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Comparative LCA of the use of biodiesel, diesel and gasoline for transportation
Evanthia A. Nanaki*, Christopher J. Koroneos 1
Interdisciplinary Postgraduate Program, Environment and Development, School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Iroon Polytecniou 9, Zografou 157 80, Athens, Greece
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 4 October 2010
Received in revised form
7 February 2011
Accepted 20 July 2011
Available online 11 August 2011
The energy fuels used for in the Greek transport sector are made up of gasoline consumed by automobiles, diesel oil consumed by taxis, trucks, maritime transport and railroads, and jet fuel used in the
aircrafts. All these fuels are hydrocarbons that emit great amounts of CO2 which has a major impact in
the global warming phenomenon. The issues relating to climate change, the soaring energy prices, and
the uncertainty of future oil supplies, have created a strong interest in alternative transportation fuels.
During the past decade biofuels in the form of blended gasoline and biodiesel have begun to nd place in
energy economy. The Greek car market shows a remarkably low rate in the penetration of biodiesel
compared to the average European Union market. This work compares the environmental impacts of the
use of gasoline, diesel and biodiesel in Greece using as a tool for the comparison the Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) methodology. The environmental impacts taken into consideration include: organic
respiratory effects, inorganic respiratory effects, fossil fuels, acidication e eutrophication, greenhouse
effect, ecotoxicity and carginogenic effects. From the environmental point of view, biodiesel appears
attractive since its use results in signicant reductions of GHG emissions in comparison to gasoline and
diesel. It also has lower well-to-wheel emissions of methane. However, the use of biodiesel as transportation fuel increases emissions of PM10, nitrous oxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx) as well as nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphorous; the latter are the main agents for eutrophication.
This study can be considered as an opportunity for further research and evaluate the available options
for a sustainable transportation system planning in Greece.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Life cycle assessments
Greece
Biodiesel
Fossil fuels
1. Introduction
In Europe the transportation sector is responsible for 27.4% of all
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which have a great contribution
to climate change (Eurostat, 2007). In addition, the forecasted EU25 energy use demands in 2010, are estimated to be around 390
Mtoe (European Union, 2006). According to Kyoto Protocol, for the
year 2020, the target of reducing GHG of the transportation sector is
set to 20% below 1990 levels for all EU-27 Member States of EU.
Actions such as reducing energy use, increasing energy efciency
and carbon sequestration, the decarbonization of energy supply by
expansion of renewable energies, are considered a viable solution
for a sustainable transport future. An increased usage of biofuels
can contribute towards the reduction of CO2 emissions in road
trafc. In addition, biofuels produced from waste residues e having
Table 1
Biodiesel production plants (Hellenic Department Ministry of Development, 2004,
2006).
Facility
Annual capacity
(ton/year)
40,000
25,000
60,000
200,000
80,000
20,000
Total
425,000
Location
Start
Kilkis
2005
Thessaloniki
Patra
Fthiotida
Volos
Thessaloniki
2006
2006
2006
2006
2005
15
produced than ethanol, with rapeseed used as the primary feedstock. The total EU-27 biodiesel production for 2007 was over 5.7
million metric tones, an increase of 16.8% from the 2006 gures
(European Biodiesel Board, 2009). Germany with a production of
2890 thousand metric tones was the leader in 2007. France and
Italy followed with productions of 872 thousand metric tones and
363 respectively. Biodiesel is mainly produced from oil crops (such
as rapeseed and sunower), waste cooking oils or animal fats. The
extracted oils are converted by transesterication with an alcohol
(usually methanol) to produce biodiesel. Biodiesel is generally
accepted to be fully blendable with conventional diesel (blending
up to 5e10%), except for certain cases when using high percentage
biodiesel blends or neat biodiesel. In the case of Greece, the use of
biodiesel as an alternative diesel fuel, will improve the environment, reduce imports and increase the use of renewable fuels.
Biodiesel can be produced from various vegetable and/or animal
oils with methanol or ethanol yielding methyl or ethyl ester with
glycerol as by-product.
