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Book No:

IR PART 66 CAT A M7

Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training Ltd
Cwmbran S. Wales

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Lufthansa 1995

Maintenance Practices
IR PART 66 CAT A M7

Training Manual
Fundamentals

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manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
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For training purposes and internal use only.

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

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M7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Page: 2

M7.1 (Cat A)

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M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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S 8. Always read and adhere to safety notices. Safety precautions can be


found throughout the AMM and also on notice boards. If you suspect a
safety issue exists dont ignore it, report it either to your quality personnel or
a senior engineer. Some airlines have confidential feedback forms you can
fill in if you wish to remain anonymous.
S 9. Never indulge in horseplay as this can result in serious injury occurring to
yourself or a colleague.
S 10. If in doubt check. Never carry out a maintenance task if you are unqualified or unsure how to do it.

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It is important that an engineer does not endager themself or those around


them as a result of their actions. This is a requirement in the UK under the
Health and Safety at work act 1974, which deals with employers and employees responsibilities towards health, safety and welfare of personnel within
an organization. The act is a legal document and failure to observe its contents
can result in both fines and/or imprisonment.
Most personal safety precautions should be common sense, however, every
year people suffer serious injury or death in the workplace because people
accidentally or deliberately fail to observe simple personal safety precautions.
Some of the basic precautions are listed below:
S 1. Never carry matches, lighters or other sources of ignition onto an aircraft.
S 2. Never carry loose articles onto an aircraft, unless they are related to a
work task you are carrying out. In this case ensure that only the correct
amount of articles required for the job are taken to the aircraft and that they
are tightly controlled.
S 3. Always wear the correct protective clothing. It is the Employers responsibility to provide protective clothing, but it is the individuals responsibility to
use it correctly. In addition to this, wearing of jewellery such as rings is not
recommended as if the jewellery catches it could accidentally amputate a
finger. Other precautions include not wearing metal studded footwear as
they may generate sparks and avoid wearing loose clothing, such as ties,
when working with machine tools.
S 4. Always use barrier creams to protect your hands. This will protect your
skin from harmful substances such as oils or greases, which can cause
sensitisation or even dermatitis after prolonged exposure. After work thoroughly wash you hands and apply a refatting cream to prevent skin from
drying out.
S 5. Keep work areas clean and tidy. Not only will this reduce the risk of FOD,
but it will also reduce slip and trip hazards. Employ walkboards to place over
trailing cables
S 6. Ensure good tool control is maintained at all times. Account for all your
tools at the end of each working day.
S 7. Never work on aircraft if you suspect you are under the influence of
drugs or alcohol, or if you unfit for work due to being over tired.

PERSONAL SAFETY

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Reinforced
footwear

Eye
protection

Close-fitting
high-buttoned
overalls

Figure 1

Insulated
soles

Cuffless
trousers

No rings
or watch

Closefitting
cuffs

Ear protection
Tidy hair style

Workshop and Hangar Safety

SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

Keep workplace
safe, efficient
and tidy

UNSAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

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Head protection

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

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M7.1 (Cat A)

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IN ORDER TO PREVENT POSSIBLE SPARKING DUE TO


DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL POTENTIALS THE FOLLOWING
PROCEDURE SHOULD BE ADOPTED WHEN BONDING
AIRCRAFT AND REFUELLING VEHICLES. FIRSTLY ENSURE THAT BOTH THE REFUELLING VEHICLE AND THE
AIRCRAFT ARE GROUNDED, THEN BOND THE REFUELLING VEHICLE TO THE AIRCRAFT BEFORE CONNECTING
THE REFUELLING HOSE TO THE AIRCRAFT. WHEN DISCONNECTING, THE HOSE SHOULD BE DISCONNECTED
PRIOR TO REMOVING THE BONDING LEAD

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Working in fuel tanks


Before work is carried out on fuel tanks they should be drained and purged.
Where work has to be carried out in fuel tanks a fuel resistant coverall should
be worn along with suitable breathing apparatus. In addition a safety lookout,
who has contact with the person working in the tank should be positioned outside the tank.

Fuel spillages
Clear up all fuel using suitable equipment. If a major spill occurs, try to stop the
fuelling operation, or cause of the leak. Evacuate personnel, call the fire service. Where possible stop the fuel from entering any drains and waterways
using bunds, absorbent materials or emulsion compounds. All contaminated
material should be disposed of in accordance with local regulations. All spills
that enter drains and waterways should be reported to the local authorities.

CAUTION:

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Precautions when refuelling aircraft


The following precautions should be observed when refuelling aircraft in order
to minimize the risk of fire
No Smoking signs should be displayed at a minimum distance of 15m (50)
from fuelling equipment and aircraft tank vents.
A Fuelling Zone a MINIMUM of 6m (20) from filling/venting points on both
aircraft and fuelling equipment should be established prior to fuelling/defuelling
operations. Within this zone
S no electrical system should be switched on or off, and only those circuits
necessary for the operation should be on.
S Strobe lighting must not be on.
S There must be no use of naked lights. This includes the engines of equipment/vehicles unless they have been designed for that purpose.
S If necessary for the refuelling/defuelling operation, an APU (Auxiliary Power
Unit) must be started prior to filler caps being removed or connections
made.
S GPUs (Ground Power Units) should be as far as practicable from aircraft
fuelling points and vents.
S Fire extinguishers should be at hand.
S The aircraft should be earthed and bonded to fuelling equipment.
S After the fuelling operation, bonding should not be removed until hoses have
been disconnected and filler caps refitted.
S Ground equipment must be moved away from the aircraft to prevent damage as the aircraft settles due to its increased weight.
S Fuel bowsers will normally position themselves facing away from the aircraft
being refuelled, for rapid emergency evacuation. A clear exit must be maintained.
S Aircraft engines must not be operated.
S People and vehicles within the fuelling zone must be kept to a minimum.
S Fuelling is suspended during electrical storms in the vicinity.

FIRE-- GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
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Figure 2

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone

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M7.1 (Cat A)

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CAUTION:

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IR PART 66

Page: 7

IF YOU SUSPECT A PERSON HAS RECEIVED AN ELECTRIC SHOCK AND REQUIRES FIRST AID: ENSURE THAT
THE PERSON IS NO LONGER IN CONTACT WITH THE ELECTRICAL SUPPLY. YOU MAY NEED TO CONSIDER
SWITCHING OFF THE POWER SUPPLY AT THE SOCKET
OR AT THE CIRCUIT BREAKER BOX. NEVER TOUCH THE
VICTIM UNTIL YOU ARE SURE THEY ARE UNPLUGGED.

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Working with electricity


When working with electricity it is important to take all safety precautions in
order to ensure that serious injury and death are avoided. It is not the voltage
of an electrical circuit that will kill a person, but the current. A current of as little
as 0.1 Amp can be fatal!
The following is a list of safety precautions that should be used as appropriate
when working on aircraft electrical systems:
S Ensure that external electrical power has been switched off.
S Disconnect the aircraft battery.
S Place warning signs at external power receptacles of the aircraft, advising
personnel not to apply power.
S Pull and tag all relevant CBs prior to work and ensure they are reset afterwards.
S Prior to applying power, ensure all switches are in the correct position for
the system they relate to.
S General workshop and aircraft safety precautions include:
S
S Never handle or operate electrical equipment when you have either wet
hands, feet or are stood in a wet area.
S When working on aircraft the use of electrical power tools should be
avoided. Instead Pneumatic tools are preferable whenever they are available.
S Do not allow electrical wires and cables to dangle over sharp edges.
S Always ensure that electrical cables are not frayed, and that they have undamaged insulation.
S Never trail electrical wires through oil, water or other liquids
S All equipment should have a suitable plug fitted and be either earthed, or
where necessary, double insulated.
S Electrical equipment needs to be checked regularly and a serviceable label
attached with the most recent test date appended.
S Only use approved and specially designed explosion proof electrical equipment in hazardous areas such as fuel tanks.
S

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0.1AMP
to
0.2AMP

May 2004

Figure 3

REACTION OF BODY TO 100 VOLTS

0.001AMP
to
0.008AMP

MAY CAUSE
0.012AMP
MUSCULAR
to
CONTRACTION 0.02AMP

MAY CAUSE
SOME
SENSATION

PATH OF
CURRENT

Insulated
mat

Work with
one hand
in pocket

Insulated
soles

TAKE PRECAUTIONS WHEN


WORKING ON LIVE EQUIPMENT

Working with Electricity

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EARTH (0 VOLTS)

ELECTRIC SHOCK

WILL CAUSE
DEATH

240 VOLTS

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WORKSHOP

Page: 8

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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Compressed air in the workshop


Compressed air is used in the workshop to provide operating pressure for
pneumatic tools. The air is generally supplied at an operating pressure of approximately 80psi.
When using compressed air supplies the following safety precautions must be
adhered to:
S Never point compressed air guns at people.
S Never direct compressed air into skin, this can result in air entering the
blood stream and may result in death.
S Never fool around with compressed air supplies.
S Always ensure that air hoses are in good condition and that the end fittings
are correctly attached.
S Always disconnect compressed air supplies when not in use.

Charging systems with compressed gases.


Prior to charging systems with compressed gas purge the hose on the gas
bottles as this will discharge contaminants to atmosphere rather than into aircraft systems.
When charging aircraft systems ensure all connections are tight and increase
the pressure in slow increments to ensure that the gas does not become hot
and consequently give incorrect gauge readings. Always check that pressure
gauges are within their calibration date this can be found on the calibration
label due date. Finally only charge to the pressure stated in the AMM or relevant technical documentation.

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 9

Oxygen
Oxygen is one of the three requirements for combustion to occur. It is therefore
a very hazardous substance that can cause fire and explosion if mis-used.
In order to avoid the risk of fire or explosion the following precautions should be
observed:
S Avoid oxygen coming into contact with oils and greases. Oxygen can cause
oil and grease to spontaneously combust without the application of heat,
therefore the use of oils and greases in oxygen systems is strictly forbidden.
S Smoking immediately after working with oxygen systems should be avoided
as clothing can absorb oxygen and the naked flame from a lighter or cigarette can then ignite the clothing.
S Ensure correct tooling only is used on oxygen systems. Normal tooling can
cause sparks and should not be used.
S Sparks due to static electricity can ignite oxygen and so aircraft should be
correctly bonded and earthed before working on oxygen systems.
S If tooling such as gauges need lubricating, only approved lubricants can be
used e.g. PTFE tape conforming to MIL SPEC T-27730.
S Leak tests on oxygen systems should only use presscribed oil free solutions.
S Before charging breathing oxygen systems on aircraft the oxygen should be
smelt to ensure it is not contaminated. Charging of oxygen systems should
be accomplished in accordance with the relevant AMM.

S Always disconnect compressed air supply to a power tool before replacing


expendable components such as drill bits as this will prevent inadvertant
operation of the tool.

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Working with compressed gases


Compressed gases provide a number of potential dangers to personnel and as
such should always be treated with extreme caution.
Due to their very nature of being compressed in storage containers, gases contain extremely high levels of stored kinetic energy (rather like a compressed
spring stores energy), if this energy is allowed to escape in an uncontrolled
manner from its container, then it may cause the container to explosively decompress and rupture. For this reason containers used for storing compressed
gases are lifed and must be within test dates when used.
When not in use, compressed gas bottle should have protective caps fitted to
protect integral valve assemblies.

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Figure 4

Page: 10

Subsequent investigations revealed that the maximum pressure at the nozzle


with the valve turned fully open was about 351 lbs, but the actual pressure at
the time of the accident was much less - probably only a third.

The man was operated upon and blood transfusions given, but he died three
days after being injured.

employees in a carpenters shop were using a compressed air hose to remove


sawdust from their clothing.
One man was seen to push the hose between the legs of a fellow-- worker
from behind and the man sustained the following injuries:
SBruising and bleeding in the area of the rectum;
SShock;
SAir through tissues over abdomen, chest and neck;
SHernia canals in the groin ballooned with air;
SAbdomen filled with air;
SLower bowel torn open in three places, the longest tear being four
inches;
SAbdominal cavity filled with bowel material from lower bowel,
also contained much fluid and blood; and
SLining of abdominal cavity torn in several places.

Safety With Compressed Air

A South Wales man told how he thought he was going to die after one of his
colleagues directed compressed air from an air line up his rectum in an act of
horseplay.
Craig Warburton, of Cefn Hengoed, is accused of assault occasioning actual
bodily harm on Philip Morgan at work in January last year.
Mr Morgan told a jury at Cardiff Crown Court how he felt severe pain and a
bubbling in his stomach before passing out.
I thought I was going to die, he told the court, I thought my insides were
going to come away from me.
Mr Morgan told how employees at the factory, Conservatory Roof Systems of
Caerphilly, often used to engage in acts of horseplay during quiet periods.
There was name calling and bad language. Most of it was directed towards
me.
He said he was often the butt of the practical jokes because he worked in his
own corner of the factory.
I would sometimes retaliate, but the more I fought back, the worse it would be
for me.
He said the workforce often took part in boisterous antics at quiet times, using
reels of tape as Frisbees and firing screws from the compressed air lines.
I was never given any training in the use of the air lines, but I received training
in my previous job, he told the court.
The defendant is alleged to have placed the air line at the seat of Mr Morgans
jeans and released the jet of air, with a pressure of 80 psi.
Mr Morgan needed surgery after the incident and had to use a colostomy bag for
several months before undergoing surgery again to reverse the colostomy.
Warburton admits committing the act, but is denying the charge, claiming that
Mr Morgan was a willing participant in the horseplay.
The case continues.

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

The Royal Society for the Prevention


of Accidents, London, reports a serious case when

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Worker thought he was going to die

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Safety
Personal safety can be enhanced by taking certain sensible precautions.
S Educate yourself about the properties (and any necessary safety precautions to take) of the substance you are dealing with. It is the employers responsibility to provide COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)
sheets, which provide important information for the user. Additionally
information about all oils and chemicals used on aircraft can be found in the
AMM chapter 20--31--00
S Minimise the possibility of combustion by
-- wearing non-steel-tipped footwear
-- not carrying matches or lighters.
S Minimise the effects of fumes by
-- wearing a suitable mask or respirator
-- using a fume cabinet.
S Clean up or contain (and cordon off) spillages promptly.
S Prevent the contraction of dermatitis by
-- applying barrier cream prior to work
-- washing thoroughly after contact with oils and chemicals followed by the
application of re-fatting cream
-- using suitable protective gloves.

Working with oils and chemicals


Oils and chemicals present several personal safety concerns. They can:
S be inflammable
S give off noxious fumes
S present a slip hazard when spilt
S cause skin disease (dermatitis).

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Page: 11

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IR PART 66

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GLOVE BOX

Filter

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Figure 5

Pre-Filter

Work
Surface

Fan

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IR PART 66

VERTICAL FLOW

Pre-Filter

Page: 12

Work
Surface

Super-Interception Filter

CLEAN WORK STATIONS

HORIZONTAL FLOW

Fan

Super-Interception Filter

Clean Work Containers (Fume Cabinets)

Exhaust Grill

Fan

Filter

Fan

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HORIZONTAL FLOW

CLEAN WORK BOXES

Glass Panel

VERTICAL FLOW

Glass Panel

Filter
Glass Panel

Fan

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WORKSHOP

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Individual Lifting
In the engineering industry it is often necessary to lift fairly heavy loads. As a
general rule, loads lifted manually should not exceed 20 kg. Mechanical lifting
equipment should be used for loads in excess of 20 kg. However, even lifting
loads less than 20 kg can cause strain. and lifting loads incorrectly is one of the
major causes of back trouble.
The risk of personal injury and damage to equipment can be reduced by taking
simple precautions before the lifting or handling operations begin. For example,
if the load is obviously too heavy or bulky for one person to handle, you should
ask for assistance.
Even a light load can be dangerous if it obscures your vision. All moveable objects which form hazardous obstructions should be moved to a safe place before movement of the load commences.
As has already been stated, it is important to use the correct lifting technique.
This is because the human spine is not an efficient lifting device. If it is subjected to heavy strain, or incorrect methods of lifting, the lumbar discs may be
damaged causing considerable pain. This is often referred to as a slipped disc
and the damage (and pain) can be permanent.
The correct way to lift a load manually is shown opposite. You should start the
lift in a balanced squatting position with your legs at hip width apart and one
foot slightly ahead of the other. The load to be lifted should be held close to
your body. Make sure that you have a safe and secure grip on the load. Before
taking the weight of the load, your back should be straightened and as near to
the vertical as possible. Keep your head up and your chin drawn in; this helps
to keep your spine straight and rigid.

