A bureaucracy is a way of administratively organizing large

numbers of people who need to work together. Organizations in the

public and private sector, including universities and governments,
rely on bureaucracies to function. The term bureaucracy literally
means rule by desks or offices, a definition that highlights the
often impersonal character of bureaucracies. Even though
bureaucracies sometimes seem inefficient or wasteful, setting up a
bureaucracy helps ensure that thousands of people work together
in compatible ways by defining everyones roles within a hierarchy.

major determinants of how governments are selected and replaced,

the capacity of governments

Some recent successful attempts at bureaucratic reform include

independence of civil service from political pressures and the

credibility of governments

the following:

to formulate and implement policies, and how citizens view the

institutions that govern them.
These dimensions and what each tries to measure are:
1. Government Effectiveness: responses of quality of the
bureaucracy and public service,

commitments to policies

Sunshine laws

Sunset provisions

Privatization

Increased incentives for efficiency

participation in the selection of governments

Protection of whistleblowers

3. Political Stability and Absence of Violence: perceptions of

likelihood that the

On the other hand, the argument that authoritarian rule

significantly alters political life and creates major discontinuities
between pre- and post authoritarian democratic regimes also
appears highly plausible. As authoritarian rule introduces new
sources of cleavage and conflict into a society, it may also lead to
the redefinition of political beliefs and loyalties along a pro versus
antiauthoritarian political continuum.
Authoritarian rule- entails a reorientation of public policy. To the
extent that this reorientation involves significant social and
economic change, the political status quo ante may also be
fundamentally altered.

2. Voice and Accountability: different aspects of civil and political

rights, and citizens

government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional

or violent means
4. Regulatory Quality: incidence of market-unfriendly policies such
as price controls,
burdens imposed by excessive regulation in foreign trade,
inadequate bank supervision
5. Control of Corruption: perceptions of extent of use of public
power for private gain

Good Governance Indicators

6. Rule of Law: extent to which agents abide by rules of society,

incidence of crime,

The World Bank has identified six dimensions of good governance

which are seen as the

effectiveness and predictability of judiciary, and enforceability of

contracts. (Kaufmann:
2002)

Redemocratization also meant the creation of more access

channels for citizens participation by government. This is
manifested in the decentralization process, with the passage of the
Local Government Code (RA7160) of 1991, as well as the
enshrinement of civil society participation in governance and the
emphasis placed on the private sector as the engine of economic
growth by no less than the Constitution.
Finally, emerging from years of authoritarianism meant that the
Philippine bureaucracy had to be weaned away from the value
system that was predominant pre-1986. This meant the
reestablishment of civilian supremacy over military rule, respecting
the rule of law, transparent transactions open to public scrutiny,
and the duty ethic that would lead to accountability in
governmental actions. Of course, the presence of a very active and
adversarial media, as well as the rise of watchdog groups have all
served to constrain negative bureaucratic actions.
Redemocratization process involving the withdrawal of the military
from positions of government and the subsequent installation of
democratically elected civilians can be characterized as:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Controlled
Incremental
Segmented
Preemptive

First, military regime attempts to control the progression of

redemocratization by favoring negotiating partners who
emphasize legal political changes over socioeconomic structural
transformations. These favored partners focus on changing
institutions of government and not the issue. They adopt a style
of democratic reform which favors an additive approach
(grafting new institutions onto existing ones) rather than a
displacement approach (substituting new institutions for old)
and they adopt a posture of responsibility,
Incremental- effort y the military to encourage incremental
changes, to stagger the process of change in discrete sages,
thus dispersing the opposition as it discusses, weighs and
debates constitutional amendments.

Authoritarianism
1.
A form of government distinguished by absolute power in
theexecutive branch of a state and
little legislative or judicial control over the executive branch; the
power rests generally on coerciveforce, rather than on
the popular assembly.
Authoritarianism means a form of social control characterized by
strict obedience to the authority of a state. Hence, the term has
similar meaning with totalitarianism, with the latter being an
extreme case of the former.
Democracy denotes a set of ideals, institutions and processes of
governance that allows the broad mass of the people to choose
their leaders and guarantees them a broad range of civil rights.
Unfortunately, this conception of democracy is narrow for it focused
only on formal political rights and process to the exclusion of
economic factor. This is because in practical democracies like in
Africa, poverty often prevents the mass of the people from
actualizing and enjoying their political and civic rights while the
concentration of wealth in the hands of a few, gives the
economically-privileged minority uninterrupted political influence.
The recognition of this postulation led to calls for the broadening of
the notion of democracy to incorporate social and economic
upliftment of the masses (Ake, 1993)
Economy Effectiveness
INPUTS OUTPUTS

Efficiency
RESULTS

Less spending Targeted spending

Wise spending

Fig. 2 The principles of 3Es and their link to the transformation

process of inputs and outputs (Source: Authors illustration)
The meaning of words can be loosely interpreted as follows:
Economy = the lowest possible expenditure of funds within the
appropriate quality (performance in relation to price), the
evaluation criterion for input based on the principle of doing things
inexpensively.