Nevertheless the production of biodiesel entails emissions to the
environment coming from the use of fertilizers during plantation
phase, and emissions from fuel use during oil extraction, transportation, etc. Thus, the environmental implications of biodiesel
production need to be addressed. LCA can be used for such an
evaluation. The objective of this study is to perform a comparative
analysis of biodiesel produced from rapeseed, and conventional
diesel as well as petrol with the implementation of the LCA
methodology. This comparison has been achieved using the EcoIndicator 99 method (Goedkoop and Priensma, 2001) and it has
addressed the question of whether the production of biodiesel is
Depreciation
Variable cost
Labor cost
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Fig. 1. Costs and revenues from biodiesel production (Agricultural University of Athens, 2000).
0.7
16
Table 2
Properties of fossil fuels and biodiesel (European Commission, 2004).
Fuel
Bioethanol (BE)
Fossil gasoline (FG)
Biodiesel
Fossil diesel (FD)
21.2
31.2
32.8
35.7
1.472
0.679
1.088
0.919
(BE/FG)
(FG/BE)
(BD/FD)
(FD/BD)
Biodiesel
Fossil Fuels
Production of rapeseed
Table 3
Energy used for the production of oilseed rape (Hellenic Department
Ministry of Development, 2004; MEET Project, 1997; Jossart et al., 2005).
Rapeseed (kg/ha)
Energy consumed (MJ/kg)
N fertilizer
K2O
P2O5
Pesticides
Rapeseed produced
110,3
144
74
74
2.2
1,300
Table 4
Mass and energy balance of biodiesel production (Jossart et al., 2005).
Drying
Extraction
Rening
Esterication
Heat
(MJ/t RME)
Electricity
(kWh/t RME)
Chemicals
(kg/t RME)
By-products
(kg/t RME)
812
2317
162
947
33
106
11
37
e
Hexane:2.7
e
Methanol: 109
e
Meal: 1582
e
Glycerin: 100
Impact assessment
Interpretation
The goal of this study is to evaluate the environmental performance of biodiesel, based on a life cycle perspective. The assessment includes the extraction of primary raw materials as well as
the combustion of the fuels in the car engine. The system boundaries do not include the production of capital goods, risks and
human labor. Final transportation to the fuel station is not
considered, since the average distance as well as the means of
transportation are assumed to be the same for all the fuels. Greece
is considered to be the geographical reference area for the fuels life
cycle. As far as the functional unit is concerned, this is dened in the
ISO standard as a quantied performance of a product system for
use as a reference unit in a life cycle assessment. In this study,
100 km e covered with a middle size and recent car e is chosen as
the functional unit. Life Cycle Assessment is conducted using the
Eco-Indicator 99 method, in the hierchist perspective.
Biodiesel is assumed to be rapeseed methyl ester (RME), which
is produced by transesterication of rapeseed oil (Van Gerpen,
2005). Based on Fig. 2, which presents the life cycle of biodiesel
and the fossil fuels, it is seen that the rst stage in the biodiesel
chain concerns the cultivation of the rapeseed grains. After the
growth and harvest of plants, the grains are dried and then oil is
extracted in two steps, followed by an extraction with an organic
solvent (hexane). The solvent is separated and recycled, while
a small quantity is lost (emission to air). Oil and rapeseed meal are
generated. Transesterication of the oil produces methyl esters
(biodiesel) and glycerol, which is puried and then used in chemical industry.
The production of the fertilizers and pesticides, soils emissions
of N2O, the consumption and emissions of the tractors (fertilizing,
Refinery
Biodiesel Distribution
Table 5
Energetic consumption and exhaust emissions of vehicles (US Environmental
Protection Agency, 2002; United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005).