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 13

Team Lifting
When a lifting party is formed in order to move a particularly large or heavy
load, the team leader is solely responsible for the safe completion of the task.
The team leader should not take part in the actual lifting but should ensure
that:
S Everyone understands what the job involves and the method chosen for its
completion.
S The area is clear of obstructions and that the floor is safe and will provide a
good foothold.
S The members of the lifting party are of similar height and physique, and that
they are wearing any necessary protective clothing.
S Each person should be positioned so that the weight is evenly distributed.
S He or she takes up a position which gives the best all--round view of the
area and will permit the development of any hazardous situation to be seen
so that the appropriate action can be taken in time to prevent an accident.
S Any equipment moved in order to carry out the operation is put back in its
original position when the task has been completed.

To raise the load, first straighten your legs. This ensures that the load is being
raised by your powerful thigh muscles and bones, and not by your back. To
complete the lift, raise the upper part of your body to a vertical position.
To carry the load, keep your body upright and hold the load close to your body.
Wherever possible hold the load so that the bone structure of your body supports the load. If the load has jagged edges, wear protective gloves, and if hazardous liquids are being handled wear the appropriate protective clothing.

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Loads and Safety


In the engineering industry, loads are defined as heavy and cumbersome objects such as machines, large castings and forgings, heavy bar, sheet and
plate materials, etc., which have to be loaded onto vehicles, unloaded from vehicles and moved within the factory itself.
The movement of heavy loads involves careful planning and the anticipation of
potential hazards before they arise. When moving such loads it is important
that you use the correct handling techniques and observe the appropriate
safety precautions and codes of practice at all times.

Manual Handling

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Clear movable
objects

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Straighten
legs to
raise load

Let bone
structure
support load

Team leader positions himself


to ensure appropriate action is
taken to prevent an accident

Keep body
upright and
load close
to body

Individual and Team Lifting

Each person should


be positioned so that
the weight is evenly
distributed

Keep
spine
straight

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Figure 6

Everyone understands
what the job involves

Keep back
straight
and near-vertical

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Wear appropriate
clothing

Page: 14

Rubber or
plastic boots

Rubber or
plastic apron

Rubber or
plastic gloves

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IR PART 66

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Working in Tanks
When fuel tanks have been completely emptied, the fire risk is still present due
to the presence of fuel fumes. Tanks should be thoroughly purged prior to
entering them and ideally continually purged throughout occupation.Station an
assistant outside the tank access to assist in a rescue if necessary.Always use
flameproof torches when working in tanks.

Without any one of these components a frie cant exist. Fire extinguishers work
on the priciples of either excluding oxygen or removing heat from the fire.
Fuel for fires is classified into for groups they are.
S Class A fires which have wood, paper and fabric as fuels
S Class B fires which have petrol oils and lubricants as fuels
S Class C fires which are Electic fires
S Class D fires which have metals as fuels
You will already be aware of the potential fire hazards of working in an environment containing vast amounts of highly flammable fuel, such as that contained
in aircraft.Because fire is a most dangerous threat which will always be with us
the following precautions must be observed:Smoke only in designated areas
set aside for that purpose.Observe and obey No Smoking signs on flight
lines.Do not carry non-safety matches and do not wear steel tips on shoes, as
they can create sparks.When operating petrol engined ground equipment, have
a foam fire extinguisher handy.Flammable liquids like paints and dope should
be kept in an approved store outside the hangar or workshop.If using heat
torches in a workshop (such as blow lamps), the flame should be directed towards fire bricks when not in immediate use.You should find out where fire extinguishers and fire buckets are located in your place of work.

Fire safety
Fires require three components in order to burn.
S Heat
S Fuel
S Oxygen

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Page: 15

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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Figure 7

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WORKSHOP

Types of Fire and Relevant Extinguishers

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Page: 16

M7.1 (Cat A)

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Dry Powder
These extinguishers are most effective on Class B, C and particularly Class D
(metal) fires.
The two types of dry chemical extinguishers include one that contains ordinary
sodium or potassium bicarbonate, urea potassium bicarbonate and potassium
chloride base agents. The second multi--purpose type contains an ammonium
phosphate base. The multi--purpose extinguisher can be used on class A, B,
and C fires.
Most dry chemical extinguishers use stored pressure to discharge the agent,
and the fire is extinguished mainly by the interruption of the combustion chain
reaction.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide extinguishers work by excluding oxygen from a fire, as well as
rapidly cooling it.
It is suitable to extinguish Class B fires, and because carbon dioxide is not
electrically conductive, can also be used on Class C fires.

M7.1 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 17

Foam
Foam fire extinguishers use an aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) agent that
expels a layer of foam when it is discharged through a nozzle onto the surface
of a burning liquid, starving a fire of oxygen. They also have a cooling action
with a wider extinguishing application than water on solid combustible materials, and are therefore suitable for Class A and B fires.
Firefighters spray a foam blanket onto runways when aircraft land wheels-up
to suppress sparks as the aircraft slides along.
AFFF, known asTridol, is a synthetic foam concentrate containing detergent
and fluorocarbon surfactant that forms a foam capable of producing a vapour-suppressing aqueous film on the surface of some hydrocarbon fuels. It provides rapid flame knockdown on short preburn, shallow spill fires (eg aircraft
crash fires), but is not suited for use on long preburn, deep--seated fires (eg
storage tank fires).
Developed in the 1960s, AFFF is today largely replaced by the more sophisticated FFFP, known as Petroseal, a natural protein--based foam concentrate
containing fluorocarbon surfactants that forms a foam capable of producing a
vapour--suppressing aqueous film on the surface of hydrocarbon fuels. It was
developed in the 1980s.

Halogenated Hydrocarbon
The most common fire extinguishing agent for aircraft cabin fires is Halon, a
liquefied, compressed gas that stops the spread of fire by chemically disrupting
combustion. It is most effective on Class B and C fires. It can be used on Class
A and D, but is not as effective.
While the production of Halon ceased on January 1, 1994 under the Clean Air
Act, it is still legal to purchase and use recycled Halon and Halon fire extinguishers. In fact, the FAA requires all commercial aircraft to exclusively use
halon.
Halon 1211 and 1301 or Halon Blend are liquefied compressed gasses which
stop the spread of fire by chemically interrupting combustion. Halons are
odourless, colourless, electrically nonconductive, leave no residue after use
and are people safe.
The Halon blend is far superior to the 1211 Halon propelled by nitrogen because it generates its own pressure so that it does not change even if the extinguisher is almost empty.
Halon 1211 is Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF).
Halon 1301 is Bromotrifluoromethane.

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Water
Water extinguishers work by cooling the fire below its kindling temperature.
They should only be used for Class A fires, where electricity and chemicals are
not present. Indeed, using water on a Class D fire can intensify the fire.
The water is pressurised and propelled from the extinguisher by air or carbon
dioxide.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

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Aircraft recovery
A report will need to be written on the incident. One of the reports aims will be
to recommend actions to prevent a recurrence of the incident.
Depending on the severity of the damage the CAA and manufacturers may be
required.
If damage is within limits stated in AMM/SRM the the aircraft can be repaired
and returned to service.
All accidents/incidents involving aircraft need to be reported to the Aircraft
Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB). This must be a written report, but a 24
hour hotline is also available

Aircraft/ engine fires


In the event of an Aircraft/Engine fire
S Where possible shut down all systems. Fuel, Engine, Electrical and
Hydraulic
S Call emergency services, try to tackle the blaze.
S Organize First Aid and call for medical assistance.
S Remove all equipment from the area.
S Give technical assistance to fire service.
S After fire is extinguished; recover aircraft

Fire in a building
If the fire is small and an appropriate extinguisher is available it may be
possible to try and put the fire out, but only if it is safe to do so. At the same
time the local emergency services should be called (999 in the UK) on the
appropriate number. Note that some airfields will have their own emergency
numbers.
If the fire can not be extinguished then the building should be evacuated,
remembering to close all fire doors and where possible, hangar doors.

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

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Notify fire brigade

Sound alarm

Close door to confine fire

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

Figure 8

Fighting Fires

If fire cannot be controlled, evacuate

If safe to do so, fight fire

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M 7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Precision measuring and test equipment must, by definition, be accurate.

TOOL CALIBRATION

Personal Tools
All personal tools should be marked by the individual so that they are traceable
to him.

Tool Stores
Tool stores will often have a system in place whereby all tools on loan to a
tradesman will be accounted for by tagging. A tool tag (or tally) belonging to
the tradesman will be exchanged for the tool and placed on the spot vacated by
the tool (tools are often held on shadow boards for easy checking). In this
way, it can be quickly established that a tool is missing from the store and who
booked it out.
This is to prevent the theft of tools, but also (and more importantly) to minimise
the chance of the tool being left in the aircraft, becoming a potential
loose-article hazard.

As stated in the previous section, FOD is preventable.


Tool control must be stringently applied by the tradesman, and the work area
diligently checked for any tools or FOD at the end of a job or work-shift.

TOOL CONTROL

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Safety in the aircraft business is judged to be of the utmost importance.


Lives depend on the aircraft performing as designed, transporting people and
cargo safely from A to B.
As an engineer, maintaining peoples confidence in this safe performance starts
with your attitude to your work.
There can be no half-measures with aircraft maintenance and repair procedures are developed precisely so that servicing is carried out correctly
and safely and must not be deviated from without express permission or
concession from the designers.
It is vital that the aircraft engineer applies the highest standards of
workmanship at all times.
The aircraft engineer is constantly under pressure to complete work quickly.
Always remember that there is always time to do the job properly. Do it wrong
and you may not have anything to correct.
Would you be happy and confident to fly on an aircraft that you have worked
on?

STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP

Use of Precision Measuring and Test Equipment


When using precision measuring and test equipment, ensure that a calibration
certificate accompanies the tool and that it is within its calibration due-date. If
desired, record the equipments details and calibration information on the job
card.

To be able to rely on the equipments accuracy, it must itself be checked


(calibrated) periodically.
Standards for calibration are laid down by the authorities, and companies
performing the calibration must meet exacting criteria.
Equipment in what is considered normal use will be subject to annual
calibration, but frequent-use equipment will be calibrated more frequently.

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A good tradesman looks after his tools.


Good tools are expensive and should be treated with respect. They will let you
down only if neglected.
If they fall into disrepair, they lose their effectiveness and are potentially
dangerous.
Always keep tools in a serviceable condition:
S Lubricate them regularly to prevent corrosion and seizing up.
S Inspect them before use for any damage (cracks, splits, rounding-off of
edges, bluntness etc).
Damaged tools beyond repair should be destroyed. The temptation is always to
keep them for use as specially-adapted tools, but there is invariably a tool
manufactured and available for the job, so resist the temptation.

TOOL HUSBANDRY

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Figure 9

Tool Control

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Storage
Aircraft supplies should be stored in clean, well-ventilated premises maintained
at an even dry temperature to minimise the effects of condensation. Very often,
the manufacturer will specify the ideal conditions.
All materials of a flammable nature (dope, thinners, paint and other solvents)
should be stored in an area isolated from main buildings.
Items that can adversely affect other items should be segregated:
S acid should not be placed whereby its fumes may affect raw materials or
finished parts
S phenolic plastics should be segregated from cadmium-plated steel parts
S magnesium alloys should not be stored with flammable materials.

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Environment
Take care of your environment. Dispose of waste according to local instructions
in approved containers. Recycling should always be encouraged.

Care
Care should be taken with all material used in the workshop.
Scratches in metal surfaces are stress-raisers that can initiate cracks or
corrosion.

Identification
All materials in storage should have sufficient information attached to them to
provide an audit trail, ie they can be identified to a manufacturers batch.
Sheet aluminium alloy is normally stamped with the relevant information in one
corner, whilst sheet steels usually have a stamped tally attached to one corner.
This information should be copied to work documents.

Stock should remain in its delivery packaging as long as is practicable.


Materials in long lengths (extrusions, tubes, bars etc) should be stored
vertically, thereby reducing the risk of bowing and handling damage.
All pipe and hose assemblies should be stored with their ends blanked to
prevent ingress of dirt. Hoses should be uncoiled.
Tyres should be stored vertically in special racks embodying tubes that ensure
each tyre is supported at two points, reducing distortion to a minimum. They
should be rotated every two or three months and any delivery wrapping should
be kept in place.
Sheet metal should be stored on edge in racks clear of the floor with transport
protection (grease, paper or plastic coating) left in place. Flat stacking is not
recommended to minimise scratching.
Metal bars and tubing should be stored in racks either horizontally
(well-supported along their length) or vertically.
Fasteners (nuts, bolts, rivets etc) should be kept in their delivery packaging
(with their identification labels) as long as possible prior to use. This is a safety
issue; it reduces the possibility of an incorrect item being fitted if it is clearly
identified.

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Safety
Workshops, by their very nature, contain a variety of items that may
S be heavy
S be sharp
S be toxic
S give off noxious fumes
S deliver electric shocks
S burn
S irritate the eyes etc.
The list is seemingly endless, but it is important to
S recognise that workshops are potentially dangerous places
S know how to minimise the risks.
Personal protective apparel has been covered in the previous section, but it is
also important to look after the materials themselves.
The correct handling of materials, especially the high strength aluminium
alloys, is of extreme importance. Great care is necessary during loading and
unloading and storage at the consignees works to ensure that the material is
not damaged by chafing, scratching, bruising or indentation, and that it is not
excessively strained by bending, otherwise the mechanical properties of the
material may be seriously affected. Heavy forgings, extrusions and castings
should be carried and stored singly, ensuring that there is adequate support to
maintain the material in its intended shape without strain.

USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS

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Figure 10

Typical Equipment Stores

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Introduction
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, temperature,
pressure etc., it is necessary to be familiar with the accepted methods tor
measuring these values and the units used to express them.
Through the ages, human beings have devised many methods for measuring.
However, it would be impossible to cover even a small part of the information
accumulated over these several thousand years.
Measurements used today in aviation are the English (Imperial) system and the
SI (metric) system.
SI is the abbreviation for the Systme International dUnits, the modernized
version of the metric system that the USA and other nations have agreed to
use.

GENERAL

DIMENSIONS, ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES

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Figure 11

Measurement Examples

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Dimensional Tolerances
A general tolerance is usually given for all dimensions on a drawing and is
stated in a printed box on the drawing. When the general tolerance is not appropriate, an individual tolerance may be given to a dimension. As shown
below, tolerances may be expressed by:-S quoting the upper and lower limits, or
S quoting the nominal dimension and the limits of tolerance above and below
that dimension.

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Allowance
Parts that have a maximum and minimum allowable size are still considered
acceptable if their size falls within the range given.
The difference between the nominal dimension and the upper or lower limit is
called the allowance. For example, if a dimension is depicted as .3125 inches
+/- .0005, the allowable dimensions are between .3120 and .3130 inches.

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Measurement of Dimensions
Measuring of material and machined subjects involves the use of measuring
tools to determine sizes of length, width, thickness, diameters etc.

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Thickness

Width

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Figure 12

Length

Measurement Of Dimensions

Diameter

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English System
The majority of people in English--speaking countries are familiar with the English unit system. Its units of length, time and weight are the inch, second and
pound. Therefore the complete documentation of Boeing aircraft uses the English unit system.
Airbus documentation uses both Imperial and metric units.

Metric System
The International System of Units, known as the SI system, had its origin when
the metre was selected as the unit of length and the kilogram as the unit of
mass. These units were created by the National Academy of Science and
adopted by the National Assembly of France in 1795.
The United States Congress legalised the use of the metric system throughout
the United States on July 28, 1866, but it was not until December 23, 1975 that
the metric Bill was signed into law in the United States to convert all measurements into the metric system.
One of the great advantages of the metric system is the fact that it is built on
decimal units. Each basic unit may be multiplied or divided by ten as many
times as it is necessary to get a convenient size. Each of these multiples has a
definite prefix, symbol and name.

MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM

Di

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Figure 13

Number Prefix Table

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= 9/5 (0C + 32)


= 5/9 (0F -- 32)

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2. ?0F
= 270C
27 x 9/5 + 32 = 270C
80.60F
= 270C

Conversion Examples
1. ?0C
= 630F
5/9 (63--32)
= 630F
5/9 x 31
= 630F
17.20C
= 630F

0C

0F

Fahrenheit / Celsius Conversion


To convert one type of scale to the other we use the following formula:

Water boils
1000C
Ice melts
00C
Absolute zero --2730C

Celsius unit
In the metric system the temperatures are given in degrees Celsius.