Efficiency = achieving the necessary outputs for little money, the

relationship between inputs and outputs based on the principle of
doing things the most suitable way.
Effectiveness = expresses the degree of progress towards the set
objectives (Do we have what we wanted?), the evaluation criterion
for output based on the principle of doing only those things that
really should be done.
he BA is a type of authoritarian state whose principal
characteristics are:
(1) It is, primarily and fundamentally, the aspect of global society
that guarantees and organizes the domination exercised through a
class structure subordinated to the upper fractions of a highly
oligopolized and transnationalized bourgeoisie. In other words, the
principal social base of the BA is this upper bourgeoisie.
(2) On the institutional level, it is a set of organizations in which
specialists in coercion have decisive weight, as do those who seek
to "normalize" the economy. The crucial role played by these actors
is the institutional expression of the main tasks that the BA
undertakes: the
32
restoration of "order" by means of the political deactivation of the
popular sector, on the one hand, and the "normalization" of the
economy, on the other.
(3) It is a system of political exclusion of a previously activated
popular sector, which is subjected to strict controls designed to
eliminate its earlier presence in the political arena. This is achieved
by coercion, as well as by the destruction or strict governmental
control of the resources (especially those embodied in class
organizations and political parties or movements) that sustained
this activation. Such exclusion is guided by the determination to
impose "order" on society and to ensure its future viability.
(4) This exclusion brings with it the suppression of citizenship and
political democracy. It also involves prohibiting (and enforcing this
prohibition with coercion) any appeals to the population as pueblo
and, of course, as class. The suppression of the institutional roles
and channels of access to the government characteristic of political

democracy is aimed at the elimination of the roles and

organizations (political parties among them) that once served as
channels for appeals for substantive justice. These channels are
considered incompatible with the reimposition of order and with the
normalization of the economy. The BA is thus based on the
suppression of two fundamental mediations between state and
society: citizenship and pueblo .
(5) It is also a system of economic exclusion of the popular sector,
inasmuch as it promotes a pattern of capital accumulation strongly
biased in favor of large, oligopolistic units of private capital and
some state institutions. Preexisting inequalities are thus increased.
(6) Through its institutions it endeavors to "depoliticize" the
handling of social issues, which are entrusted to those who deal
with them according to the supposedly neutral and objective
criteria of technical rationality. This is the obverse side of the
prohibition against raising issues linked to pueblo or class.
(7) Its regimewhich, while usually not formalized, is clearly
identifiableinvolves closing the democratic channels of access to
the government. More generally, it involves closing the channels for
the representation of popular and working-class interests. Access is
limited to those who stand at the apex of large organizations (both
state and private), especially the armed forces, large enterprises,
and certain segments of the state's civil bureaucracy.
The features just enumerated permit us to distinguish the BA from
other authoritarian states. This is not just any authoritarianism, but
one
33
marked by characteristics that signal the historical specificity I have
sketched in the preceding pages.
Praxis is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is
enacted, practiced, embodied, or realised. "Praxis" may also
refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or
practicing ideas.
resurgence (r -sr j ns)
n.

1. A continuing after interruption; a renewal.

2. A restoration to use, acceptance, activity, or vigor; a revival.
transition (tr n-z sh n, -s sh -)
n.
1. Passage from one form, state, style, or place to another.
2.
a. Passage from one subject to another in discourse.
b. A word, phrase, sentence, or series of sentences connecting one
part of a discourse to another.
3. Music
a. A modulation, especially a brief one.
b. A passage connecting two themes or sections.
4. Genetics A point mutation in which a pyrimidine is replaced by
another pyrimidine, or a purine is replaced by another purine.
5. Sports The process of changing from defense to offense or
offense to defense, as in basketball or hockey.
6. A period during childbirth that precedes the expulsive phase of
labor, characterized by strong uterine contractions and nearly
complete cervical dilation.
Accountability
! Definition
The means by which public agencies and their workers answer to
the citizens directly and
indirectly for the use of their powers, authority, and resources
predilection
[pred-l-ek-shuhn, preed-] Show IPA
noun
a tendency to think favorably of something in particular; partiality;
preference: a predilection for Bach.
Tips: Pragmatic is derived from the Latin word pragmaticus, "skilled
in business or law." In order to be successful in business or law, you
have to be pragmatic (guided by practical experience) in your
decisions. Pragmatic often refers to people who are hardheaded
but, for the most part, is a positive term for sensible and practical
people and ideas. To say that somebody is pragmatic is generally a
compliment. Pragmatism is the related noun that denotes dealing
with a problem in a realistic and logical way.
misfeasance
DefinitionSave to Favorites

