about the objects to be scaled from judges and then
applies a model to the judgments to generate scale values.
The cost involved is high in this methodology due to data
gathering and model formulation.
TRANSFORMATION METHOD
In this method, a numerical variable is mapped into
membership values with a theoretically motivated
transformation. Transformation often makes use of
statistical data gathered. Uncertainty estimates in the
original variable should be propagated through the
transformation to give uncertainty boundaries for the
transformed membership.
EXAMPLE OF COST ESTIMATION USING
FUZZY NUMBER
Construction of membership function for fuzzy number is
illustrated by following example: The cost of concrete per
cubic meter can be arrived at depending upon the prices
of raw materials estimated. The prices of raw materials
are again depending on the season, fluctuation in demand,
labor cost and inflation etc. The four different estimations
of concrete are made by the cost engineer and are
represented as fuzzy number.
2600
2800
1.0
Domain of
Consequence
at -cut
-cut level
A(x)
0.0
2400
2600
2800
3200
x
Fig. 2: Membership Function for Price of Concrete
The smallest value for the price of concrete may be

Rs.2400=00, the highest price may be Rs.3200=00, and
the most likely interval may be in the range of two values
i.e., Rs.2600=00 to Rs.2800=00. The above information
may be expressed as fuzzy trapezoidal number as shown
in the Fig.2. In the membership function shown, the
largest likely interval is between Rs.2400=00 and
Rs.3200=00, the most likely interval is between
Rs.2600=00 and Rs.2800=00. The membership function
also indicate that the cost of concrete approximately lies
between Rs.2600=00 and Rs.2800=00 and is definitely
above Rs.2400=00 and is certainly below Rs.3200=00.
The sloped lines are part of the trapezoidal fuzzy number
which defines the degree of belongingness of the element
x to the crisp set. The engineer has given different belief
values to different estimates between Rs.2400=00 and
Rs.2600=00, Rs.2800=00 and Rs.3200=00. The flat or
uniform range in the Fig. 2 indicates that there is lack of
precision in determining the exact belief value for the
variable (x) thereby decision becomes ambiguous.
Here in this example, cost engineer represented the range
with same preference to all values between Rs.2600=00
and Rs.2800=00. The cost engineer would have given
different membership values to different estimates
between Rs.2600=00 and Rs.2800=00 had there been a
precision in the information for decision making.
Therefore the decision making is most ambiguous
between the range Rs.2600=00 and Rs.2800=00 of the
trapezoidal fuzzy number. The ambiguity reduces when
the core width reduces and when the core width is zero;
the fuzzy number becomes triangular fuzzy number. The
triangular fuzzy number is less ambiguous than
trapezoidal fuzzy number. When the support range and
core range reduces to a point, the number becomes a crisp
number. The number is a uniform fuzzy number when the
width of core and support are equal and is called a
rectangular Membership Function which represents only
one interval of confidence and the degree of belief of any
number in that interval is same and decision makers
choice becomes most ambiguous. This is due to the fact
that there is more than one local maximum in membership
function.
CONCLUSION
Fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic plays a vital role in
combining the subjective and objective knowledge of
estimator. Estimation of construction costs is frequently
done in the early stages of construction work in order to
inform project owner of their likely financial liability.
Early stage forecasts are by their nature imprecise and
generally dependent on the skill of the forecaster. Fuzzy
formulation is useful to represent the linguistic assertions.
Membership functions can be developed numerically to
build the system. Membership function of the estimated
cost provides insight into the risk associated with the
estimate. Low and high truth values, along with spread of
280
the membership function over the universe of discourse

for cost suggest relative uncertainty. The membership
function of the cost can be used as an alternative to the
traditional ways of estimation of risk associated with the
uncertainty.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Ayyub, B.M., and Haldar, A. M. ASCE. (1984). Project