Water boils
2120F
Ice melts
320F
Absolute zero --4600F

Fahrenheit Unit
In the English / American unit system all temperatures are given in degrees
Fahrenheit.

Temperature Unit
Temperature is the degree of heat or cold measurable in a body. The measurement is accomplished with a thermometer and the value is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

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Boeing Dimensioning System


All linear dimensions on Boeing drawings are in inches and decimal fractions,
enabling the designers to clearly specify the degree of accuracy required for a
given dimension.
The Boeing system of dimensioning, the decimal system, is in units of tens,
hundredths, thousandths, ten thousandths (1s, 10s, 100s, 1,000s, 10,000s)
and so on.
Each unit, when multiplied by ten, falls into the category of the next larger unit
or, when divided by ten, into the next lower unit. Decimal fractions may seem
rather difficult at first, but in reality they are much simpler than common fractions.
Decimal fractions work in units of ten, the same as whole numbers. However,
decimal fractions are always on the right side of the decimal point. Whenever
numbers follow the decimal point, they represent measurements smaller than
one inch.
The first number after the decimal point is in tenths of an inch. There are ten
tenths in an inch.
The second number after the decimal point is in hundredths of an inch. Since
the second number in 0.12 falls into the hundredths category, the entire dimension must be read in hundredths; that is, twelve one hundredths of an inch.
A dimension is read in terms of the smallest unit shown; therefore 0.0015 is
read as fifteen ten thousandths of an inch, or one and one--half thousandths.

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English Length System


Originally the units inch, foot, yard and mile were not exact multiples or factors
of one another, but for the sake of convenience the foot was made equal to 12
in, the yard was made 3 ft and the mile was made 5,280 ft or 1,760 yds.
It is said that the inch was the width of a thumb, the foot was the length of a
human foot and the yard was the distance from the tip of the nose to the tip of
the thumb when the arm was extended to the side with the thumb pointing forward and the head faced forward.
The mile was originated by the Romans and represented 1,000 paces, each
pace being two steps (or 5 ft). This distance was later changed to 5280 ft,
which is the present statute mile in both Great Britain and the United States.
The nautical mile, used internationally for navigation, is based on 1/60 of one
degree of the earths circumference at the equator. It is approximately 6,080 ft,
or 1,853.2m.
Many other units of length measurement have been used in various countries
including the rod, fathom and league. All these units were established to meet
particular needs within different areas.
Because of the increase in travel, international commerce and scientific exchanges, there was a need for the standardisation of measurements. This has
taken place through the use of the metric system.

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1 INCH

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Figure 14

English Length System

YARD

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One metre is equal to 39.37 in, which is a little longer than the U.S. yard. Thus
1 decimetre (dm) is equal to 3.937 in. In practice the units of length most commonly used are the millimetre, the centimetre, the metre and the kilometre.

10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
10 decimetres = 1 metre
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre

Metric Length System


The basic unit of measurement in the metric system is the metre.
The length of a metre is based on a distance equal to one ten--millionth of the
distance from the equator to the poles measured along a meridian, the meridian being the shortest distance along the earths surface and at right angles to
the equator. This distance is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelength of the orange-red light of excited krypton of mass number 86. Thus we see that the metre is
based on a sound reference that will always be approximately the same.
In order to provide an exact reference metre for scientific purposes, a bar of
platinum--iridium was inscribed with two lines exactly 1m apart at the freezing
point of water (320Fahrenheit (F) or 0_Celsius (C)). The International Metre bar
is kept at the Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. Copies of this bar
have been made and are kept in depositories in all the principal nations. In the
metric system, all measurements of length are either multiples or sub-divisions
of the metre based on multiples of 10.
The following table shows how the units of length are related:

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Figure 15

Metric System

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1 in = 25.4 mm

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= 3.968 mm

= 7.92 mm

5/32 in

0.312 in = 25.4 x 0.312

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= 4.826 mm

= 9.525 mm

3/8 in

0.190 in =

= 7.935 mm

5/16 in

= 4.038 mm

= 4.76 mm

3/16 in = 25.4 16 x 3

0.159 in = 25,4 x 0.159

= 3.18 mm

1/8 in =25,4 8

= 29.21 mm

= 6.35 mm

1/4 in = 25.4 4

1.15 in = 25.4 x 1.15

= 12.7 mm

1/2 in = 25.4 2

Conversion Examples

So for sheet metal work it is essential to know the conversion between metres
and inches because all hole sizes, material gauges, all dimensions etc. are
given in inches and often need to be converted to the metric system.

Unit Conversion
P!ease remember:

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13/64

11/64

9/64

7/64

5/64

3/64

1/64

Figure 16

7/32

5/32

3/32

1/32

Inches
0.379
0.794
1.191
1.588
1.985
2.381
2.778
3.175
3.572
3.969
4.366
4.762
5.159
5.556

Millimeter
Equivalent

Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches

3/16

1/8

1/16

0.0156
0.0313
0.0469
0.0625
0.0781
0.0938
0.1094
0.1250
0.1406
0.1563
0.1719
0.1875
0.2031
0.2188

Decimal
Equivalent

DECIMAL AND METRIC EQUIVALENT OF INCHES

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General
Steel scales or steel rules are found in almost all toolkits in both 6-- and 12-inch
lengths. They are used for sheet metal layout and for making measurements
where the accuracy of a vernier or a micrometer is not needed.
Theses scales are made of either tempered carbon steel or of satin--finished
stainless steel. They may be graduated in either the fraction or the decimal
system of English or in metric measurements, with some scales having graduations in both systems.
Fractionally graduated scales usually have one scale divided in increments of
1/32 inch and the other in 1/64 inch increments.
Decimal scales have one scale in 1/10 or 1/50 of an inch and the other scale in
increments of 1/1,000 inch.
Metric graduations are in centimetres and millimetres.
Scales are available in both the flexible form (about 0.015 inch thick) and the
rigid form (about 0.040 inch thick).

RULES AND SCALES

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Figure 17

Flexible Scales

6 INCH FLEXIBLE SCALE

12 INCH FLEXIBLE SCALE (CHESTERMAN)

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Scale Handling
When taking measurements with a scale, it should be so held that the graduation lines are as close as possible to the face. The eye which is observing the
reading should be as near as possible opposite to the mark being read, to minimise the possibility of parallax error.

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Figure 18

Scale Handling

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Flexible Steel Tape


The flexible steel tape is a very useful instrument for taking measurements up
to several feet.
The steel tape is equipped with a hook on one end so that it will hold onto a
corner or ledge, thus making it possible for the rule to be used by one individual. The hook is attached to the tape with rivets and is slotted to allow it to
move slightly to account for its thickness in calculations.
Most steel tapes are graduated in English and metric measurements.

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Figure 19

Flexible Steel Tape

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Set Square
The set square is the most common tool for testing squareness.
When using the square, care should be taken to ensure that its blade is held
perpendicular to the surface being tested or errors may occur.

SQUARES AND GAUGES

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External Squareness
Measurement

Figure 20

Set Square

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Internal Squareness
Measurement

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Radius Gauge
Radius gauges are used to measure either inside or outside radii.
Find a blade that fits the surface being checked.

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Outside radius

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Figure 21

Radius Gauge

Inside radius

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Radii of the work are


too large

Radii found okay

Radii of the work are


too small

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Protractor
The protractor consists of an adjustable blade with a dial that is graduated from
0o to 180o.
To use a protractor, set the blade to the angle being checked and lock the nut.
The angle is indicated on the protractor head.
The protractor is generally used in assembly areas to check part flanges or to
verify jig--located angles, clips, etc.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Figure 22

Protractor

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Thickness (Feeler) Gauge


The feeler gauge is made up of a number of thin steel leaves that fold into a
handle like the blades of a pocket knife. The thickness in thousandths of an
inch or in hundreds of a millimetre is marked on each leaf.
The marked leaves are inserted into a gap until the closest fitting leaf is found.
The thickness of that leaf represents the size of the gap.
The gauge is generally used in assembly areas to check interface gaps or gaps
under bolt heads or nuts.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Figure 23

Feeler Gauge

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Blend Out Measurement Sequence With A Feeler Gauge (Ref. NDT A3 10)
1. Put the straight edge on to the inspection area.
2. Measure the gap between the straight edge and the structure with the
leaves of the feeler gauge. Make sure that the gauge touches the straight
edge and the structure.
3. Write down the measurement by adding the respective feeler gauge
dimensions.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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WORKSHOP PRACTISES

Figure 24

Feeler Gauge

Gap

Feeler Gauge

Blend Out Measurement Sequence

Skin

Skin
Straight edge flat
on skin

A-A

SECTION

Straight edge

Straight edge

Area where paint must be


removed

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Ball (or hole) gauges are devices that are fitted into a hole and adjusted to fit
the hole snugly.
The gauge is then removed from the hole (taking care not to disturb the gauge
setting) and its diameter measured (eg with a micrometer) to determine the
holes size.

BALL GAUGES

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Adjustable end

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WORKSHOP PRACTISES

Figure 25

Ball (Hole) Gauges

Set has variety of diameters

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Ball end expands as


adjustable end is turned in

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General
Marking out means marking on the material all the lines and points which are
needed to work with. In general this will be done in accordance with a
dimensional drawing. This is a drawing showing the exact shape with all dimensions indicated.
Take a piece of material and accurately copy the given dimensions of the work
from the drawing. Then cut out the piece of material with the work marked out
on it.

MARKING OUT AND TOOLS

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WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Figure 26

Marking Out Sequence

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Dividers
Dividers are used for scribing arcs and circles, for measuring between points
and for transferring dimensions taken from a steel rule. The contacts are the
sharp points of the straight legs, and measurement is by visual comparison.
Dividers are difficult to use accurately when the legs are widely extended and
the points steeply inclined to the work surface.
Dividers or compasses should not be used when marks or reference lines are
drawn on metal skin surfaces, since the metal points will cause permanent
damage. Instead, pencils are commonly used to mark out skins.

Tri-Square
For squaring and for lines at right angles a tri-square is used.

Rule
For marking out length, a rule or steel tape is used.

Marking Out Rules


S Never use a lead pencil on titanium. The carbon, when heated, can infuse
the metal and cause cracking.
S When using a scriber or pencil with a straight edge, hold it at a slight angle
so that the line will be parallel and as close as possible to the straight-edge.
S For marking of aluminium alloy use only a soft lead pencil (except for cutlines, when a scriber may be used).
S Mark only thin lines.
S Mark lines only once.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Rule

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WORKSHOP PRACTISES

Figure 27

Marking-Out Tools

Tri Square

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Dividers

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A SCRIBER IS USED ONLY WHEN THE MATERIAL WITHIN THE


SCRIBED LINE IS TO BE CUT OUT AND THE SCRIBE MARK IS
REMOVED AS PART OF THE SCRAP.

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Pencil
When working with aluminium alloy, a soft lead pencil may be used for layout
work or for marking reference lines in areas that will not be removed. However,
using normal lead pencils on bare aluminium alloy can scratch the surface and
introduce graphite into the material, resulting in corrosion.
Three examples of acceptable commercial pencils are Stabilo 8008, Dixon
Phano and Blaisdell, which use soft wax-charcoal in lieu of graphite.

NOTE:

Scriber
The scriber is used to mark lines on metal surfaces.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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Scriber

Figure 28

Marking-Out Tools

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Pencil

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Combination Set
The combination set is an elaboration of the steel rule.
It consists of a rule with three heads; the stock (or square), the centre and
the protractor.
These heads slide along the scale and are removable.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
WORKSHOP PRACTISES

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simple clinometer

When used with rule, forms a

4 Protractor Head

1 Rule
2 Square Head
3 Centre Head

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WORKSHOP PRACTISES

Clamp
90o

45o

Figure 29

Clamp

Parallel and Scribing

Centre Line of Disk

Uses of Combination Set

face A is plumb

Spirit level ascertains

Depth Gauge

Tri Square and Height Gauge

45o

Spirit Level

Scriber

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Mitre 45o

45o Angle Gauge

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M7.3 TOOLS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Pin Punch
Pin punches have a parallel shank and the diameter is sized to match rivet
shanks.
The matching size punch is selected for the diameter of rivet being punched
out. During this operation, the structure should be supported (normally with a
riveting block) on the opposite face to prevent damage and minimise
bounce-back.

Starting (Taper) Punch


This is used to start when driving out a bolt or pin. Once the taper almost fills
the bolt-hole, the job should be finished with a pin punch.

Automatic Centre Punch


An automatic centre punch incorporates an adjustable spring-loaded trip
mechanism, negating the requirement for a hammer.

Centre Punch
A centre punchs tip is ground to an angle of approximately 60o and is used to
make indentations in metal. This helps to prevent wander when starting to drill
a hole. Care should be taken not to distort the surrounding material by using
too agressive a blow.

Composition
Punches are generally composed of steel, but can also be made of copper or
bronze (to minimise damage to the object being drifted out).

Safety
Eye protection should always be worn when a punch is used.

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Looking After Punches


Over a period of time, the end of a punch (particularly the softer metals) will
become burred over from repeated hammer blows. This burr can eventually
split and small chips fly off; potentially a safety hazard.
The punch end should be ground back to its original shape. Use a hand-file for
the softer materials.

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Introduction
Punches concentrate the force from a hammer blow to the immediate area of
the punch tip.

PUNCHES

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Automatic
Centre
Punch

Aug 2004

Centre
Punch

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TOOLS

Taper Punches

Figure 30

Punches

Pin Punches

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Introduction
Sawing is mostly used for separating material but also for producing grooves
and notches.
A saw blade has many teeth. Their cutting edges are shaped like a chisel.
When sawing, at any time more than one tooth must be in contact with the
workpiece. The teeth remove small chips of the material.
The teeth must point in the cutting direction.
NB The blade fitted in the junior hacksaw has the teeth facing towards the
handle; the cutting direction is towards the operator. This is because the saw
frame is springy and compresses the blade if force is applied as the saw is
pushed away. The blade subsequently buckles.

SAWING

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wing nut

adapter guide

Figure 31

saw blade

blade adapters

frame

Saw

cutting
direction

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handle

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Clearance
To prevent the saw blade from binding as it cuts into the material, the slot it
creates must be greater than the blade thickness.
The saw blade, therefore, must cut the required clearance. This is accomplished by either of the following:
S The teeth are set.
S The blade is waved.

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Pitch
The pitch is the space from one tooth to the next.
Saw blades are rated depending on the number of teeth per one inch of blade
length:
S Coarse: for soft materials
S Medium: for normal materials
S Fine: for hard materials

SAW BLADE

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32 teeth

25
(1 inch)

22 teeth

25
(1 inch)

14 teeth

25mm
(1 inch)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Fine

Medium

Coarse

Figure 32

Saw Blade

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Waved blade

clearance

Teeth are set

clearance

view

bottom

view

bottom

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Guiding the Hacksaw


Cutting is achieved mostly by arm movement. Moving the body assists the process.
To produce a good cut, start the cut by holding the saw at an angle.
S Forward stroke under pressure.
S Return stroke without pressure.
Use up as much of the blade length as possible.
Near the end of the cut, just before the material separates, reduce the
pressure on the saw.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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return stroke
without pressure

Figure 33

Sawing

angle

tooth gap

cutting direction

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chips

Page: 74

cutting stroke
with pressure

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Introduction
Filing is a process which removes material from metal or wood, etc.
Filing can be :
S A rough process to alter the size and shape of a part by removing a considerable amount of material.
S A finishing process to smooth a surface without removing much material.

FILING

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TOOLS

Figure 34

handle

tang

blade

tip

File Parts

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Half-round files
Half-round files are used to file medium and large radii.

Round files
Round files are used to file small radii.

Square files
Square files are used for filing keyways and for enlarging square or rectangular
holes.

Triangular files
Triangular files have a cross-section that is an equilateral triangle. These files
are limited to internal angles greater than 60.

Flat files
Flat files are used for flat or convex surfaces.

General
The selection of the file shape depends on the size and shape of the surface to
be worked.

FILE SHAPES

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SQUARE

FLAT

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TOOLS

Figure 35

File Shapes

HALF ROUND

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ROUND

TRIANGULAR

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Curved-Tooth
A curved-tooth file (often called a Dreadnought) is used to produce a very
smooth finish on soft metals such as aluminium.

Rasp-Cut
A rasp-cut file produces an extremely rough cut and is used on very soft materials such as wood and leather.