Improper, negligent, or unlawful execution of an essentially lawful

act, or a transgression or trespass such as misuse of authority by a
firm's director or officer. In comparison, a wrongful or unlawful act,
especially by a public official, is malfeasance; and a failure to
perform an act required by law, or failure to carry out an obligation,
is nonfeasance.
The Republic was arguably Platos most influential work. It
portrays several dialogues between the philosopher Socrates
and several observers in which they discuss a political theory
for a just state. The central belief is that justice and happiness
stand and fall together. Not because good consequences
follow from being just, but because justice itself is so great that
nothing gained by injustice could be greater(Boyle, 2007).
The Republic proposed the view that morality outweighs rationality.
If money and wealth are not at the forefront of societys value
system, morality dictates that all societies will be on an equal
footing. In consequence, a society will have fewer wars since there
would not be financial gains to be desired and mutual respect
across nations would forbid war being used as a means of control of
other nations.
Anglo-America most often refers to a region in the Americas in
which English is a main language,[2] or one which has
significant British historical, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural links
Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The
ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity. It
does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends
to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In
fact, Weber states: The creation of new law opposite traditional
norms is deemed impossible in principle. Traditional authority is
typically embodied in feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely
patriarchal structure, the servants are completely and personally
dependent upon the lord, while in an estate system (i.e.
feudalism), the servants are not personal servants of the lord but
independent men (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system
of authority does not change or evolve.

Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision

inspire others. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary
characteristics of an individual. Weber saw a charismatic leader as
the head of a new social movement, and one instilled with divine or
supernatural powers, such as a religious prophet. Weber seemed to
favor charismatic authority, and spent a good deal of time
discussing it. In a study of charisma and religion, Riesebrodt (1999)
argues that Weber also thought charisma played a strong - if not
integral - role in traditional authority systems. Thus, Webers favor
for charismatic authority was particularly strong, especially in
focusing on what happened to it with the death or decline of a
charismatic leader. Charismatic authority is routinized in a
number of ways according to Weber: orders are traditionalized, the
staff or followers change into legal or estate-like (traditional)
staff, or the meaning of charisma itself may undergo change.
Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the
content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience is
not given to a specific individual leader - whether traditional or
charismatic - but a set of uniform principles. Weber thought the
best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy
(political or economic). This form of authority is frequently found in
the modern state, city governments, private and public
corporations, and various voluntary associations. In fact, Weber
stated that the development of the modern state is identical
indeed with that of modern officialdom and bureaucratic
organizations just as the development of modern capitalism is
identical with the increasing bureaucratization of economic
enterprise (Weber 1958, 3).
Bourgeois leadership is thus inherently undemocratic, and evento
be blunt about itinherently fascistic.
Since bourgeois leadership is the attempt to get people to do what
is fundamentally in the leader's interests, not theirs, the key
problem is how to involve their interests as well, or at least how to
make it seem to be in their interests.[4] This can only be done
through trickerywhich has severe limitsor, more importantly,
through the exercise of some kind of power over those the
bourgeois leader seeks to "lead", either the power to reward or the

power to punish, or both. Or as the Godfather would have

expressed it, the key problem of bourgeois leadership is how to
make them an offer they can't refuse.[5]
When the bourgeois leader wants to lead an army, for example, he
must start by either hiring the jobless with a part of the wealth he
and his class have extorted from the working class, or else he must
draft his conscripts through threats of prison or other punishment if
they refuse. (The accompanying trickery of patriotic propaganda is
also important, but only an adjunct to the basic methods.) Similarly,
at the work place, bourgeois leadership is achieved through
rewards such as wages, and threats of punishment such as
demotion or dismissal.
Max Weber described bureaucracy using its structural
characteristics with no restriction to government cycles but one,
which includes even the large private enterprises. In his work, Max
Weber goes to great lengths to describe the structure and nature of
bureaucracy (Weber 1978). According to Max Weber, bureaucracy
provides greater efficiency and is equally important because of its
leveling impact or effects on the society. However, Max Weber
recognizes the disadvantages of bureaucracy and suggests that
bureaucracy may stifle enterprise was the case in ancient Rome
(Rhodes 2005). Max Weber noted that bureaucracy establishes a
new class of public or private officials who use inordinate power
and force over their subjects within their respective administrative
cycles hence they become domineering and impose their personal
agendas on their juniors or subjects. Max Weber referred to it as
the dictatorship of the official (Max 1997).
Max Weber- bureaucracy regard as a collective term for an entity
which consists of officers or a group of people who definitely and
obviously work and its influence can be seen in all kinds of
organizations.
Concepts:
a. An official duties are organized on the basis of continuous
rule
b. The tasks are divided into different areas according to their
functions

c. Positions are arranged in hierarchial manner.

d. Rules that correspond to directed work both technically and
legally
e. Members as an organizational resources are different as
individual.
f. Incumbent is not the same as his position
g. Administration is based on written documents
h. Legal authority form can take many forms.
Albrow:

2. Bureau-structure goals comprise the values of officials

concerning the "constitutional design" of their bureaus.
3. Broad bureau policy goals involve the longer-term objectives
that the bureau pursues in order to carry out its major social
functions.
4. Specific bureau policy goals involve the particular actions
that the bureau takes in attempting to achieve its broad
policy goals.