Scheduling Using Fuzzy Set Concepts. J. Constr. Eng.
Manage., 110(2), 189-204.
Bellman, R., and Zadeh, L. (1970). Decision Making in a
Fuzzy Environment. Management Science, 17, 141-164.
Ferson, S. (2002). Ramas risk calc 4.0 software: Risk
assessment with uncertain numbers. CRC, Bocaraton,
Fla.
Kaufmann, A., and Gupta, M.M. (1985). Introduction to
fuzzy arithmetic,
theory and applications.
Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
[5]
Kaufmann, A., and Gupta, M.M. (1988). Fuzzy

mathematical models in engineering and management
science. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
[6] Klir, G.J., and Folger, T.A (2004). Fuzzy sets,
Uncertainty, and information. Prentice-Hall of India
limited, N.D., 138-139.
[7] Paek, J.H., Lee, Y.W., and Ock, J.H. (1993). Pricing
construction risk-fuzzy set application.J. Constr. Eng.
Manage., 119(4), 743-56.
[8] Pedrycz, W., and Gomide, F. (1998). An Introduction to
Fuzzy Sets Analysis and Design. The MIT Press,
Massachusetts.
[9] Ross, T. J. (1997). Fuzzy Logic with Engineering
Applications. McGraw- Hill book company- Singapore.
[10] Verkuilen, J. (2005). Assigning Membership in a Fuzzy
Set Analysis. Socialogical Methods & Research, 33(4),
462-496.
[11] Zadeh, L.A. (1965). Fuzzy sets. Information and
Control, 8, 338-353.
281


S.V.S.N.D.L. Prasanna1 and C. Nutan Kumar2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, 2M. E student, CED,

University College of Engineering, Osmania University Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Multi-criteria decision support systems are used in various fields of human activities. Every alternative in multicriteria decision making problem can be represented by a set of properties or constraints. The properties can be
qualitative and quantitative. For measurement of these properties, there are different units, as well as there are
different optimization techniques. Depending upon the desired goal, the normalization aims for obtaining
reference scales of values of these properties. Economy project often becomes one of the strong selecting points
to attract contractors. However, economy projects sometimes mislead contractors to select. Therefore, it is
crucial for contractors to mark projects comparison before deciding to select a smart one. Smart contractors
might wisely try to include all criteria when evaluating which project is the best one. Most selection methods
either ignore or barely include non-quantifiable factors. The successful methods that take in consideration these
factors are the Fuzzy, VIKOR, Fuzzy VIKOR selection techniques. In the present study, an attempt is made to
evaluate different crucial parameters that are required for the selection of a project. In this study three different
methods like Fuzzy, VIKOR and Fuzzy VIKOR are applied for three different projects (roads and bridges) out of
which the Fuzzy VIKOR method is the best suited for selection of any construction project.
Keywords Multi-criteria, fuzzy, decision constraints.
INTRODUCTION
Construction projects are unique which involve a
temporary project team that is assembled from different
companies, place and etc. Moreover, the size and
complexity of construction projects are increasing which
adds to the risks, in addition to the political, economic,
social conditions where the project is to be undertaken.
Project risk can be defined as an uncertain event or
condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative
effect on at least one project objective, such as time, cost,
and quality. Construction clients are always facing with
difficulties in selecting projects that offer return on
investment. Due to scarce resources, they cannot
undertake all projects simultaneously. Instead, they have
to select the most viable projects, which not only
maximize positive outcomes (e.g., profits, reputation, etc.)
but also minimize any negative results (e.g., technical
deficiency, environmental harm, etc.). This raises the
need for relying on a set of selection criteria for
prioritizing a number of projects.
Selection of project among a set of possible alternatives is
a difficult task that decision maker (DM) has to face.
Construction projects shape the built environment in
which people live and work. The built environment is
typically a country's most important asset, both
economically and socially. The performance of
construction projects and the whole-of life management
of constructed assets influences a country's productivity,
competitiveness,
living
quality
and
ecological
sustainability. Financial incentives are typically used on
construction projects to invigorate motivation towards
above business-as-usual (BAU) goals and provide the
contractor with the opportunity for higher profit margins
if exceptional performance is achieved. The reason for
this is no two constructions are alike. So, the same
methodology cannot be exactly applied to other project.
In some cases, surveys are conducted to make the
decision. Due to the complexity of the work and
technological development, the construction clients are
placing increasing demands upon the industry in terms of
the project quality, costs of delivery, time from inception
to occupation, above all, value for money of projects. To
facilitate them to develop ideas that are suitable to the
project and are satisfactory to all the team members, multi
criteria decision making techniques are implemented.
Construction industry has witnessed the failure of many
contractors due to varying reasons such as financial
problems, poor performance, or accidents arising from the
lack of adequate safety consideration at worksites.
Decision of selecting an engineering, construction or
R&D project is often fundamental for business survival.
Such decisions usually involve prediction of future
outcomes considering different alternatives. The fact of
matter is that modern businesses face a more severe and
challenging environment than ever before. As the decision
maker tries to maximize or minimize outcomes associated
with each objective depending on its nature, so a multiple
282
criteria decision-making problem arises. Multi-criteria