Biodiesel Vehicle
Transportation Service
Petrol
Diesel
Biodiesel
223.5
16.6
2.4
0.129
10.2
0.5
2.53
183.1
13.4
7.6
0.0645
25.6
3.56
9.59
183.1
0.74
7.6
0.0645
28.2
1.89
3.17
17
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Organic
respiratory
effects
Inorganic
respiratory
effects
Petrol
Diesel
Biodiesel
tillage, sowing, harvesting, and transport) as well as the valorization of by-products are taken into consideration. These data are
listed in Table 3 (Hellenic Department Ministry of Development,
2004; MEET Project, 1997; Jossart et al., 2005). All the transportation steps are taken into consideration. Table 4 presents the
energetic and chemical consumptions of the rapeseed processes
(Jossart et al., 2005). As far as the nal use is concerned, it is noted
that the exhaust emissions and fuel consumptions of the vehicles
were calculated on the basis of those of the fossil fuel vehicles. It is
assumed that the efciencies of the motors (in MJ/km) and the
greenhouse gas emissions (g/km) e with the exception of fossil
carbon dioxide e to be the same for the biodiesel and the fossil fuels
(Joint Research Center, 2006; Institute for Energy and
Environmental Research (IFEU), 2004). According to EPA (US
Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the use of biodiesel
leads to a decrease of the emissions of particulates (47%) and VOC
(67%), but also to an increase of NOx emissions (10%). Based on these
gures and the emissions of fossil fuels, the emissions of a middle
sized car running on biodiesel were calculated (Table 5).
Finally, the life cycle of gasoline and diesel is established using
the SimaPro 5.0 Pre: Simapro databases. Greenhouse gases emissions as well as fuel consumptions data came from the comparison
of literature sources (Joint Research Center, 2006; Institute for
Energy and Environmental Research (IFEU), 2004). Calculations
concerning NOx, VOC and particulate emissions from the car are
based on the Annual certication test results, 2005, of the US
Environmental Protection Agency (United States Environmental
4. Environmental impacts
The biofuels environmental impact depends on different factors.
The raw materials used to obtain the biofuels, the different
production processes and the nal use can determine the environmental balance of biofuels introduction. Biofuels supply chain
follows the typical approach of biomass production, biofuel processing, distribution and consumption. Several climatology factors
(type of soil, weather etc.) have a strong inuence on environmental impact. Additionally, other signicant factors are the past
land-use, the production or not of by-products, the technological
process path as well as the relative use of the end fuel either in
a mixed or in a pure mode.
Comparative LCA has been carried out for biodiesel, gasoline and
diesel. The results on fossil energy use and GHG emissions along
the whole chain show the environmental benets of biodiesel use
in Greece. Environmental impacts associated with air emissions
and fossil fuel usage are shown in Fig. 3, where the environmental
proles of the three automotive fuels are compared for the different
impact categories taken into account in this study. The environmental impacts taken into consideration include: organic respiratory effects, inorganic respiratory effects, fossil fuels, acidication e
30
1,2
25
Eco-score
1
0,8
20
0,6
15
0,4
10
0,2
5
0
Petrol
Health
Diesel
Ecosystem quality
Biodiesel
Resources
0
CO
CH4
NOx
N2O
BIODIESEL
PM10
PMunsp.
SOx
CO2
DIESEL
18
Number of vehicles
Passenger cars
Taxi
4,269,569
33,560
Buses
Private use
Public use
11,760
15,069
1,149,988
36,495
Motorbikes
Total
1,124,172
6,640,613
References
5. Discussion
The results of the present study can be used as an input to the
strategic decision-making process for future transport energy
policy and also to identify key areas of interest for further technology research and development of the Greek transport system.
Biofuels Life Cycle Analysis can be considered as a valuable tool,
offering exibility to the system parameterization and to the integrated evaluation of their environmental impacts and their
performance in general. Furthermore, it can be a useful tool in the
process of strategic and integrated transportation planning, since it
takes into account environmental, technical and cost considerations. It is obvious that the use of LCA can result in a shift of the
way planners make strategic and operational decisions, through
being more effective in identifying improvement opportunities that
may not have been previously obvious.
Taken into consideration the fact that the biodiesel is suitable for
use in standard compression-ignition (diesel) engines designed to
operate on petroleum-based diesel fuel, it is obvious that it can be
easily used in existing diesel engines either in its pure form (B100)
or in virtually any blend ratio with conventional diesel fuels.
Furthermore, as presented in Fig. 5 the use of diesel is characterized
by a signicant increase of all types of emissions, in comparison with
those associated with biodiesel. Additionally, biodiesel can be
strongly promoted through captive and private eets (bus, taxi, car
driver, municipal eets etc.). Table 6 gives the general picture
19
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