Double-Cut
Double-cut files are used for fast metal removal and where a rough finish is
permissible.

Single-Cut
Single-cut files are generally used to produce a smooth surface or to file a keen
edge.
Also for use on soft metals like lead, zinc or aluminium.

S
S
S
S

Smooth
Second Cut (not to be confused with Double-Cut)
Bastard
Rough

General
Files are also graded by the type, or grade, of finish they produce:

General
File cuts are divided (with reference to the character of the teeth) into
single-cut, double-cut, rasp-cut and curved-tooth.

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GRADE OF CUT

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FILE CUTS

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TOOLS

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Single Cut

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TOOLS

Smooth

Bastard

Figure 36

File Cuts

File Grades

Second Cut

Double Cut

File Types

Rough

Rasp

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Curved
(Dreadnought)

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Safety
Always ensure a file in use has a handle fitted - the tang can puncture your
hand.

Holding the file


Hold the handle with your right hand so that the end of the handle presses
against the palm.
With the palm, or fingertips, of your left hand press down on the file tip.
Left handed persons should hold the handle in their left hand and press on the
file blade with the right hand.

Bench Vice
Bench vice adjustment is important to achieve a proper working position.
The bench vice should be 5--8 cm (2--3 inch) below your elbow (see picture).

PROPER WORKING POSITION

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TOOLS

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TOOLS

Figure 37

5--8 cm
2--3 inch

Working Position

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(Ensure handle fitted


for safety)

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Soft Metals
However, when filing very soft metals (such as lead or aluminium), pressure
should be applied on both forward and backward strokes. This has the effect of
dislodging chips from between the file teeth, preventing clogging.

Pressing on the File


With your right hand push the file along the longitudinal axis and press it down;
with your left hand only press it down. Left handed persons vice versa.
Apply pressure on the forward stroke only. Return the file without pressure.

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General
Guide the file by moving your body evenly.
Move the file in the direction of its longitudinal axis in order to avoid burrs in the
work surface.

FILE TECHNIQUE

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Figure 38

File Technique

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Filing of concave radii


The radius of the file must be smaller than the radius to be filed.
Guide the file straight as if a flat surface is to filed, but turn the file about its
longitudinal axis at the same time.
To produce an even radius it is necessary to advance the file sideways. To prevent burrs, do not feed sideways .

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Filing of convex radii


In order to obtain a radius, flat surfaces are filed until they approximately form a
radius.
The file is moved in the longitudinal direction and up and down at the same
time. The position of the work in the vice has to be changed frequently in order
to produce an accurate radius.

FILING OF RADII

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TOOLS

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Figure 39

up and down motion

flat
surface

Filing of Radii

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General
For a final finish, you can use the draw filing process. This process is often
used on parts that are long relative to their width, for example aluminium
sheets edges.
This procedure is used to get a fine surface on the edges to prevent crack
growth.

DRAW FILING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Figure 40

cut on
forward stroke
only

Draw Filing

start of stroke

finish of stroke

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General
Files need to be cleaned frequently. A dirty file cannot produce a good finish
and acts like a dull file.
You can clean a file with a file brush by brushing across the file in a direction
parallel to the teeth.

CLEANING DIRTY FILES

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Figure 41

Cleaning Dirty Files

Cleaning with file brush

File brush

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Introduction
Technicians are often faced with the requirement to drill accurately-sized round
holes in order to make attachments and to join parts of an assembly. The tool
usually used for drilling such holes is the spiral-- or twist-drill.
The steel drill usually consists of a cylinder into which has been cut spiral
grooves or flutes. One end is pointed and the other is shaped to fit a particular
drilling device such as a hand--drill.
Drills are made of both carbon steel and high speed steel (HSS). The carbon
steel drills cost less, but they will overheat and lose their hardness when they
are used to drill very hard or tough material. For this reason, HSS drills are by
far the most economical for use in aviation work.
There are several types of drills available, so generally we have to use different
drills, drill speeds, cutting agents and pressure for different materials.

GENERAL

DRILLING

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ss

Figure 42

Included angle

Lip angle

Cutting edge
(lip)

Twist Drill

Lip relief or
heel angle

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Margin
The cylindrical portions of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance.

Flutes
Helical grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips, to
permit removal of chips and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.

Land
The land is the peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.

Cutting edge
The point of a drill includes the entire cone--shaped cutting end of the drill. The
point includes the cutting edges, or lips, which are sharpened when the drill is
ground.
The web is the portion of the drill at the centre along the axis. It thickens nearer
the shank. The web may also be defined as the material remaining at the
centre of the drill after the flutes have been cut out. The web forms the dead-centre tip at the point of the drill.
The dead--centre is in the exact centre of the tip and is on the line forming the
axis of the drill.

Body
The body of a drill is the part between the point and the shank. It includes the
spiral flutes, the lands and the margin.
The body is slightly tapered, being fractionally larger in diameter at the tip than
at the shank, thus causing it to bore a hole with clearance to prevent the drill
from binding.

Shank
The shank of a drill is the part designed to fit into the drilling machine. It may be
a plain cylinder in shape, which is designed for use in a drill chuck on a drill
motor, pillar drill or hand drill. The drill shank may also be tapered or pyramid-shaped.
The tapered drill shank is usually used in pillar drills.
The pyramid--shaped shank is also called a bit shank and is designed to fit a
hand brace such as that used for wood bits.

TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE

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Shank

Figure 43

Margin

Twist Drill Nomenclature

Land

Body

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Flute

Lip or Cutting Edge

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Extension drill
The extension drill has a long shank for reaching limited--access areas. The
drill should not be used unless absolutely necessary.
Use a drill guard (a plastic tube slipped over the drill to protect adjacent structure from drill whip, and to make it possible to guide the drill by hand).
Hold the drill guard as near to the drill point as possible.

Taper shank drills


Tapered shank drills have a taper called the Morse taper. The size of taper incorporated on any particular drill depends on the drill diameter. At the end of
the taper shank of a drill is a tongue, called the tang, and when the taper shank
is fitted into the socket or machine spindle this tang engages in a slot.
If the taper itself is in good condition, the frictional grip between this and the
surface of the taper hole should be almost, if not entirely, sufficient to drive the
drill, but if the taper becomes damaged, more load will be thrown on the tang in
driving the drill, and if the drill seizes in the hole the tang may be twisted off.
For this reason, every consideration to the care of taper shanks should be
given in use, and they should always be extracted with the proper taper drift.

Jobbers Drills
The jobbers drill is the most often-used twist drill in sheet metal work. It is a
pointed tool that is rotated to cut holes in material.
It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel bar having spiral flutes (grooves) running the length of the body and a conical point with cutting edges formed by the
ends of the flutes.
Twist drills have one to four spiral flutes. Drills with two flutes are used for most
drilling; Those with three or four flutes are used principally to follow smaller
drills or to enlarge holes.
The principal parts of a twist drill are the shank, the body and the point. The
drill shank is the end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill. The
straight shank is generally used in hand, breast and portable electric drills.

DRILL TYPES

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Figure 44

Drill Types

Taper Shank Drill

Extension Drill

Jobber Drill

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Machine Spindle
The number of the Morse taper hole in a machine spindle will depend on the
size of the machine, varying from No.1 in small machines to No.4 or 5 in large
ones.
When a drill has to be accommodated in a spindle with a larger taper than its
shank, taper sockets must be used. These should also be cared for, because if
they become damaged, the drill fitted into them will no longer run true.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Figure 45

DRIFT

Machine Spindle

BLOW

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Tang on
Drill

Machine
Spindle

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Grinding Drill Point Angles


In order to perform correctly, the drill must be ground or sharpened properly.
For general--purpose work, the drill point should be sharpened to a cone (or
included) angle of 1180 (lip angle 590). This point will work satisfactorily for
most drilling jobs.
For very hard or tough metals, a greater angle at the point is often used. The
point angle may be as great as 1400 (lip angle 700) in this case.
For soft metals or fibre, the cutting angle may be reduced to 400.
Plastic materials are usually drilled most satisfactorily with a cutting angle of
about 300 (included angle 600) for shallow holes and with an angle of up to 700
for very deep holes.
The cutting edge is ground off to produce a zero--rake angle for soft plastics
such as plexiglass.
For drilling stainless steels or titanium, the drill--point angle should be about
1400.
For standard aluminium alloys, a drill--point angle of 1350 is very satisfactory.
The point is ground with a lip relief angle ranging from about 12--15 degrees for
drills used in normal hard materials. For very soft materials, this angle is
usually increased to somewhere around 18--20 degrees.
In grinding the drill point, it is important to see that the desired point angle and
the proper lip--clearance angle are obtained. Further, it is essential that the
lengths of the lips be made equal. Where they are unequal, the drilled hole will
be oversize and possible out-of-round. If the cutting lips are ground with different cutting angles, the drill will bind on one side and may break. Otherwise, it
will produce an oversize hole.

Introduction
Do not use blunt drills or attempt to sharpen them. Using blunt drills wastes
time and makes poor holes. Return blunt drills to the tool shop. The drills will be
sent for resharpening.
Only machine grinding is sufficiently accurate to produce sharpened drills that
will cut holes to the correct size. A hand--sharpened drill usually has the point
off--centre and will cut oversize holes.

GENERAL

DRILL GRINDING

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Figure 46

Grinding Drill Point Angles

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5. Check the results of grinding with a gauge to determine whether or not the
lips are the same length and at a 59o angle.

4. Slowly place the cutting edge of the drill against the grinding wheel. Gradually lower the shank of the drill as you twist the drill in a clockwise direction. Maintain pressure against the grinding surface only until you reach the
heel of the drill.

3. Place the hand on the tool rest with the centre line of the drill making a 59o
angle with the cutting face of the grinding wheel. Lower the shank end of
the drill slightly.

2. Hold the drill between the thumb and index finger of the right or left hand.
Grasp the body of the drill near the shank with the other hand.

Drill Grinding Sequence


1. Adjust the grinder tool rest to a convenient height for resting the back of the
hand whilst grinding.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 47

Drill Grinding Sequence

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2. Lips at different angles - Hole will be enlarged, rough hole surface.

Grinding Problems
1. Lips of different lengths - drill moves off starting position.

Point Thinning
The metal at the centre of a drill (the web) tapers and gets thicker towards the
shank. This causes the centre of a drill point to get thicker as its length is reduced by grinding. To prevent this thick edge from reducing the efficiency of the
drill it should be ground thinner.
The point thinning of a drill will usually keep the drill in a proper position when
starting the hole.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 48

Grinding Problems

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Lips at Different Angles

Lips of Different Lengths

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-- When drilling, safety glasses, goggles or face shields must be used to


protect the eyes.
-- Remove the chuck key before starting the drill motor. Serious injury may
otherwise result.
-- When drilling through structure, give warning to anyone who may be on
the opposite side.
-- Use drill stops. They will protect aircraft skin material and understructure,
as well as personnel.
-- Use extreme care when drilling with extended drills. Always use extension drill guards.
-- Limit drill speed to a maximum of 6000 RPM for all drills longer than
three inches.
-- Use only a sharp drill with the correct point angle.
-- Never use a drill that is bent.
-- Select a drill motor suited to job requirement: size, speed, range and
configuration.
-- Use the shortest drill practicable.
-- If you drill magnesium or titanium alloys, ensure that there is a fire extinguisher next to you.
-- Prevent your hair becoming entangled with the spindle of the boring machine.

General
The following safety precautions are very important. Study them carefully.

DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

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Pillar Drill
A pillar drill is a bench--mounted or floor-mounted machine designed to rotate a
drill bit and press the sharpened point of the bit against metal in order to drill a
hole.
The pillar drill is driven by an electric motor through a speed--changing mechanism; either a belt transmission or a gear transmission. The belt transmission
consists of two stacks of V--belt pulleys which vary progressively in size from 2
to 6 in (50.8 to 101.6 cm). The pulleys are arranged so that one set decreases
in size as the belt is moved up the stack and the other decreases as the belt is
moved down the stack. Thus, as the belt is moved up or down the pulleys, the
ratio of the motor speed to the spindle speed is changed.
This is an important feature because the speed of rotation of the drill bit should
vary in accordance with the type of material being drilled and the size of the
hole being drilled.
The pillar drill spindle is either fitted with a standard chuck or provision is made
for the insertion of drill bits with tapered shanks. Many pillar drills are arranged
so that a drill chuck with a tapered shank can be installed when the machine is
driving small drills and, when large drills are used, the chuck can be removed
and a drill with a tapered shank inserted directly into the hole in the spindle.
When used correctly, the pillar drill makes it possible to do precision drill work.
There should be no play in the spindle, spindle bearing or chuck and all should
be in perfect alignment. The drill point should be properly sharpened and
should not wobble when the machine is turned on. The work being drilled must
be securely clamped to the pillar drill table so it cannot move during the operation.
The operator of a pillar drill should make certain that the machine speed is adjusted correctly for the work being performed, that the drill point has the angle
most suitable for the machine and that the correct drilling pressure is applied
with the feed lever.

STATIONARY DRILL MACHINE

TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES

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Figure 49

Stationary Drill Machine

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9. Stop motor and remove drill and work.

8. Material will have been cut away by the drill and a hole produced.

7. Curling chips (swarf) are formed.

6. Press down drill using the feed lever. Use the recommended feed range.

5. Start pillar drill motor.

4. Wear safety glasses, goggles or face shield.

3. Clamp the work on the pillar drill table.

2. Select the correct drill and install it in the chuck.

1. Select the correct speed and adjust it on the control panel.

Pillar Drill Work Sequence

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Figure 50

Pillar Drill Work Sequence

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Angle Drill Motors


Angle drill motors or power vanes are designed to be operated in tight or under
limited--access places. Three head angles - 30o, 45o, and 90o - are available.

Common Drill Motors


The pistol-grip or straight drill are the most often-used drill motors. These tools
are ordered by drill size capacity and speed.

General
The most commonly-used drill motor for drilling aircraft sheet metal is the pneumatic or air drill. The main advantage of an air drill over an electric drill is
safety. Sparking in the motor of an electric drill can ignite fuel or oil vapour.
It is also far less hazardous to have air hoses in the crowded aircraft structure
where many sheet metal repairs are made than to have electrical cables.
Another advantage is the control offered by air drills. By varying trigger pressure we can make them run slow, intermediate or high speed and there is always adequate torque. Drill motors are equipped with quick-change chucks or
keyed chucks.

HAND-HELD DRILL MOTORS

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Common Drill Motors

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 51

Angle Drill Motors

Hand-Held Drill Motors

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Flexible Snake Drill


The flexible snake drill is used only in limited--access areas where an angle drill
motor cannot be held perpendicular to the surface. The drill motor should be
held in one hand, the snake drill steadied with the other.

Flat Offset Drilling Head


Another tool designed for use in close quarters is the flat offset drilling head or
pork chop. This tool uses threaded shank drills up to 1/4 inch diameter. The
pork chop is ordered by spindle direction (up or down) motor speed and offset
dimension.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Flat Offset Drilling Head

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 52

Flexible Snake Drill

Special Hand Held Drill Motors

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Hand Drill Handling


Position for vertical drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle and the other for pressing
the drill down.
Position for horizontal drilling
One hand is used for rotating the operating handle, the other holds the handle
and pressure is exerted with the chest.

General
The hand drill is a simple device designed to hold a drill and enable the operator to rotate the bit at a comparatively high speed. The hand drill provides a
convenient means for drilling small holes, countersinking or deburring.
The hand drill consists of a chuck, a handle, an operating handle, a rest and a
transmission drive.

HAND DRILL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 53

Hand Drill

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Handling Precautions
Do not tighten the chuck by holding it in your hands with the motor running.
This practice can cause injury and can also damage the chuck or the drill.
Do not start the motor with the key in the chuck; the key can cause injury.
Ideally, disconnect power or air supply whilst working with the chuck.

Using the Keyed Chuck


The chuck of a drill machine is a tool which tightens the drill, countersinking bit,
reamer, etc. In using the keyed chuck, be sure to use the correct-size chuck
key. The key should mesh easily but firmly with the teeth of the chuck. In use,
hold the key securely in mesh with the chuck teeth, to prevent it slipping.
Turn the key counter--clockwise until the tool slips easily into the chuck jaws.
Turn the key clockwise and tighten the tool securely in the jaws, using at least
two different keyholes and make sure that the tool shank is gripped uniformly in
all three jaws.
Check the tightness of the tool. If necessary, tighten further, using the third keyhole.

THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE

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Figure 54

Keyed Chuck

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1. Hold the drill motor as shown. Notice that the thumb and forefinger of one
hand are used to steady the motor. This method can be used only with a
short drill. Short drills are always preferred.
2. Put the drill point on the spot to be drilled.
3. Keep the drill perpendicular to the surface being drilled. If necessary use a
drill guide.
4. When drilling thick material (two or three times drill diameter or more), withdraw the drill from the hole periodically to prevent chips from packing in the
drill flutes. Tightly-packed chips can cause an oversized, scarred hole.
5. Use just enough pressure to allow the drill to cut its way through the metal.
Never force the drill; this can cause drill breakage, separation of parts or
oversize or out--of--round holes.
6. Ease the pressure just as the drill point breaks through the material. Drill
through material no more than 1/4 inch thick.
7. Use a drill-stop to prevent the drill from going through the part further than
necessary (adjust the stop). If a drill-stop is not used, the part may be damaged by the drill chuck, and the underlying structure may be damaged by
the drill point.
8. Keep the drill motor running while withdrawing the drill from the hole.

Using the Drill

GENERAL

DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 55

Using The Drill

Pressure on
centre-line of
drill

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Set drill-stop to
material thickness
+ .10 inch

Set screw

Page: 120

Drill-stop

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Special Deburring Tool


This tool is designed to deburr holes on the exit side which you could not reach
with standard deburring tools, due to limited access. This tool is chucked in a
drill motor for rapid work.
The retractable blade is held in place by spring pressure. To use, push the tool
through the hole and remove burrs from the exit side. Then draw the tool back
through the hole and remove burrs from the entry side.
This deburring tool comes in common hole sizes from 5/32 to 3/8 inch

General
When holes are drilled through two sheets of material, small burrs are formed
around the edges of the holes and chips can be pushed between the two
sheets. It is therefore essential to remove the burrs and chips.
Removal of burrs from drilled holes may be accomplished with a manufactured
deburring tool, a countersinking tool (using a very light cut) or a large drill which
will clear the edges of a drilled hole. Care must be taken to remove only the
rough edges and chips from the hole.
When two or more sheets are drilled at the same time, it is necessary to remove chips from between the sheets. The right-hand picture shows the results
of leaving material between drilled sheets.

DEBURRING

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Figure 56

Deburring

Special Deburring Tool

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Indication

Aug 2004

Hole oversize

Hole wall rough

Drill will not feed into material

Drill splits up its centre

Drill breaks

Cracks in drill cutting edges


Drill point improperly ground.
Excessive feed rate.
Drill blunt.
Flutes clogged with swarf.

Drill point improperly ground/blunt.


Insufficient or incorrect lubricant.
Excessive feed rate.
Material not rigid.
1. Unequal angle and/or length of cutting edges.
2. Loose spindle.

1.
2.
3.
4.

1. Drill blunt.
2. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance.
3. Drill too large (i. e. pilot hole required).

1. Insufficient drill cutting edge clearance.


2. Excessive feed rate.

1.
2.
3.
4.

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1. Drill overheated or cooled too quickly whilst sharpening or drilling.

1. Excessive feed rate.


2. Excessive drill cutting edge clearance.

Probable Cause
1. Excessive cutting speed.
2. Hard spots in the material.
3. Flutes clogged with swarf.

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Parts of the cutting edges break off

Outer corners of drill break off

COMMON DRILLING PROBLEMS

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Drilling Hints
1. For soft metals use a drill with a quick twist to its flutes, and vice versa for
hard metals.
2. Cut with soluble oil for steel and malleable iron, kerosene or turpentine for
very hard steel. Cast--iron or brass should be drilled dry, or with a jet of
compressed air.
3. If the corners wear away rapidly, the cutting speed is too high.
4. If cutting edges chip, reduce the feed or grind with less clearance.
5. If the drill will not start drilling there is no clearance on lips.
6. Examine relative sizes of turnings produced from each flute. They should
be approximately the same but, if not, the drill is incorrectly ground with one
lip doing more cutting than the other.
7. Drill breakage may be caused by the point being incorrectly ground; feed
too great; not easing drill at break through; binding in hole due to lands
being worn away; drill choked in a long hole.
8. The blueing of a high--speed steel drill is not detrimental but it is fatal to a
carbon steel drill.
9. A hard spot encountered may be removed by reducing speed and using
suitable cutting compound or fluid.
10.For holes larger than 3.2mm, it is necessary to initially drill a pilot hole and
enlarge it to the required hole size.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Clamps and Dogs


The tables of most pillar drills are provided with either T-slots to accommodate
bolt heads or long slots running through to enable bolts and clamps/dogs to be
used.

Vice
Most work will be secured by using a vice. The main use of the vice is to hold
the work during drilling, reaming etc. in the correct position. Care should be
taken to ensure that when the drill passes through the work it does not drill into
the bottom of the vice.

Pillar Drill Clamping


To secure work when using the pillar drill a vice, clamps and dogs are often
used.

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General
Unless work is so large and heavy that there is no danger of its moving or
being rotated with the drill, it should always be clamped or held by some
method.
The necessity for clamping cannot be understated because unclamped or insecurely clamped work is not only a cause of inaccurate work and broken drills,
but also a danger to the operator.
The chief danger in drilling occurs just as the drill point breaks through at the
underside of the part being drilled. Whilst the point is being resisted by solid
metal, the feeding pressure causes some spring-back to take place in the machine and the work, putting them into a similar condition to a strong spring
which is compressed slightly under a load.
As soon as the drill point breaks through, most of the resistance against it
suddenly vanishes and the stress in the machine releases itself by imparting a
sudden downward push onto the drill, just as a sudden relieving of the load
from a spring would allow the end of it to jump up. The sudden downward push
on the drill generally causes one or both of the lips to dig in, often with disastrous results.
When feeding the drill by hand, pressure should be eased off when the point is
felt to be breaking through, and for this reason small drills should always be fed
by hand.
Special care is necessary when drilling thin plate, as the drill point often breaks
through before the drill has cut its full diameter.

WORK CLAMPING

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Figure 57

Pillar Drill Clamping

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Hand Drill Clamping


When using a hand drill motor, the work to be drilled must be properly secured
so it cannot move. It should never be held by hand because, in the event of a
broken drill, the broken end may pierce the hand or a finger, causing a painful
injury.
Angle vices, pin vices, hand vices etc. are to be used to hold the work to be
drilled in position.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Figure 58

Hand Drill Clamping

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THE TOTAL AMOUNT THAT THE STOP-DRILL HOLE MAY BE ENLARGED MUST BE DETERMINED FOR EACH SPECIFIC CASE
DEPENDENT UPON THE LOAD PATTERN AND STRESS LEVEL
IN THAT AREA.
3. Install a 2017--T3 flush plug rivet in the stop-drilled hole, if required.

NOTE:

Stop drilling of cracks (Ref. SRM (Structural Repair Manual): hole preparation and stop drilling of cracks)
Propagation of a crack may be stopped by drilling a hole at the end of the crack
as follows:
1. Drill or counterbore a 0.25--inch diameter crack stop-hole through the structure at the end of a crack. Locate each stop-hole so that the centre of the
hole is 0.10 inch beyond the visible end of the crack.
2. Carry out an Eddy Current Method inspection of each stop-drilled hole to
confirm that there is no further cracking extending beyond the hole.
S If the crack has not continued through the hole, enlarge the hole to
0.312--inch diameter to ensure the removal of fatigue-damaged material.
S If the crack has continued through the hole, enlarge the hole by additional
l/16-inch diameter increments until the crack indication is removed. Enlarge
the hole an additional 1/16 inch in diameter to remove any fatigue damaged
material.

ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING

DRILLING AIDS

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Drill guide
The hand-held drill guide keeps the drill 90o to the skin surfaces. The guide
assembly consists of a clear plastic housing and special screw in type hardened steel bushing. The bushing can be interchanged.

Drill stop
The drill stop regulates the hole depth, cushions the break through, eliminates
surfaces marks and reduces drill breakage. The drill stop locks onto the drill
with a set screw.

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Figure 59

Drill Stop and Drill Guide

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2. Align the pilot with the pilot hole, pilot-pin the hole drilled in the first operation and then drill the second hole.

Drill Jig Handling


1. Align the pilot with the pilot hole when drilling the first hole.

Nut Plate Drill Jig


The nut plate drill jig is designed for accurate drilling of rivet holes for nut plates
(sometimes called anchor-nuts). It is manufactured with a flexible handle to
provide hand clearance when the jig is in use. There are a lot of different drill
jigs available.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 60

Nut Plate Drill Jig

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Hole Finder
When replacing an old skin with a new one, if there are no pilot holes drilled in
the new skin it is quite difficult to precisely locate the holes in the structure. For
this procedure, a hole finder (sometimes called a back-marker) may be used.
The finder resembles a clamp that slips over the new skin, and on its underside
is a pin that exactly fits through the hole in the structure. A hole in the top side
guides the drill in making a hole in the new skin that will align with the one in
the structure.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 61

Hole Finder

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Drill Gauge
The size of a drill is stamped on its shank. If the size cannot be read, it can be
determined by using a drill gauge. Drill gauges are available for all three series
of drill sizes; fractional, letter and number.
Fractional drills are furnished in sizes from 1/16 to 1 inch in diameter, graduated in sixty--fourths of an inch.
Letter drills range in size from A (the smallest) to Z (the largest).
Number drills range from I (the largest) to 80 (the smallest).
To gauge a drill, insert the point into a hole in the drill gauge (remember the
shank is fractionally smaller than the point). If the drill slips easily into the hole,
insert it into the next smaller hole. When the correct size has been determined,
the drill will rub lightly in the hole.

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Figure 62

Drill Gauge

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Remaining Boelube residue must be removed within 48 hours after use.

-- compatible with most lubricant application systems

-- removed by solvent wiping or washing with warm water and mild detergent

-- excellent lubricating properties under extreme pressure

-- non--toxic, non--polluting and non-irritating under normal conditions

Boelube lubricants have the following characteristics:

Boelube
Boelube is used as an agent for drilling aluminium, magnesium and steel, as
well as titanium.
Boelube consists of cetyl alcohol, a non--toxic lubricant from the fatty alcohol
chemical family. It is suitable for many production operations and is manufactured in solid, paste, and liquid forms. It is approved for use with aluminium,
steel or titanium materials. It is also sealant- and paint-compatible, and is non-corrosive. Disassembly for cleaning is not required in sealant or paint areas.

General
Drilling agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering drawing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole finish. Recommended cutting
agents for drilling, reaming, and countersinking are shown in the following
table. Cutting agents are mandatory only when so specified.

DRILL AGENTS

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Directly to cutting tool

BOELUBE (Countersinking)

Directly to cutting tool


Directly to cutting tool
Mist

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer

Directly to cutting tool

Mineral oils
BOELUBE (countersinking)
Freon TB-1
Water soluble coolants
or BOELUBE
BOELUBE (Countersinking)

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer

Water soluble coolants


or BOELUBE

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer or directly to the cutting tool

Water Soluble Coolants


or BOELUBE

Mist

Application

Freon TB-1

Cutting Agent

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Freon and TB-1 must be applied as a mist. Several systems for applying TB-1 are available and are generally
supplied by the tool rooms or to the shop as shop equipment.

ST1219C-11T mist coolant tank was designed for water soluble coolants. Do not use Freon TB-1.

Special systems have been designed for application.

Refer to BAC 5440 for lubricants and application when it is specified on the engineering drawing.

Titanium

Steel
(includes
stainless
steels)

Aluminium
and
Magnesium

Material

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General
Twist drills used in aircraft sheet metal are usually of the number drill sizes between one and sixty. However, for larger-sized holes either fraction drills or
letter drills may be used.
The diagram opposite shows a twist--drill size chart that lists sizes from No. 80,
the smallest normally in use, up to 5/16 inch. There are, of course, drill sizes
smaller and larger than those listed, but they fall outside of the general use of
the aircraft mechanic.
You will notice that the smallest drills have the largest numbers; for example, a
No. 80 drill is much smaller than the No. 1 drill. In addition to the number drills,
there are letter drills from A to Z, with A being the smallest.
The fraction drills are interspersed among the number and letter drills, and only
at one point do we find a fraction and a number or letter drill of the same size;
both the 1/4-inch drill and the E drill are 0.250 inch.

DRILLING SIZES

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Figure 63

Drill Size Chart

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Page: 145

Table IV--5 Material / RPM - Drilling composite with metal (graphite or kevlar
epoxy and aluminium stack, and graphite or kevlar and titanium stack)

Table IV--4 Material / RPM - Drilling nonferrous metals (fibreglass laminates,


nylon Teflon, graphite, epoxy, kevlar epoxy)

Table IV--3 Material / RPM - Drilling nonferrous metals (aluminium alloys, magnesium)

Table IV--2 Material / RPM - Drilling high Temperature alloys (Inconel, titanium)

Material / RPM tables


Table IV--1 Material / RPM - Drilling ferrous metals

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Introduction
Drill speeds are an important factor in getting good results. Drill speed determines the rate at which the outer cutting edge of the drill is moving across the
material being out.
The correct speed for aluminium alloy will not produce the best results with
stainless steel or titanium. When harder materials are drilled, slower speeds
are required.
The following drill speed tables are recommended for drilling. Material / revolutions per minute (RPM) values and speeds and feeds for most materials commonly used are given. These speeds and feeds are a guide for selecting the
correct portable and stationary drilling units to improve tool life, hole tolerance,
and hole finish. In some portable drilling applications, speeds and feeds may
have to be reduced to be compatible with motor power and other limitations.
However, the speeds and feeds shown in the tables should never be exceeded.
Despite all these facts and figures, though, for practical purposes use the correctly-ground drill and appropriate lubricant, start drilling slowly and increase
the revolutions until swarf starts to appear. Then you know you are using the
correct drill speed.

GENERAL

DRILL SPEEDS

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Figure 64

RPM Table IV - 1

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Figure 65

RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 66

RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 67

RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 68

RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 69

RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued)

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Figure 70

Table IV - 2

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Figure 71

Table IV - 2 (Continued)

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TOOLS

Figure 72

Table IV - 3

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TOOLS

Figure 73

Table IV - 4

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Figure 74

Table IV - 4 (Continued)

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Figure 75

Table IV - 4 (Continued)

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Figure 76

Table IV - 5

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Figure 77

Table IV - 5 (Continued)

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REAMING

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Interference Fit
In this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is always
larger than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble
the parts.

Clearance Fit
In this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is always
smaller than the part it fits into.

The ISO system of limits and fits gives a range of sizes to which parts should
be made if the type of fit is known. The following list gives you examples of the
types of fit in use:
S Clearance fit
S Interference fit
S Transition fit

THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS

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0.02 = Tolerance

24.99 -

25.01

Page: 163

If you subtract the lower limit from the upper limit the result is known as the
tolerance.

24.99 -- Lower limit

25.0I -- Upper limit

Tolerances
The type of fit between two assembled parts depends on the size to which
each part is made. Since no size can be exact, then each part must be made
within two sizes. The two sizes within which a part must be made are called
limits.
If the basic size (also known as the nominal size) of the part is 25mm then the
limits could be given as

Transition Fit
This is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference.
The shaft can be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.

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General
In precision manufacture it is not possible to make an engineering component
to an exact size. Gauge blocks are considered to be very accurate standards of
length, but even these are not exact.
If a component cannot be made to an exact size then the amount by which it
can be in error (known as the deviation from the exact size) must be known
and included with the dimension.
If moving parts in machines are to function properly, then the relationship between the size of one part and the size of the part which fits into it is of extreme
importance. When. for example. manufacturing a shaft which has to run freely
in a bearing. there must be enough space for a film of oil between the two in
order to prevent wear.
The maximum and minimum permanent sizes of a component are known as
limits. The difference between the maximum and minimum sizes (limits) is
called tolerance.
There are a number of limits and fits systems in use which give the largest and
smallest size of a part for any required type of fit.

LIMITS AND FITS

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CLEARANCE FIT

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Figure 78

Basic Types Of Fit

Can be clearance or interference

TRANSITION FIT

CLEARANCE
(space between
hole and shaft)

A force is required
to push the shaft
through the hole

NO CLEARANCE

INTERFERENCE FIT

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The Shaft Basis System of Fits


In this system the shaft is the fixed size and the hole sizes are varied. This system is sometimes used when a variety of components. e.g. bearings. couplings. gears etc. are all to fit the same shaft.