decision making (MCDM) is applied to preferable
decisions among available classified alternatives by
multiple attributes and is one of the most widely used
decision methodology in project selection. Project
selection problem has attracted great endeavour by
practitioners and academicians in recent years. Moreover,
since different conflicting criteria and objective functions
are involved in selection of projects, the multi-criteria
decision making methods have been vastly employed to
cope with the problem.
OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESNT STUDY
1. To identify various criterias that are considered in
project selection and implement MCDM methods and
relative rank index to ascertain the viability of
selection process.
2. To compare the MCDM methods and to know the
process of selecting and select the best project from
the feasible alternatives.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Selection of a project constitutes one of the main
problems that construction managers are facing with,
decision of selecting engineering, construction or R&D
project is often fundamental for business survival. Such
decisions usually involve prediction of future outcomes
considering different alternatives. The fact of matter is
that modern businesses face a more severe and
challenging environment than ever before. The increasing
volatility in interest and exchange rates, lifting trade
barriers and development of new technologies in
electronics, nanotechnology, and bio technology result in
a high level of uncertainty in managerial decision making.
A comprehensive review of literature has been carried out
and contributions of part researches are summarized as
follows.
Chitrasen et al (2012) used FUZZY VIKOR for a case
study in supplier selection. The nature of the supplier
selection process is a complex multi-attribute group
decision making (MAGDM) problem which deals with
both quantitative and qualitative factors may be
conflicting in nature as well as contain incomplete and
uncertain information. In order to solve such a kind of
MAGDM problems, the development of an effective
supplier selection model is evidently desirable. In this
paper, an application of the VIKOR method combined
with FUZZY LOGIC has been used to solve supplier
selection problems with conflicting and noncommensurable (different units) criteria, assuming that
compromising is acceptable for conflict resolution. The
decision maker wants a solution, which must be closest to
the ideal, and the alternatives are evaluated according to
all established criteria. Linguistic values are used to
assess the ratings and weights for the conflicting factors.
These linguistic ratings can be expressed in triangular

fuzzy numbers. Then, a hierarchy MAGDM model based
on fuzzy sets theory and the VIKOR method has been
proposed to deal with the supplier selection problems in
the supply chain system.
Fouladgar et al (2011) used FUZZY VIKOR for Project
portfolio Selection Using VIKOR Technique under Fuzzy
Environment. Project portfolio selection for making
decisions on investment is a critical decision in such
companies. This selection is a multi-criteria problem, due
to miscellaneous criteria which are often in conflicting
with each other. The authors define six criteria for
selecting the optimal project as cost criteria (risk, payback
period) and benefit criteria (Profitability, consistent with
corporate goals and objectives, flexibility, and
sustainability). On the other, project portfolio selection
problem is often influenced by uncertainty in practice;
also because of the uncertainty associated with
imprecision, loss of information and lack of
understanding. In this paper, the implementation of an
organized framework for project portfolio selection has
discussed through the proposed model base on VIKOR
technique using linguistic terms in order to calculate the
importance weights of evaluation criteria and rank the
feasible projects in descending order.
Jose et al (2009) used VIKOR for selection of materials
under aggressive environment. The selection of materials
in industrial applications has always been important to
product designers as a consequence that the choice of a
material has usually been based on their mechanical and
chemical properties. Traditional product design tools
employ detailed theoretical and empirical relationships to
estimate the engineering performance of a product as a
function of its geometry and materials. Advances in
materials science and in the development of new
processing technologies have presented product designers
with a wide array of choices previously unavailable to
them. This has made the selection of materials for a given
application a far more challenging and difficult task, in
particular in the selection of materials under high risk of
failure. The traditional single criteria decision making is
no longer able to handle these problems. The
Compromise Ranking method, also known as the VIKOR
method, introduces the Multi-Criteria ranking index based
on the particular measure of closeness to the ideal
solution. For their study the above method were adopted
in the selection of materials taking into account the risk of
failure under aggressive environments.
Mehrez et al (1983) formulated a project selection
problem as a Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)
problem and applied it to a utility function. They
described an interactive method for presenting a sequence
of feasible sets of indivisible projects to a decision-maker.
For each set as a whole, the decision-maker evaluates its
utilities with respect to each of several attributes; the
283
Table 3.1: Project Selection Data Case Study
S.No
1
Criterias
Type of the Project
Project A
Construction of Grade
Separator i.e. Flyover at
Tolichowki Junction
Project B
Construction of Road from
Botanical Garden to old
Mumbai Road via Masjeed
banda Village,
Serilingampally
2
3
Value of project
Exact design
43.78 Cr
Perfect
35.00 Cr
Perfect
Work Experience Of
Supervisor
Time of completion
Past experience in
similar projects
Availability of
capital
Quality management
system
Timelines in getting
all permits, license
and permissions
Material regional
condition
Timelines in project
approvals
Project safety
Capital structure of
company
Various ion of
material prices
Market availability
Financial plan for
the project
15 years
20 years
Project C
Construction of
Improvement of Old
Mumbai Highway from
Tolichowki to
Gachibowli, Hyderabad
(Phase-I) under IALA
48.48 Cr
Some details are
missing
23 years
18 months
8 similar projects
24 months
6 similar projects
24 months
5 similar projects
25 Cr
24 Cr
24Cr
Excellent quality
Good quality
Low quality
4 months
2 months
1 month
Average
Good
Poor
45 days
90 days
60 days
Excellent
Moderate
Excellent
Moderate
Average
Moderate
Flexible
Flexible
Non flexible
Excellent
Moderate
Good
Good
Good
Moderate
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
utilities are then combined to give a single utility for the