Bureaucracy:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Rational organization
Inefficiency organization
Power which runs by officials
Administrative state
Administration that runs by officials
Organization
Modern society

Downs:

Role of Hierarchy
Bureaucracy is a system of hierarchy. Every official has superiors,
equals, and subordinates. "These superior-subordinate relationships
are especially important because every official's chances for
improving his position in the bureau, including promotion, higher
salary, and success in furthering policies favors" certain actors (p
80).
What Officials Want
Officials have four types of goal: ultimate goals, social conduct
goals, basic political action goals, basic personal goals. A particular
"type" of goal is specifically bureau-oriented goals which are
divided in these subcategories:
1. Social function goals comprise the values of officials
concerning the broad social functions carried out by the
bureau to which they belong.

Fives Types of Official

Downs sees five types of officials running the bureaucracy.
1. Purely self-interested officials are motivated almost entirely
by goals that benefit themselves rather than their bureaus
or society as a whole. These come in two sub-types:
o

Climbers (they consider power, income, and prestige

all-important in their value structures).

Conservers consider convenience and security allimportant

2. Mixed-motivated officials have goals that combine selfinterest and altruistic loyalty to larger values.
3. Zealots are loyal to relatively narrow policies or concepts,
such as the development of nuclear submarines.
4. Advocates are loyal to a broader set of functions or to a
broader organization than zealots.
5. Statesmen are loyal to society as a whole.
First, pluralism is not diversity alone, but the energetic
engagement with diversity. Diversity can and has meant the
creation of religious ghettoes with little traffic between or
among them. Today, religious diversity is a given, but pluralism
is not a given; it is an achievement. Mere diversity without real

encounter and relationship will yield increasing tensions in our

societies.

4. Advocates are loyal to a broader set of functions or to a

broader organization than zealots.
5. Statesmen are loyal to society as a whole.

Role of Hierarchy
Bureaucracy is a system of hierarchy. Every official has superiors,
equals, and subordinates. "These superior-subordinate relationships
are especially important because every official's chances for
improving his position in the bureau, including promotion, higher
salary, and success in furthering policies favors" certain actors (p
80).

Determinants of an Official's Type

1. Psychological predispositions. An ambitious man tends to be
a climber; a timorous one tends to be a conserver.
2. The nature of the position occupied by the official. Each
bureaucratic position exerts a certain amount of pressure
upon its occupant to exhibit specific behavior patterns.
3. The probability that an official actually attain the goals
associated with the particular type toward which he is
psychologically inclined.
Type and Behavior

Climbers: In search of promotions, he seeks to aggrandize

his current office/income and find new opportunities above it
(or outside the bureau).

Conservers: Motivated by job security and convenience,

they strongly oppose any losses in their existing power,
income, and prestige but do not actively pursue more of
these "goods".

Advocates: As partisans, advocates promote everything they

can within their jurisdiction. They have the tendency toward
two-faced attitudes: each advocate is highly partisan
externally, but an impartial arbiter internally.

Zealots are poor general administrators because of the

narrowness of their interests. They antagonize other officials
by their refusal to be impartial. They are almost never
assigned to high-level administrative or command positions.

Statesmen: "Natural" statesmen are doomed to be misfits in

office. Most are forced by the exigencies of their positions to
behave like some other type (usually advocates).

Fives Types of Official

Downs sees five types of officials running the bureaucracy.
1. Purely self-interested officials are motivated almost entirely
by goals that benefit themselves rather than their bureaus
or society as a whole. These come in two sub-types:
o

Climbers (they consider power, income, and prestige

all-important in their value structures).

Conservers consider convenience and security allimportant

2. Mixed-motivated officials have goals that combine selfinterest and altruistic loyalty to larger values.
3. Zealots are loyal to relatively narrow policies or concepts,
such as the development of nuclear submarines.

Partisanship is when a politician sides with his party's affiliation,

even though he thinks differently. For example; Politician A is in
the Republican party. Politician A is Pro-choice, but the
Republican party is not. He also knows that if he sides with pro-

choice, it may cost him the election, so he goes along with the
party and fights against abortion, even though his views differ.