The Hole Basis System of Fits


This is the preferred system. The range of fits is obtained by manufacturing the
hole to a fixed size and the shaft size is varied. This system is preferred because reamers, for example. are made in a range of standard sizes. (It would
be impossible to make a range of reamers to cover all types of fit.)

Systems of Fits
There are two systems of fits in use:
S Hole basis system
S Shaft basis system

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Figure 79

ISO Fits (Hole Basis) - British Standard 4500

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Basics
Reaming is a process in which a fluted tool, called a reamer, is used to enlarge
a drilled hole. Reaming is a finishing operation that provides closer control of
hole sizes and better finish than drilling alone.
In normal practice, a hole that is to be reamed is drilled 1/32 inch under the
finished hole size. Reamer pilots are sized to suit the drilled holes.
Before using a reamer on a production part, try it out on scrap material of the
same alloy and thickness in a drilled hole of the same size as the one to be
reamed. Verify that the reamer will cut to the required tolerance or continue
testing until the right combination of reamer size, speed and feed is found. A
reamer will generally produce a hole that is from 0.0001 to 0.002 inch larger in
diameter than the exact size of the reamer.
Reamer are made of either carbon tool steel or high--speed steel. The cutting
blades of a high--speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than
those of a carbon steel reamer. However, after the first super-keenness is
gone, they are still serviceable. The high--speed reamer usually lasts much
longer than the carbon steel type.
Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being brittle and must be handled
carefully to avoid chipping them. When reaming a hole, rotate the reamer in the
cutting direction only. Turn the reamer steadily and evenly to prevent chattering, or marking and scoring of the hole walls.
Reamers are available in any standard size. The straight--fluted reamer is less
expensive than the spiral--fluted reamer, but the spiral type has less tendency
to chatter. Both types are tapered for a short distance towards the end to aid in
starting.

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-- Removing reamer from hole.

-- Amount and type of lubrication.

-- Sharpness of reamer.

-- Rate of feed (pressure).

-- Speed of reamer.

-- Amount of material being removed by the reamer.

-- Hardness of material being reamed.

Page: 167

Bottoming reamers have no taper and are used to complete the reaming of
blind holes.
Many factors affect the finished size of a reamed hole. The following are the
most common:
-- Pilot hole diameter.

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Introduction
Holes must be of high quality. Finishing operations such as reaming improve
the quality of the hole. Under certain flight conditions, the maximum design
strength of every fastener is required. Proper hole fill is essential in attaining
maximum design strength. When a fastener does not fill the hole, it is the weak
link in a chain of several fasteners.
Care and good workmanship are essential in reaming high quality holes.
Surface defects of holes are given in the SRM Chapter 51 Surface Defect Criteria for Fastener Holes in Metal.

REAMING GENERAL

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Figure 80

Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51-- 40-- 05)

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Right--hand twist affects the direction of the removal of chips like a normal twist
drill.
The Left--hand twist moves the chips into the advance direction. The chips cannot have an adverse effect on the reamed part of the holes drilling. Therefore
left--hand twist--fluted reamers are only suitable for transmission drills. They
have the advantage that they do not tend to pull themselves into the hole.
When reaming grooved holes, it is better to use spiral--fluted reamers.

Left--hand twist -- Right--hand twist (For the use of Right--hand cutting tools)

Chucking grooves
Chucking grooves are the spaces between the single teeth; all chips are collected and transported in these spaces. The course of the chucking grooves
affect the direction of the removal of chips.
There are straight--fluted and spiral--fluted reamers.
Straight--fluted reamers have no precise affect on the direction of the removal
of chips. They have a low abrasion and are the most used type.
Spiral--fluted reamers, on the other hand, lead the removed chips in a definite
direction.

Shaft
Shafts of reamers can take different shapes and forms. There is never a characteristic shape for either a hand-- or a machine--reamer. The type of driving
mechanism determines the shape of the shaft.
Hand reamers mostly have a cylindrical shaft with a square end (for a tap
wrench).
Shafts of machine--reamers are mostly designed as Morse tapers.

REAMER DESCRIPTION

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Square

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Shank

Reamer

Flutes (body)

Figure 81

Neck

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Straight flutes

Spiral flutes

Chamfer (straight taper)

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Spacing
Vibration of the tool or work whilst cutting often leads to undesirable chatter
marks. Modern reamers are made with an uneven spacing; in that way the effect of periodical vibration is reduced.
Remove the reamer from a hole by rotating it in the cutting direction (working
direction). Otherwise, due to the wedge effect of the chips at positions A and B,
the hole surface and/or the cutting edges will be damaged.

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Figure 82

Space Of Cutting Edges

Correct direction of rotation of reamers (working direction)

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Spacing and diametral pitch are designed in such a way that


two cutting edges are facing one another (measurability)

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Machine Reamer
The machine reamer is designed with a large cutting angle, short major cutting
edges (short first cut) and short overall cutting edges. Due to the short first cut
the machine reamer, in principle, can only be used if the work piece and the
reamer have no axial play during the reaming process. So you cannot use a
hand drill.
The advantages of a machine reamer are a much higher cutting capacity and
the possibility of reaming dead centre holes.

General
There are two basic types of reamers; the hand-- and the machine--reamer.

TYPES OF REAMERS

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Shank length

Figure 83

Chamfer relief
angle

Chamfer angle

Margin

Land width

Machine Reamer

Actual
size

Chamfer
relief

Helix angle

Cutter
sweep

Overall length

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Chamfer length

Straight shank

Taper shank

Shank length

Tang

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Radial rake
angle

Helical flutes
RH helix shown

Chamfer
angle

Flute length

Body

Actual
size

Chamfer
length

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Hand Reamer
The hand--reamer is designed with a small cutting angle, large major cutting
edges (large first cut) and large overall cutting edges.
The hand--reamer will be guided into the hole through the long first cut and the
long major cutting edges.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Land
Width

Square

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Shank

Taper

Starting

Land

Hand Reamer

Bevel

Actual size

Cutting edge

Margin

Flutes (body)

Figure 84

Neck

Core diameter

Flute

Cutter face

Heel

Relief angle

Relieved land

Spiral flutes

Straight flutes

Chamfer (starting taper)

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Pilot Chuck Reamer


The pilot chuck reamer is the most commonly used reamer which gives accurate lead into a drilled hole and a superior finish.

Pilot Reamer
The pilot reamer is guided into the hole through a bushing.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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TOOLS

Figure 85

Pilot and Pilot Chuck Reamer

Pilot Chuck Reamer

Pilot Reamer

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Taper Reamer
This reamer is used to finish a taper hole (for example for a taper shank bolt)
accurately and with a smooth finish. Because of the long cutting edges, taper
reamers are somewhat difficult to operate.

Expansion Hand Reamer


This reamer is used when the hole must be cut a few thousandth of an inch
over nominal size for fitting purposes. Slots are cut into the hollow centre of the
tool and the centre opening is machined on a slight taper. The reamer is expanded by tightening a taper screw into this opening.
The amount of expansion is limited and the reamer could be damaged if overexpanded. It is not recommended that the expansion reamer be used in place
of a solid reamer because of the danger of producing oversize holes.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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TOOLS

Figure 86

Expansion Hand Reamer and Taper Reamer

Taper Reamer

Expansion Hand Reamer

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Adjustable Hand--Reamer
This reamer is threaded its entire length and fitted with tapered slots to receive
the adjustable blades. The blades are tapered along one edge to correspond
with the taper slots in the reamer body so that, when they are in position, the
cutting edges of the blade are parallel.
The diameter of the reamer is set by loosening one adjusting nut and tightening
the other. The blade can be moved in either direction.
This type of reamer is manufactured in sizes ranging from 3/8-1/2 inch and
each reamer has sufficient adjustment to increase the diameter to the size of
the next larger reamer.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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TOOLS

CUTTER

Figure 87

Adjustable Hand Reamer

Adjustable Hand Reamer

LARGER

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TAPER

SMALLER

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Reaming composites and composites with metal

Table V--5

Aug 2004

Reaming titanium or aluminium stackup

Table V--4

CWM LRTT CoM

Reaming titanium alloys

Table V--2

Reaming speeds
The reaming speed is the speed of the chip removal. The recommended material / RPM values (speeds and feeds) for reaming are shown in the following
tables:
Table V--1
Reaming aluminium alloys

REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS

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TOOLS

Figure 88

Table V - 1

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TOOLS

Figure 89

Table V - 1 (Continued)

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TOOLS

Figure 90

Table V - 1 (Continued)

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TOOLS

Figure 91

Table V - 2

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TOOLS

Figure 92

Table V - 2 (Continued)

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TOOLS

Figure 93

Table V - 2 (Continued)

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TOOLS

Figure 94

Table V- 4

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TOOLS

Figure 95

Table V - 5

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TOOLS

Figure 96

Table V - 5 (Continued)

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Reaming Agent
To ream a hole to a high degree of surface finish, a cutting agent is needed.
A good agent will cool the work and tool, and will also act as a lubricant between the chip and the tool to reduce friction and heat build--up.
The following cutting agents given in Table VII--l are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering drawing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole
finish.

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Directly to cutting tool

BOELUBE (Countersinking)

Directly to cutting tool


Directly to cutting tool
Mist

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer

Directly to cutting tool

Mineral oils
BOELUBE (countersinking)
Freon TB-1
Water soluble coolants
or BOELUBE
BOELUBE (Countersinking)

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer

Water soluble coolants


or BOELUBE

Flood, mist or through oil hole drill or


reamer or directly to the cutting tool

Water Soluble Coolants


or BOELUBE

Mist

Application

Freon TB-1

Cutting Agent

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Freon and TB-1 must be applied as a mist. Several systems for applying TB-1 are available and are generally
supplied by the tool rooms or to the shop as shop equipment.

ST1219C-11T mist coolant tank was designed for water soluble coolants. Do not use Freon TB-1.

Special systems have been designed for application.

Refer to BAC 5440 for lubricants and application when it is specified on the engineering drawing.

Titanium

Steel
(includes
stainless
steels)

Aluminium
and
Magnesium

Material

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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If you take a reamer or a reamer set out of the toolshop, check out given dimensions marked on the shank with the given hole sizes in the SRM.

Reamers should be stored so that they do not get in contact with another reamer to avoid burrs on the tools.

Check the reamer if it gradually starts cutting larger holes; it may be caused by
built--up edges on the reamer cutting surfaces. Some aluminium alloys and
mild steel are affected by these built--up edges.

Oversize holes can be caused by inadequate work support, worn guide bushings, worn or loose spindle bearings or a bent reamer shank.

Chatter corrections may be made by reducing the speed, increasing the feed or
using a reamer with a pilot.

When removing the reamer from the hole rotate it by hand in the direction of
the cut; backing up the reamer will dull it.

Stop reamer rotation as soon as the reamers major diameter breaks through.

General
Do not try to straighten the drilled hole by applying side pressure; you will probably cut oversize.

REAMING ADVICE

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TOOLS

Figure 97

Reaming Advice

90

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BUILT-UP EDGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

COUNTERSINKING

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IN GENERAL, ALL SHEET METAL WORK IS DONE USING 100O


FASTENER HEADS.

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NOTE:

Introduction
To install a countersunk fastener, it is necessary to provide a conical cut-out or
depression in the surface of the skin so that the head of the fastener will be
flush with the surface. This provides smooth aerodynamic surfaces on airplane
structures or smooth surfaces for attaching adjoining members.
The use of countersinks on riveted joints also provides weight saving by eliminating the weight of the rivet head material.
The depression is made by means of a countersinking tool when the skin is
sufficiently thick and by dimpling when the skin is thin.
The use of a machine countersink is limited by the size of the fastener and the
thickness of the skin. Generally, sheet metal should not be countersunk entirely
through the sheet (See SRM - minimum sheet thickness for countersinking for
fasteners), as this results in knife-edging - potential crack sources.
A countersinking tool is usually provided with a straight shank for use in a hand
drill, a drill motor or a bench drill.
Countersinks are made with a variety of cutting angles. In sheet-metal work,
countersink cutters are available for 82o, 100o and 120o fastener heads, and
for special NACA rivets. Always be sure that the cutting angle you use is the
correct one for the fastener to be used.

GENERAL

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Figure 98

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Example Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinking

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Standard Countersink with Pilot


This type of tool looks like the standard countersink. The only difference is the
pilot pin which guides the countersink into the material.

Standard Countersink / Plain Counter


A standard countersink can be used in a drill motor or a hand drill, but the difficulty in cutting the depression to the correct depth makes this tool impractical
when you have several holes to countersink. Standard countersinks are available with one, three or multiple cutting lips.

COUNTERSINKING TOOLS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Countersink / Plain Counter

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 99

Standard Countersink

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Countersink With Pilot

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Always be sure that the cutting angle you use is the correct
one for the fastener to be used.

CWM LRTT CoM

NOTE:

Microstop Countersink
For general purposes the microstop countersink, fitted with a removable cutter,
has been proved to be the most efficient countersinking tool. This tool controls
countersink depth and keeps the cutter perpendicular to the work surface.
The microstop is equipped with a removable cutter and pilot. The cutter consists of a cutting head and a pilot that may be removable.
Countersink cutters are available for 82o, 100o and 120o fastener heads and
for special NACA rivets.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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TOOLS

Figure 100

LOCKING RING

CUTTER

PILOT

SKIRT
(BROKEN VIEW)

Typical Microstop Countersink

BARREL

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ENSURE THE CUTTER IS SEATED IN THE COUNTERSINK


SHAFT BEFORE USING THE STOP COUNTERSINK, OTHERWISE INCORRECT DEPTH OF COUNTERSINK WILL RESULT.

CWM LRTT CoM

NOTE:

MAKE SURE THAT THE LOCKING SPLINES INTERMESH;


ONLY THEN IS THE ADJUSTMENT SECURELY LOCKED. IN
GENERAL, ADJUSTMENT OF THE MICROSTOP WILL BE
MADE ON SCRAP MATERIAL.
The stop countersink may be adjusted or set up on the part to be countersunk,
providing the following precautions are taken:
1. Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the
cut will not be too deep.
2. Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.
3. If at all doubtful of the accuracy of the adjustment, try the countersink on a
piece of scrap material before using.
The pilot pin guides the spinning cutter as it cuts into the material. The pilot pin
is approximately 0.002 inch less in diameter than the fastener hole. This allows
the cutter to spin without binding in the hole. Cutter-- pilots which are more than
0.002 inch smaller than the hole size will allow the cutter to wobble and result
in a lop--sided countersink.

NOTE:

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WHEN COUNTERSINKING A CONCAVE OR CONVEX ITEM,


THE CUTTER WILL NOT CUT TO THE SAME DEPTH AS SET
UP ON A FLAT PIECE OF MATERIAL.
TRY TO SET UP ON A TEST-PIECE OF THE SAME CURVATURE.
Ideally a countersink tool will have a nylon face fitted to minimise damage to
the workpiece.
Chips will become embedded in this face during the countersinking operation.
It is vital that the skirt is prevented from rotating (see diagram) to stop these
chips becoming ground into the workpiece.

NOTE:

In actual practice, the proper depth of the countersink is determined by driving


a test rivet in a scrap piece of metal. The depth adjustment of the microstop
countersink tool is gradually increased until a countersink depth is obtained that
provides the required flushness of a driven rivet. Once the correct countersink
adjustment has been established in this manner, the tool can be used for
countersinking on the actual job.

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Instructions For Using Microstop Countersink Tool


The shaft of the microstop countersink tool rotates on a bearing inside an adjustable locking sleeve and foot piece assembly. The foot piece (or stop as it
is often called) screws onto the shaft bearing, enabling depth adjustments to be
made.
Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001--inch increments, surround the
bevelled circumference of the locking sleeve to aid in depth adjustments.
Adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop to increase
or decrease the cut. The sleeve is then dropped back into its original position to
effect a lock.