set.
Hyderabad) is considered as a case study whose details

are as given in the table 3.1.
Literature review tells us that in any of the project

selection process of the construction industry, in view of
its ability to handle both qualitative and quantitative
parameters the application of FUZZY SET THEORY
method, VIKOR Method, FUZZY VIKOR Method has
been a powerful tool. The present study deals with the
selection of optimal/best project in construction industry
using the three MCDM methods.
METHODOLOGY
CASE STUDY
A construction firm having following three options of
M/s. M.Venkat Rao Infra Projects Pvt. Ltd. an ISO
9001:2008 company (Formerly M/S M.Venkat Rao,
Fuzzy Method
This method deals with the linguistic variables and
trapezoidal fuzzy numbers that are assigned for the
various criteria (C1 to C15). The evaluation of criteria by
decision makers is done based on experience and the
average fuzzy score for the criteria is calculated. After
finding the average fuzzy score, defuzzification is done to
produce fuzzy value by which the normalized fuzzy score
is obtained as presented in the table 3.2. The overall
priority of projects is obtained by taking the sum product
of criteria priority and projects priority for that particular
alternative and is shown in table 3.3. Since the overall
284
priority of the project B is maximum, that shall be

considered as the Optimal Project by this method.
Table 3.2: Normalized Defuzzified Values of Projects
Criteria
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
A
0.7167
0.7750
0.6833
0.7167
0.5333
0.8667
0.5833
0.8333
0.8667
0.5500
0.6667
0.5333
0.6333
0.5500
0.7167
B
0.6917
0.7750
0.8667
0.6917
0.9250
0.6667
0.7833
0.6917
0.5333
0.8667
0.7250
0.9250
0.6333
0.5500
0.8083
C
0.6167
0.3167
0.6417
0.6167
0.5833
0.3667
0.3667
0.3667
0.3667
0.2833
0.6083
0.5833
0.5000
0.3500
0.5500
(3.1)
)(
[
)
)(
)]
(3.2)
Rank the alternatives by sorting each S, R, and Q values

in ascending order is taken up and alternatives are shown
in the table 3.8. By satisfying the following two
conditions simultaneously, the scheme with minimum
value of Q in ranking is considered for the optimal
compromise solution such as, C1. The alternative Q(A(1))
has an acceptable advantage in other words,
(
VIKOR METHOD
In this method, the Linguistic Variables Scale is
considered as shown in the table 3.4. The calculation of
weights for criterias and normalization of weights is done
to determine the details about evaluation of the projects to
which normalization of the payoff matrix is obtained as
shown in table 3.5. Thereafter, the computation of the
positive-ideal solutions (best) value fj and negative ideal
solutions (worst) value fj for all criterion rating and the
values of Si and Ri (i = 1,... ,m), by using the following
relations and the fj and fj values are presented in the
table 3.6. The S and R values are shown in the table 3.7.
( )
( )
(3.3)
Where, A(2) is the alternative with the second position in

the ranking list and m is the number of alternatives. C2.
The alternative Q(A(1)) is stable within the decision
making process in other words, it is also best ranked in Si
and Ri.
If condition C1 is not satisfied, that means QA(m)_Q(A(1) )
<1/ (m 1),then alternatives A(1), A(2). . A(m) all are the
same compromise solution, there is no comparative
advantage of A(1) from others. But for the case of
maximum value, the corresponding alternative is the
compromise (closeness) solution. If condition C2 is not
satisfied, the stability in decision making is deficient
while A(1) has a comparative advantage. Therefore,
A(1)and A(2) has the same compromise solution and both
the conditions are satisfied.
Table 3.3: Overall Priority

Values (OPV) Of Projects
Criteria
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Weightage
0.0794193
0.06490179
0.08881298
0.09479078
0.07685739
0.08283518
0.06490179
A
0.716667
0.775
0.683333
0.716667
0.533333
0.866667
0.583333
B
0.691667
0.775
0.866667
0.691667
0.925
0.666667
0.783333
C
0.616667
0.316667
0.641667
0.616667
0.583333
0.366667
0.366667
Criteria
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
TOTAL OF C1 to C15
RANK
285
Weightage
0.07002562
0.04099061
0.05123826
0.05636208
0.05123826
0.03757472
0.05123826
0.08881298
A
0.833333
0.866667
0.55
0.666667
0.533333
0.633333
0.55
0.716667
0.689069
2
B
0.691667
0.533333
0.866667
0.725
0.925
0.633333
0.55
0.808333
0.751651
1
C
0.366667
0.366667
0.283333
0.608333
0.583333
0.5
0.35
0.55
0.488941
3
Table 3.4: Linguistic Variables Scale
Verbal judgments of preferences

Extremely preferred
Very Strongly to Extremely
Very Strongly Preferred
Strongly to Very strongly
Strongly preferred
Moderately to strongly
Moderately preferred
Equally to moderately
Equally preferred
Table 3.7: Computed S and R Values
Numerical rating
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Table 3.5: Pay Off Matrix
Criteria
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
Weights
0.091837
0.061224
0.05102
0.010204
0.091837
0.081633
0.061224
0.071429
0.091837
0.010204
0.091837
0.040816
0.091837
0.061224
0.091837
A
0.04717
0.084906
0.066038
0.056604
0.037736
0.09434
0.04717
0.09434
0.084906
0.066038
0.075472
0.037736
0.075472
0.056604
0.075472
B
0.054545
0.072727
0.072727
0.045455
0.090909
0.054545
0.090909
0.045455
0.036364
0.090909
0.072727
0.090909
0.063636
0.036364
0.081818
C
0.077778
0.033333
0.1
0.088889
0.066667
0.044444
0.055556
0.033333
0.066667
0.044444
0.111111
0.088889
0.077778
0.033333
0.077778
Table 3.6: Values of fj and fj
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f7
f8
f9
f10
f11
f12
f13
f14
f15
f*
0.091837
0.084906
0.1
0.088889
0.091837
0.09434
0.090909
0.09434
0.091837
0.090909
0.111111
0.090909
0.091837
0.061224
0.091837
f0.04717
0.033333
0.05102
0.010204
0.037736
0.044444
0.04717
0.033333
0.036364
0.010204
0.072727
0.037736
0.063636
0.033333
0.075472
S
0
1.154459
2
R
0.091837
0.091837
0.081633
Table 3.8: Rank the Alternatives
1
C
C
C
S
R
Q
2
A
A
A
3
B
B
B
Select the best alternative by choosing Q(A(m)) as a best