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ADJUSTMENT OF MICROSTOP
COUNTERSINK TOOL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 101

Microstop Handling

HOLDING MICROSTOP
COUNTERSINK TOOL SKIRT

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1/2 100 1/8

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Back Countersinking
The back countersinking tool is used to countersink inaccessible holes. The
tool consists of a pilot rod and a countersink cutter. The rod must be slightly
smaller than the hole.
Work sequence
1. Install the rod in a drilling motor.
2. Insert the pilot rod through the hole.
3. Attach the cutter to the rod end.
4. Start drilling motor and pull back the motor.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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PILOT ROD

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COUNTERSINK CUTTER

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 102

Back Countersinking

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Spotfacing
Spotfacing is the method used for cutting a flat area or seat for a bolt head or
nut on a contoured or uneven surface. This operation should be done in a pillar
drill whenever possible, but must occasionally be done with hand--held equipment.
Spotfacers have interchangeable pilots that must be slightly smaller than the
fastener hole. The spotfacer diameter will be called up on the drawing. The operator should use a pilot 1/32 inch smaller than the hole.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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TOOLS

Figure 103

Spotfacer

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General
-- Because countersinking is done through skin tape or through a protective spray coating, allow for this added thickness when adjusting countersink cutter depth.
-- Be sure the skirt of the countersink tool is smooth and polished; burrs or
nicks on the skirt may mark the skin.
-- Do not allow the skirt to rotate on the metal; this can scratch the skin.
-- Be sure the locking ring is kept snug; the ring tends to work loose during
use.
-- Countersink depth requirements are given in the SRM (aerodynamic
smoothness) for each airplane.
-- Periodically check countersink depth throughout the countersinking operation to ensure that flushness requirements are being met. Countersink
depth will vary depending upon the skin thickness and understructure
support.
-- Before using, check countersink cutter for pilot size, sharpness, angle
and true running.
-- Hold countersink at a 90o angle to material.
-- Cut to full depth each time.
-- Apply pressure directly behind countersinker.
-- Ensure there is a thickness of material behind the skin being countersunk to guide the pilot to prevent chattering of cutter.

GUIDELINES FOR COUNTERSINKING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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General
Cutting agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering drawing) to improve tool life, hole tolerance and hole finish. Recommended cutting
agents are shown below.

COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 104

Cutting Agents

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TOOLS

Figure 105

Cutting Guidelines

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THREAD CUTTING

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UNC
UNF

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Aug 2004

The Whitworth thread form was once a widely-used general-purpose thread.


The British Association thread form is widely used for small screws in electrical fittings and scientific apparatus. It has a metric pitch.

There are two series:


Unified National Coarse
Unified National Fine

General
There are several different thread forms. In the illustration opposite you can
see some of the commonly-used threads.
Observe how one thread form differs from another by comparing:
S The thread angle
S The shape of the crest
S The shape of the bottom of the groove
S The height and pitch of the thread.
The ISO thread form is a modern general purpose screw thread form, developed by the International Standards Organisation for both metric and imperial
Series threads.
The American National and DIN metric thread forms are commonly used on
aircraft.
The root of an external thread is rounded. The crest may be either rounded or
flat depending on the method of manufacture.
The root of an internal thread is usually rounded. The crests are usually flat.

THREAD FORMS

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Figure 106

American National Thread & DIN Metric Thread

Thread Forms

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ISO Metric / Unified Imperial Series Thread

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TOOLS

British Association Thread

Whitworth Thread

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Screw Pitch Gauges


Screw pitch gauges are used to determine the pitch of a thread quickly and
exactly.
S Select a screw pitch gauge of the correct thread form.
S keep the leaf parallel to the thread axis.
S Check that the gauge leaf fits the thread accurately.
S Read the required pitch directly from the leaf that accurately matches the
thread.

Unified National Threads


The pitches are given as the number of threads per inch.
Below 1/4-inch diameter the nominal size is given as a series of numbers from
0 to 12.
Above 1/4-inch diameter the nominal size is given as fractions of an inch.
For example, a 3/16 inch bolt with UNF thread has the nominal diameter
number of 10 and 32 threads per inch.
The designation of this screw is 10--32 UNF.

THREAD PITCH

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Screw pitch gauge

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TOOLS

Figure 107

Screw Pitch Gauge

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Internal

External

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The Die
Dies have three or more flutes to form cutting edges on the internal threads
and cavities for removal of chips.
They have chamfers ground on the first few threads of the leading end of the
die to facilitate easy starting.

The Stock
The stock is the tool used to hold and turn a threading die when producing external threads by hand.

HAND THREADING TOOLS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

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Handle

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Stock

Leading face of die

Hand Threading Tools

Cutting
teeth

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Figure 108

Recess
for die

Locking and adjusting screws

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Die

Leading face of die

Chamfer

Flute

Page: 224

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Hand Taps
Hand taps have three or more flutes to form cutting faces on the external
threads and channels for removal chips.
Hand taps have chamfers ground on the leading threads of the tap to enable
easy starting.
The end of the shank is squared to allowed it to be gripped firmly in the tap
wrench.

Tap Wrench
Tap wrenches are tools used to hold and turn a tap when cutting internal
threads by hand.
Tap wrenches have adjustable jaws to grip the hand tap.

HAND TAPPING TOOLS

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TOOLS

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Adjust jaw by
turning handle

Hand Tapping Tools

Flute

Chamfer

Tap wrench grips


squared part of
shank

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Figure 109

Bar-type tap handle

Aug 2004

Handle

Jaws

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TOOLS

Hand tap

Cutting face

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Regular Hand Taps


Each regular hand tap set consists of a taper, an intermediate and a bottoming
tap.
Each tap in a set has identical length and thread measurements and only the
tapered lead is different.
S Always use the taper tap to start thread.
S Use the intermediate tap to follow the taper tap.
S Use the bottoming tap to complete the thread.

TYPE OF TAPS

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Taper tap

Start with taper tap

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TOOLS

Figure 110

Types of Taps

Intermediate tap

Use intermediate tap


after taper

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Bottoming tap

Page: 228

Bottoming completes thread

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Size and Condition


Holes of the correct size and condition are essential for successful tapping.
Theoretically, a tap would produce a 100% thread in an accurate hole of the
same diameter as the minor diameter of its thread.
Calculations based on a different standard formula for each thread may be
used.
Engineering handbooks and manufacturers give tables of tapping drill recommendations.

HOLES FOR TAPPING

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Major diameter

Minor diameter

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Figure 111

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Holes for Tapping


Page: 230

Drilling swarf left in bottom of blind hole


may cause tap to jam on packed swarf and break

Drill hole not round


may cause tap to break

Drill hole too small


may cause:- threads to break
tap may break

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16.If the flutes are clogged, reverse the tap carefully and remove it from the
hole. Use a brush to remove the chips from the tap and the hole and continue the tapping process.
17.Continue turning the tap until at least half the tap extends below the lower
surface of the material.
18.When the taper tap reaches the required depth, change to the intermediate
tap. Hand screw the intermediate tap into the thread drilled by taper tap
and continue turning with the wrench.
19.To complete the hand-tapping, change to the bottoming tap after the intermediate tap reaches the required depth. Do it the same way as with the
intermediate tap.

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Procedure
1. Check the size of thread required and select the correct taps.
2. Determine the correct size of tapping drill. Drill the tapping hole carefully
and deburr the edges.
3. Fit the taper tap in a matching size bar-type tap wrench.
4. Hold the tap wrench with both hands close to the centre. Place the end of
the tap in the hole. Sight up that the tap is perpendicular to the surface of
the work.
5. Apply steady downward pressure and begin turning the handles clockwise
in a horizontal plane.
6. Complete two turns while keeping the wrench handles level and applying
even downward pressure.
7. Release and remove the tap-wrench, leaving the tap in place.
8. Place a small tri-square on the work to check that the tap is vertical to the
work surface. Test again in a second position about 90 from the first. If the
tap is not square to the surface, note the correction required.
9. Refit and tighten the tap-wrench.
10.Hold the tap wrench as before and begin turning. To correct a tap that is out
of square, apply slight side pressure in the direction required as the wrench
is turned.
11. Complete two turns and check as before that the tap is square. The tap
must be square within the first few turns. Out of squareness cannot be corrected after this.
12.If the tap is square with the work, apply a suitable cutting fluid.
13.Hold the tap-wrench at the end of the handles with the fingers to allow
sensitive feel of the torque applied to the tap.
14.Turn the wrench with constant pressure applied evenly with both hands. No
downward pressure is required once the tap begins to feed itself into the
hole.
15.As you turn the wrench try to feel the degree of resistance being offered to
the tap. If you feel it is increasing, reverse the wrench a quarter turn. This
will break off metal build-up.

HOW TO TAP

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Figure 112

How to Tap

Check tap is square

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Quarter reverse when necessary

Start tapping

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TOOLS

Complete tapping by
constant turning

Squaring up the tap

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Effects of Lubrication
Lubrication on threads has a significant effect on torque and great care should
be taken when setting up torque wrenches to given values.
Clarify whether the torque load specified is for wet or dry threads.

Toggle
This type of torque wrench is set to a pre-determined torque prior to tightening
the fastener. This is done by screwing the handle in or out, either
S setting it to a scale along the wrench body, or
S setting up in a rig.

Torsion Bar
When a force is applied, a bar deflects in torsion (twisting) as well as bending.
When the bar is twisted, a rack-and-pinion gear within the wrench is connected
to a dial indicator which shows the amount of torque.

Deflecting Beam
This consists of a square-drive at one end of an accurately-ground beam with a
handle (mounted on a pivot) at the other end.
A pointer indicates on a scale the amount of torque applied as the beam bends.

Types of Wrench
There are three basic types of torque wrench
S Deflecting Beam
S Torsion Bar
S Toggle

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Calibration
Because torque wrenches and setting rigs are precision instruments, they are
subject to periodic calibration testing.
Depending on the frequency of use, this is either 6--monthly or annually, but if
in very frequent use they should be checked on a weekly basis.

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General
Torque is the amount of rotational force applied when tightening a fastener.
To prevent over-tightening (and thus damaging threads), accurate application
of torque is achieved by using a torque wrench.
A torque wrench is a precision tool that either indicates torque applied or,
through adjustment of the tool, prevents over-tightening.
Depending on the range, a torque wrench is calibrated in inch-pounds or
foot-pounds (Imperial) or Nm (metric).

TORQUE WRENCHES

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Toggle

Torsion Bar

Deflecting Beam

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Figure 113

Torque Wrenches

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Torque Analyzer

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ROTATING A NUT BY A VERY SMALL AMOUNT INCREASES THE TORQUE CONSIDERABLY.


WITH THIS IN MIND, ALIGNING COTTER PIN HOLES
SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT VERY CAREFULLY.

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Using Extension Bars


Indicated torque on either a deflecting beam or torsion bar torque wrench is
taken from the centre of the square drive. If an extension bar is to be used, its
length must be taken into consideration (see calculation example).

CAUTION:

REMEMBER, TORQUE LOADING VARIES CONSIDERABLY


BETWEEN WET AND DRY THREADS.
THE VALUES IN THIS TABLE ARE FOR DRY THREADS.
It is common practice to give a minimum and maximum value when specifying
torque figures.
In the case where a castle nut is tightened then secured with a cotter pin,
always torque initially to the lower figure. Adjust the torque loading upwards
(but not exceeding the upper value) to align the cotter pin hole with the nut
castellation gaps. If this is unsuccessful, replace the washer for one with a
different thickness and re-try.

CAUTION:

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The actual amount of torque applied to a fastener when a 5--inch extension is


used with 120 pounds of indicated torque is 150 inch-pounds.

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Torque Values
Torque values will normally be specified in the Maintenance Manual.
If, however, no figure is given, the table opposite shows standard values.

TORQUE WRENCHES (CONTD)

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Figure 114

Torque Values

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Metric Micrometer
The bore of the barrel is screwed 1/2mm pitch and the spindle, which is attached to the thimble, screws through.
Adjustment is provided for the longitudinal position of the spindle and for tightness of the screw head. The barrel is graduated in mm and 1/2mm for a length
of 25mm and the rim of the thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions.
Measurement is taken between the face of the anvil and the end of the spindle,
and the range of the micrometer is 25 mm, so if we wish to measure up to 150
mm we must have six micrometers; 0 to 25, 25 to 50, 50 to 75 and so on with
125 to 150mm as the largest size.

Description
A micrometer consists of a semi--circular frame having a cylindrical extension
(barrel) at its right end, with hardened anvils inside, at the left end.

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Page: 237

Calibration
Should the micrometers accuracy be in doubt (or it is due periodic calibration),
it can be checked and readjusted.
This is accomplished by using a standard or gauge block; a piece of metal or
ceramic that is manufactured to very close tolerances which itself is subject to
routine calibration.
The gauge block is inserted between the anvil and spindle and the spindle then
closed gently onto the block. The tool is then adjusted by means of a wrench
(supplied with the micrometer) so that the zero mark on the thimble exactly
coincides with the sleeve datum line.
Calibration/adjustment is normally carried out by a specialist in a
temperature/humidity controlled environment.

Imperial Micrometer
In this case, the pitch of the screw thread on the spindle is 40 threads per inch.
One revolution of the thimble advances the spindle face toward or away from
the anvil face precisely 1/40 or .025.
The reading line on the sleeve is divided into 40 equal parts by vertical lines
that correspond to the number of threads on the spindle. Therefore, each vertical line designates 1/40 or .025. Lines vary in length for easy reading. Every
fourth line, which is longer than the others, designates a hundred thousandths.
For example, the line marked 1 represents .100 and the line marked 2
represents .200 etc.
The bevelled edge of the thimble is divided into 25 equal parts, with each line
representing .001 and every line numbered consecutively. Rotating the thimble
from one of these lines to the next moves the thimble longitudinally 25 of .025,
or .001.
Rotating two divisions represents .002 etc. 25 divisions indicate a complete
revolution of .025 or 1/40 of an inch.

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General
When a part has to be measured to the second decimal place in the metric
system (or the third place in the English system), a more accurate method of
measurement is needed than can be obtained with a vernier calliper, so a
micrometer is commonly used.

MICROMETER

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1. Anvils
2. Spindle
3. Locknut
4. Sleeve
5. Main nut

11

4
9

5 6

Figure 115

Micrometer

6. Adjusting nut for main nut


7. Thimble adjusting nut
8. ratchet stop
9. Thimble
10. Frame

Index to parts

10

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Reading Example
The thimble has moved out 8 complete turns =
1 additional half-millimetre division is visible =
36 thimble lines have passed the datum line =
Reading =
8.00
0.50
0.36
8.86mm

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Reading Example
The thimble has moved out 3 complete turns =
2 additional 0.025 divisions are visible
=
12 thimble lines have passed the datum line =
Reading =

0.300
0.050
0.012
0.362 in

Page: 239

Micrometer Readings - Imperial


The screw in the metric micrometer has a pitch of 0.025 in, so that the jaws
open 0.025 in (1/40 in) for each revolution of the thimble.
The rim of the thimble is divided into 25 divisions, each of which gives a reading of 0.001 in.
The barrel is marked in 0.1 in and 0.025 in divisions, so that to take a reading
we add the number of thousandths indicated on the thimble to the tenths and
hundredths uncovered on the barrel.

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Micrometer Readings - Metric


The screw in the metric micrometer has a pitch of 0.5mm, so that the jaws
open 0.5mm for each revolution of the thimble.
The rim of the thimble is divided into 50 divisions, each of which gives a reading of 0.01mm.
The barrel is marked in millimetres and 0.5mm divisions, so that to take a reading we add the number of hundredths indicated on the thimble to the millimetres and half-millimetres uncovered on the barrel.

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Imperial

Metric

8 = 8.0

= 0.36

=.300

Reading Examples

=.012
Measurement = .362 in

Lines on thimble which have passed sleeve datum line ..... 12

Lines (bottom) visible between 3 and thimble edge ..... 2 (2 x .025) =.050

Highest number (top) visible on sleeve ................................ 3

Figure 116

Page: 240

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Measurement = 8.86mm

Lines on thimble which have passed sleeve datum line ..... 36

Lines (bottom) visible between 8 and thimble edge ...... 1 (1 x 0.50) =0.50

Highest number (top) visible on sleeve ...............................

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20 Complete Turns
20 x 0.50 =
10.00 mm Plus
50 x 0.01 =
0.50 mm
Reading is
10.5 mm

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Figure 117

13.00 mm Plus
0.01 mm
13.01 mm

Reading Examples (Continued)

26 x 0.50 =
1 x 0.01 =
Reading is

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..... x 0.50 =
..... x 0.01 =
Reading is

.......... mm Plus
......... mm
.......... mm

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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USE ONLY THE RATCHET STOP, OTHERWISE THE


MEASUREMENT WILL BE INACCURATE DUE TO
OVERTIGHTENING.