compromise solution with the minimum value of Qi and
must have to satisfy with the above conditions. The
project C satisfies both the conditions so, C is the optimal
construction project.
FUZZY VIKOR METHOD
This method is a combination of FUZZY set theory and
VIKOR method as explained in the previous sections. In
the present method, the weights and pay off matrix is
calculated as in the last methods and the linguistic
variables and trapezoidal fuzzy numbers are evaluated as
shown in the table 3.9. The evaluation of criteria by
decision makers is done based on experience and the
average fuzzy score for the criteria is calculated. After
finding the average fuzzy score, defuzzification is done to
produce fuzzy values and the normalized fuzzy score is
obtained. Based on the fuzzy evaluation of selected
criteria the fuzzy sets are assigned. Then the weightage
calculations for selected criteria are done and the fuzzy
evaluation of projects proceeds towards the normalized
defuzzified values of projects leads to the payoff matrix.
Ranking is assigned to the alternatives by sorting each S,
R, and Q values in ascending order. The ranking of the
alternatives is shown in the table 3.10. If the following
two conditions are satisfied simultaneously, then the
scheme with minimum value of Q in ranking is
considered the optimal compromise solution. Such as, C1:
The alternative Q(A(1)) has an acceptable advantage in
other words,
(
( )
( )
(3.4)
Where, A(2) is the alternative with the second position in

the ranking list by and m is the number of alternatives.
C2: The alternative Q(A(1)) is stable within the decision
making process in other words, it is also best ranked in Si
and Ri.
If condition C1 is not satisfied, that means QA(m)_Q(A(1) )
<1/ (m 1), then alternatives A(1), A(2).... A(m) all are the
same compromise solution, there is no comparative
advantage of A(1) from others. But for the case of
286
maximum value, the corresponding alternative is the

compromise (closeness) solution. If condition C2 is not
satisfied, the stability in decision making is deficient
while A(1) has a comparative advantage. Therefore,
A(1)and A(2) has the same compromise solution and both
the conditions are satisfied. Selecting the best alternative
by choosing Q (A(m)) as a best compromise solution with
the minimum value of Qi. As per the analysis project B
satisfies both the conditions and is the optimal
construction project.
Table 3.9: Linguistic Variables and Their Fuzzy Numbers
Linguistic Variables
VG/VI
Very Good/Important
G/I
Good/Important
AA
Above Average
A
Average
BA
Below Average
P/LI
Poor/Low Important
Very poor/Very Low
VP/VLI
Important
S
R
Q
2
A
C
A
Fuzzy
Vikor
Fuzzy Vikor
In the FUZZY VIKOR method, project B is selected

as the best ranked project by satisfying the conditions
among the three projects.
CONCLUSIONS
The project selection problem is often influenced by

uncertainty in practice and in such a situation a
MCDM method is proposed to deal with both
qualitative and quantitative criteria and select the
suitable contractor effectively.
Project selection considers the specific conditions or
criteria of a proposed project and the adaptability of
capabilities and qualification of a contractor to
perform the proposed project taking into account the
project specific conditions. Such a Project selection
method can reduce the limitation due to individual
judgment and increase fairness of decision making
(0.0,0.0,0.1,0.2)
3
C
A
C
The following are the highlights of the ranking system for

three different projects based on the analysis carried out
by three different methods.
Models Used
In the VIKOR method, project C is selected as the

best ranked project by satisfying the conditions among
the three projects.
The criteria being considered always vary from one

contractor to another. Private companies as well as
government agencies often face the need to decide how to
allocate limited resources to the projects.
Fuzzy Numbers
(0.8,0.9,1.0,1.0)
(0.6,0.7,0.8,0.9)
(0.5,0.6,0.7,0.8)
(0.4,0.5,0.5,0.6)
(0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5)
(0.1,0.2,0.3,0.4)
Table 3.10: Rank the Alternatives
1
B
B
B
In the FUZZY method, project B is selected as the

best ranked project.
Rank For The Project

Project A
Project B
Project C
II
I
III
II
III
I
II
I
III
In the FUZZY method after the consideration of the

criterias having top 15 RRI values and the 3 decision
makers responses for assessing 3 alternatives A, B and
C with respect to the importance of each criterion, the
project B has the highest fuzzy score then compared to
the other project. So the project B is selected as the
best optimal project.
In the VIKOR method the decisions are based on only
1 member. according to his/her opinions or responses
for 3 alternatives A, B and C with respect to the
importance of each criterion, project C is selected as
the best ranked project by satisfying the conditions
then compared to the other projects. So project C is
selected as the best optimal project.
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
The questionnaire survey evolved with 15 various

criteria (Time of completion, Value of the project,
Quality management system, Exact design, etc.) were
considered in project selection.
In the FUZZY VIKOR method, by considering the

criterias having top 15 RRI values and the 3 decision
makers responses for assessing 3 alternatives A, B and
C with respect to the importance of each criterion, the
project B has the highest fuzzy score then compared to
the other project. So the project B is selected as the
best optimal project.
In the present case study for selection of project the

criteria having top 15 RRI values are considered for
the selection process. There are 3 decision makers
DM1, DM2 & DM3, who are responsible for
assessing 3 alternatives A, B and C with respect to the
importance of each of the 15 criteria.
From the three MCDM models the best model is the

FUZZY VIKOR because there are multiple decision
makers in this model and the scale used is the fuzzy
scale and it is the combination of FUZZY and VIKOR
methods and FUZZY VIKOR is the extension of
VIKOR under the fuzzy environment.
Based on the analysis carried out on the present case

study the following results are obtained
287
The FUZZY VIKOR method is simple, flexible and

has systematic approach that can be applied in
divergent types of decision making problems and has
the capability to deal with similar types of situations
in other areas.
[5]
Mohammad Majid Fouladgar, Abdolreza YazdaniChamzini, Siamak Haji Yakhehali, Mohammad Hossein
Ghasempourabadi, Negar Badri(2011). Project portfolio
selection using VIKOR technique under fuzzy
environment. 2nd International conference on construction
and project management IPEDR, 15.
REFERENCES
[6]
Puthamont, S., and Charoenngam, C. (2007),

Strategic project selection in the public sector:
Construction projects of the Ministry of Defence in
Thailand. International Journal of Project Management,
25, 178-188.
[7]
Reza Kiani Mavi, Somayeh Farid, Arezoo Jalili(2012).

Selecting the construction projects using Fuzzy VIKOR
approach. Journal of basic and applied scientific research,
2 (9) 9474-9480.
[8]
Santamaria L., Barge-Gil, A. and Modrego, A.

(2010). Public selection and financing. R&D
cooperative projects: Credits versus subsidy
funding. Research Policy.
[9]
Zadeh, L. A. (1965). Fuzzy sets. Information and

Technology 8, 338-353.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Chitrasen Samantra, Saurav Datta, Siba Sankar

Mahapatra(2012). Application of fuzzy based VIKOR
approach for multi-attribute group decision making
(MAGDM): A case study in supplier selection. Decision
making in manufacturing and services, 6(1), 25-39.
Jose Ramon San Cristobal, M. Victoria Biezma, Ruth
Martinez, Ramon Somoza (2009). Selection of materials
under aggressive environments: The VIKOR Method.3rd
International conference on Integrity, Reliability and
Failure, Porto/Portugal, S1204-P0266.
Medaglia, A., Huethb, D., Mendietab, J-c., Sefaira,
J. (2008). A multiobjective model for the selection
and timing for public enterprise projects. Socio Economic Planning Sciences.
Mehrez, A., and Sinuany. Z Stern (1983). An interactive
approach for project selection. The journal of operational
research, 34 (7), 621-626.
[10] Zimmermann. H.J (2001). Fuzzy set theory and its

applications. Fourth edition Kluwer academic publishers,
QA248. Z55 2001.
288
Author Index
A
Aditya, M.
Ajay Kumar, L.
Allasab Gudihal
Anant I. Dhatrak
Anji Reddy, M.
Annapurna, D.
Anthugari Vimala
Anusha, E.
Asthana, A.K.
Aswari Sultana
201
81
103
130, 134
217
81
89
234
33
240
B
Bali Reddy, S.
Bhargavi, S.
Bhaskar Desai, V.
Bhasker, M.
Bhikshma, V.
230
124
15, 118
28, 56
142
C
Chandana Sukesh
Chandrashekar, A.
Chittaranjan, M.
Chore, H.S.
49
41
234
148
D
Dean Kumar, B.
56
F
Fuke, R.M.
24
H
Hemant S. Chore
Hussen, I.
24
259
J
Jadhav, S.T.
Jaganaiah, M.
Jagannadha Rao, K.
Jaya Vardhan, J.
Jayasree, D.
Jayasree, K.
148
71
142
113
28
269
K
Kesava Rao, P.
Kishore Babu, D.
Kishore Kumar, M.
Krishna Parandhama, G.
Krishna Reddy, K.V.
Kumar, V.S.S.
167
49
63
259
249
277
L
Lakshmi Sruthi, P.
Laxma Naik, K.V.N.
183
230
M
Madhava Rao, V.
Madhavi Reddy, K.
Madhusudhana Reddy, P.
Mahabaleswara, H.
Mallikarjunappa, K.
Maneeth, P.D.
Manjula, P.
Mantesh, B.S.
Maulika, N.C.
Mukherjee, A.
Murthy, DSR
167
269
217
176
15
41
262
41
7
160
167
N
Nagabhushan, H.M.
Nagalakshmi, M.
Narashima Rao, A.V.
Nausha
Nilesh Sawakare
Nutan Kumar, C.
176
234
230
41
24
282
P
Patil, S.B.
Phani Kumar, B.R.
Phanidra Kumar, T.
Polina V.V.S. Sivarama Krishna
Prasad A. Dode
Prasad, M.L.V.
Prasanna, S.V.S.N.D.L.
Pulkit D. Velani
R
Radhika, K.L.
Raja Sekhar, P.
Rajasekhar, M.
Rajasekhar, P.
Rajesh Kodurupaka
Rajesh, M.
Rakesh Kumar, G.
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
Ramesh Kumar, S.
Ramesh, U.
Ramu, P.
Rani B. Wath
Rao, P.S.
Rathish Kumar, P.
289
148, 160
240
167
49
24
3
282
153
76
183, 201, 210
214
197
107
259
210
89, 97, 124, 153
249
206
206, 259
227
63
3
Ravi Kumar Reddy, C.

Rekha Rani, K.
Rushali D. Virulkar
S
Sadashiva Murthy, T.H.
Sagar D. Dhengle
Sanjay W. Thakare
Sasikala, Ch.
Sastri, M.V.S.S.
Sathyam, A.
Seshagiri Rao, M.V.
Shaheena Parveen
Shashikanth, K.
Shiva Kumar, G.
Shravan Kumar, G.
Sivalingarao, N.
49
183
130
103
134
227
7
142
15
7
253
197
201, 210
188, 217
118
Sivasankara Reddy, D.V.

Sowjanya
Sravana, P.
Sridhar, B.
Srinivasa Reddy, V.
Srirama Rao, A.
Swami, B.L.P.
U
Urooj Masood
V
Venkat Rao, N.
Venu Gopal, M.
Vijaya Kumar, S.
Vrushali Kamalakar
290
234
113, 253, 262
71
269
7
240
28, 33, 56, 63, 71, 118, 142
33
214
277
71
97

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Advances in Civil Engineering

Dr. B. Sridhar, Head of the Department

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VASAVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Affiliated to Osmania University and Approved by AICTE

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad.

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(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

Advances in Civil Engineering and

Infrastructure Development, is being organised by the Department of Civil

The outcome of the conference will

particularly benefit the faculty and students in understanding the

I wish the conference all success.

Vasavi College of Engineering

(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

I am happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of Vasavi

(ACEID-2014) during 6-7 February, 2014.

Engineering. The National Conference being organised now aims at bringing

Vasavi College of Engineering

(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

I am happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of Vasavi

(ACEID-2014) during 6-7 February, 2014.

The conference will provide an excellent

opportunity to the students of our Civil Engineering Department to benefit

Vasavi College of Engineering

(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

I am happy to note that ACEID-2014, a two-day National Conference

I wish the conference a great success.

Vasavi College of Engineering

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I am very happy to know that the Civil Engineering Department of our

6-7 February, 2014.

The objective of the conference is to bring together

faculty members and researchers from various educational institutions from

This gives an opportunity to the staff and

students of Civil Engineering Department to get benefited from the

Vasavi College of Engineering

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Prof. I.V. Rao

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I am glad to note that the Department of Civil Engineering is poised to

Engineering will use this opportunity to its advantage and make it a

Vasavi College of Engineering

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Established in the year 1981, Vasavi College of Engineering has

Vasavi College of Engineering

(Sponsored by VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION)

Prof G.V.Ramana Murty

I am very happy to know that ACEID-2014, a two-day National

Development, is being organised by the Department of Civil Engineering,

(Prof. G.V.Ramana Murty)

About the Institute

About the Department

Vasavi Academy of Education (VAE)

INSTITUTIONS SPONSORED BY VASAVI ACADEMY OF EDUCATION

Vasavi College of Engineering

Vasavi Public School

Pendekanti Law College

Pendekanti Institute of Management

Vasavi College of Music and Dance

Director & I/c Principal, VCE

Prof. & Head, Dept. of Civil Engg, VCE