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NOTE:

Micrometer handling
1. Set the micrometer to a oversize dimension
2. Set the frame anvil straight to the work
3. Clamp the spindle against the subject using the ratchet stop

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Tighten using the ratchet stop

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TOOLS

Figure 118

Handling on hard-to-get locations


or one-hand handling

Micrometer Handling

Micrometer mounted on a stand (use when


you have to measure a lot of objects)

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Description
The vernier calliper consists of a bar and two measuring jaws. One jaw is fixed
to the bar, the other one slides on the bar. The bar of a metric vernier calliper is
equipped with an engraved scale, graduated in mm. Opposite to this scale
there is the vernier scale on the slide. This scale is divided in 10, 20, or 50
equal spacing, known as 1/10, 1/20 or 1/50 vernier.

General
Vernier callipers / sliding gauges are used to make accurate inside or outside
as well as depth measurements faster than those made with a micrometer, and
for measurements that exceed the practical range of a micrometer.

VERNIER CALLIPER

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1
2
3
4
5

Figure 119

Reference surface
Main scale
Vernier scale
External measuring jaws
Step measuring face

Vernier Calliper

6
7
8
9
10

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Internal measuring jaws


Clamp screw
Slider
Depth bar
Main beam

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1/50 Vernier
The accuracy reading is 0.02mm.

1/20 Vernier
The most often used vernier calliper is the calliper with the 1/20 vernier and an
accuracy reading of 0.05mm.

1/10 Vernier
The distance from 0 to 1 on the main scale is 10mm and it will be seen that 10
divisions on the sliding vernier scale are equal to 9mm on the top main scale.
The length of the bottom division is 9mm: 10 = 0.9mm, and since the top division is 1mm, the difference is 1mm -- 0.9mm = 0.1mm. This difference represents the accuracy to which readings may be taken.

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1/10 Vernier

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Figure 120

Vernier

1/20 Vernier

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1/50 Vernier

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Count the total length indicated on the main scale and note the mark on the
vernier scale which is level with a mark on the main scale.
This latter amount will represent the number of dimensions which must be
added to the first reading.

Vernier Calliper Readings


Readings are carried out as follows:

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TOOLS

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Figure 121

Principle of a Vernier

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Figure 122

Vernier Examples

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Figure 123

Vernier Reading

Reading is 68.32 mm
(1/50 Vernier)

Reading is 73.65 mm
(1/20 Vernier)

Reading is 30.00 mm
(1/10 Vernier)

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Figure 124

Vernier Reading Examples 1

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Reading .......... mm

Reading .......... mm

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Figure 125

.......... inches

.......... inches

Vernier Reading Examples 2

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Reading .......... mm

Reading .......... mm

.......... inches

.......... inches

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Depth measurement
Ensure that the recess in the depth gauge is in the corner area.

Outside Measurement
Set the fixed leg against the work and slide the movable leg to the final
position.
Set the starting position with the vernier calliper in the oversize dimension until
in place.

Vernier Calliper Handling


The vernier calliper is made in various sizes from 150mm upwards, a useful
size being one capable of working up to 300mm.
When it is used for a bore or any other inside measurement, set the cross jaws
to an undersize dimension and slide it to the final position.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Page: 255

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Internal Measurement

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Take the smallest reading (groove).

Take the maximum reading (internal diameter).

Insert jaws as deep as possible into workpiece.

Measurement Force
Do not apply excessive force to the workpiece.
This can result in inaccurate measurement due
to positional deviation of the calliper jaws.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 126

Vernier Measuring Precautions

Set the depth bar perpendicular to the measured surfaces.

Depth Measurement

Parallax Error
When taking the reading, ensure you view the scale
perpendicular to the measured point. When viewed
obliquely (direction A) parallax error occurs, resulting
in inaccurate reading.

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Page: 256

Align the step measuring face


with the surface of the object.

Step Measurement

Outside Measurement
Place the workpiece as deep as possible
into the jaws, ensuring the faces are square
to the object being measured.

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Description
One revolution of the large hand corresponds to 1mm. The second smaller
hand of the rotation tachometer counts the revolutions of the large hand.
Measuring range is normally 10mm. Set to zero by revolving the rotary scale.

General
The dial indicator is a high-precision measurement tool with an accuracy of
0.01mm. It is especially used in the mechanical engineering section to measure
alignments of shafts or to check the smoothness of surfaces.
A special type of dial indicator is an excellent tool to measure material removed
after corrosion or lightning-strike repairs.

DIAL INDICATOR

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Pin

Spindle

Figure 127

Tolerance
marks

Dial Indicator

Climb shaft

Rotation tachometer
(mm)

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THIS PROCEDURE MEASURES THE DEPTH OF THE MATERIAL


REMOVED. THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL REMAINING
MUST BE FOUND OUT BY CALCULATION.

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NOTE:

4. Carry out the inspection at different points in the inspection area until you
find the maximum depth of removed material.

3. Use of the dial gauge for inspection is as shown.

2. Put the dial indicator with the measuring stand on a flat surface and rotate
the rotary scale mark to zero.

Work sequence
1. Clean up damaged area.

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Figure 128

Dial Indicator Work Sequence

Area where you must


remove the paint

Base flat
on skin

Dial gauge

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Skin

Measuring
stand

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Description
The off-hand grinding machine is basically an electric motor with grinding
wheels mounted onto the spindle (normally one on either side).
It is common practise to have different grade wheels; one for rough finishes
and the other for finer grinding.
Grinding machines can be either bench- or floor-mounted.
Floor-mounted (or pedestal) grinding machines often have a tank mounted on
the front containing some sort of queching fluid (usually water).
Excessive grinding of items without periodic cooling can destroy its tempering.

NEVER USE THE SIDE OF AN ABRASIVE WHEEL; A


GROOVE CAN FORM OVER TIME, CREATING A WEAK
POINT THAT HAS, IN THE PAST, LED TO WHEELS EXPLODING.
Over a period of time, the surface of the wheel will become grooved and pitted
and embedded with metal.
A specially-trained operative will dress the wheel using a diamond-tipped tool.

CAUTION:

Safety
An off-hand grinding machine is potentially very dangerous, so approximately
3/4 of the circumference of the wheel is encased in the wheel guard.
Additionally, there is a transparent screen covering as much of the exposed
part of the wheel as is practical.
Despite this screen, always protect your eyes with goggles as well.
The tool rest should be adjusted to give the smallest possible clearance
between it and the wheel.

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CAUTION:

Page: 261

THE POINT OF A PUNCH SHOULD ALWAYS BE GROUND


WITH THE GRINDING LINES PARALLEL TO THE AXIS.
TRANSVERSE GRINDING WEAKENS THE POINT.

Grinding a Centre Punch


1. Hold the punch in one hand and position the fingers of the other hand
towards the head of the punch so that it can be rotated during the grinding
operation.
2. With the first hand steadied against the tool-rest, adjust the angle of the
punch so that it is approximately 60o to the face of the wheel.
3. As you touch the point of the punch on the wheel, maintain a light, even
pressure and rotate the punch.
4. Quench the punch frequently to prevent over-heating and subsequent
softening of the metal.

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Introduction
The abrasive wheel is made of abrasive materials bonded together.
Most wheels are made from silicon carbide (carborundum), but aluminium
oxide abrasives are occassionally used for fine grinding.

ABRASIVE WHEELS

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Tool rest
adjuster

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Tool rest

Grinding
wheel

Drive motor

Wheel guard

Screen

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Figure 129

Screen

Off-Hand Grinding Machines

Quenching
fluid

Goggles

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Pedestal Grinding Machine

Quenching
tank

Bench Grinding Machine

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What is mineral oil and why is synthetic oil different?


Mineral oil is derived from crude oil, which is extracted underground from rock
structures. In the industry, we call mineral oil a base oil or a base stock, simply
because it forms the base of a formulation.
To manufacture base oils, crude oil is heated up and the evaporated material
collected at different temperatures (atmospheric distillation). The material
collected is then vacuum distilled, processed through a furfural extraction unit
to remove aromatic components and solvent dewaxed to remove wax crystals.
Hydrofinishing is then undertaken to remove impurities and make the base oil
brighter.
Synthetic oils are manufactured by chemical reaction and can produce very
consistent quality base stocks of different viscosities depending on the
molecular weight of the material produced. The key differences are that mineral
base stocks contain some impurities, are less molecularly pure and less
thermally stable than equivalent synthetic oils.
However, catalytic techniques are making special base stocks almost identical
to synthetic oils.
Interestingly, it has been found that impurities in mineral base stocks can
enhance certain performance aspects, for example anti--oxidant properties.

LUBRICANTS ARE GENERALLY VOLATILE AND SHOULD


BE STORED IN LOCKERS AND AREAS DESIGNED TO
MINIMISE THE POSSIBILITY OF FIRE.

CAUTION:

Page: 263

LUBRICANTS SHOULD NOT BE MIXED; COMPONENT


SEALS ARE CHOSEN FOR THEIR COMPATIBILITY WITH A
SPECIFIC LUBRICANT. INTRODUCING AN INCORRECT
LUBRICANT CAN BREAK DOWN A SEAL, DESTROYING
ITS EFFECTIVENESS.
OILS AND GREASES SHOULD BE KEPT IN CLEARLYMARKED CONTAINERS, PREFERABLY THAT IN WHICH
THEY ARE RECEIVED FROM THE MANUFACTURERS.
OIL CANS AND GREASE GUNS SHOULD BE CLEARLY
MARKED WITH THEIR CONTENTS.

CAUTION:

Oil or Grease?
The Maintenance Manual will indicate the correct lubricant, method and
frequency of application.

Personal Safety
Oil and grease in contact with the skin can result in dermatitis. Barrier cream
should be applied prior to handling these lubricants.
The accidental subcutaneous injection of oil or grease can also have serious
health implications. Oiling and greasing equipment should be handled with care
and horseplay can result in disciplinary action.

Methods of Application
Oils and greases are normally applied via oil cans and grease guns, whereby
the lubricant is pumped into the area requiring it. Usually the lubricant is
hand-pumped, but large grease drums can be fitted to pneumatic devices to
facilitate greasing of multiple points.

What are lubricants ?


Lubricants control friction and wear by introducing a friction-reducing film
between moving surfaces in contact. They may be fluid, solid or plastic.
Lubricants are generally formulated for specific applications. For example,
engine oils. In this application, they reduce fiction and so increase fuel
efficiency, reduce wear of moving parts, protect the inside of the engine against
corrosion, cool the piston and other hot components, remove combustion
impurities and blow--by gases and help seal the piston during combustion, thus
improving energy conversion.
Lubricants are highly sophisticated products, not easily formulated.

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What is grease?
Grease is a lubricant composed of an oil or oils thickened with a soap or other
thickener to make a solid or semi--solid product.

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Introduction
To prevent heat build-up, increase efficiency and prolong component life,
moving parts must be lubricated.

LUBRICATION

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Lumatic Minor
HP Grease Gun

Filling handle

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Operating lever

Pressure spring

Grease container

Plunger piston

High pressure piston

Outlet tube
assembly

Air release valve


Lubricating connector

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TOOLS

Figure 130

Filling handle

Light alloy head

Non-return valve

Plunger piston

Pressure spring

Lubrication Tools

Wanner HP Grease Gun

Operating lever

Lubricating connector

High pressure piston

Outlet tube assembly

Transfer valve

Air release valve

Grease container

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Oil container

Pump assembly

Application spout

Oil Can

Pump operating lever

Page: 264

Handle

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Special Performance Greases


Special performance greases include:
S Royco 11MS
S MIL--PRF--81322 (NATO G--354)
S BMS 3--24.
In some applications, a special purpose grease is necessary. Where only one
grease is recommended for a specific application, it will be listed with the word
Only after it.

General--Purpose Aviation Grease


Boeing selects the grease to use based on the specific application.
Greases that meet the following specifications are considered general--purpose
aviation grease for the --100oF (--73oC) to 250oF (121oC) range:
S BMS 3--33
S MIL--PRF--23827
S MIL--G--21164 (NATO G--353).
BMS 3--33 is the preferred general--purpose aviation grease recommended by
Boeing for applications exposed to temperatures of less than 250oF. It is recommended because it shows better wear, corrosion protection and low temperature torque properties.
Greases that have been used before and approved by Boeing for the specific
assembly are listed as flagnotes on the lubrication instructions for the specific
assembly. If there is an application where only one grease must be used, it will
be listed with the word Only after it.

General Instructions for Lubrication


This section of the AMM gives the normal aircraft lubrication procedures.
Specific data about where to lubricate is given in the subsequent subjects of
this section.
There are other lubrication instructions in other ATA sections of the AMM about
equipment removal and replacement.

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Page: 265

Lubrication Application Procedures and Cautions


Do the following to prevent lubricant contamination:
S Put lubricant identification labels on all containers, guns and dispensers.
S Keep lubricants in containers that have tight covers.
S Make sure that the container material will not absorb contamination.
S Keep out dust and other contamination when the container is open.
S Keep grease guns, brushes and oil cans clean.

Lubrication Symbols
Lubrication blocks are used to show the part or unit to be lubricated.
Examples of lubrication blocks used in the manual are shown opposite. If
necessary, more data is given near the lubrication block to help you lubricate
the airplane correctly. Each block shows this data:
S The lubrication method
S The type of lubricant
S The access panel number is given above or below the lubrication block for
points if it is not easy to find the area you must lubricate.
More data on commonly-used grease is available in Boeing Service Letter
737--SL--20--027, Summary of Most Commonly Used Greases on Boeing
Airplanes.

Other Lubricants
S BMS 3--32, Type II Landing Gear Shock Strut Fluid, Anti--Wear
S MIL--H--5606, Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum base, Aircraft (NATO H--515)
S MIL--PRF--7870, Lubricating Oil, General Purpose, Low Temperature
(NATO O--142).

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GENERAL LUBRICATION INSTRUCTIONS - BOEING

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Figure 131

Lubrication Symbol Examples

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Correct Lubrication
Do not
S let dirt, swarf and other unwanted material get in the lubricant during and
after lubrication. Remove dirt from the grease fittings before you attach the
grease gun.
S lubricate Teflon bearings and bushings; lubricants may cause damage to the
Teflon and decrease the bearing life.
S push the seal out with the grease.
Do
S ensure that the pressure that you set is less than 2500 psi (17237 KPa).
Too much pressure will cause the fitting to blow out, resulting in injuries to
personnel and/or damage to equipment.
S set the pressure at 100 to 200 psi (689 -- 1379 KPa) unless otherwise specified. This is usually sufficient to push out used grease.
S find all of the lubrication points that are identified in the specific maintenance
task.
S use the specified lubricant.
S use an Alemite Midget flush adapter (No. 314150) for flush--type grease
fittings.
S apply all lubricants slowly and smoothly.
S dispense grease into the grease fitting until the used grease is visually
removed and only new grease comes out.
S remove unwanted grease or lubricating fluid that is around the part or on
other parts to prevent contamination and damage to other surfaces.
S be careful when you lubricate sealed--ball or sealed--roller bearings that
have a grease fitting.
S Use a restrictor--type adapter to decrease the flow rate of the grease.
S Stop the operation if the shape of the seal starts to change, or if the grease
comes out of the bearing.
If a grease fitting comes out, carry out the following:
S Look for blockage in the fitting or part.
S If necessary, dismantle the part to remove the blockage.
S Install a new fitting (AMM TASK 20--10--24--421--001).

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TOOLS

Alemite Midget 31450

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TOOLS

Figure 132

B737 Main Landing Gear Lubrication Example

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Page: 269

PUT THE LUBE FITTING INTO THE HOLE IN THE MATING PART
AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE SO THAT IT DOES NOT WARM UP
TOO MUCH.
7. Let the lube fitting cure for 12 hours at room temperature before using it.

NOTE:

Installation Of A Lubrication Fitting Which Has Blown Out


1. Get the specified standard size or a modified size lube fitting for installation.
2. Clean the lube fitting hole as follows:
A. use cotton swabs to remove as much grease as possible from the lube
fitting hole.
B. use cleaner on a clean cotton swab to clean the hole to a depth of 1/2 in
minimum.
3. Carry out the following steps to apply the primer:
A. Use a cotton swab to apply a thin coat of primer to the bore of the hole.
B. Let the primer air-dry at room temperature for a minimum of 5 minutes
before you apply the retainer compound.
4. Use a cotton swab to apply a thin coat of adhesive to the bore of the hole.
The depth of the adhesive should be 0.25 to 0.40 inch.
5. Put the lube fitting into liquid nitrogen for a minimum of 1 minute to ensure
the lube fitting cools equally.
6. Use the correct driving tool to fit the lube fitting into the hole in the mating
part.

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ENSURE YOU USE THE CORRECT TOOL TO INSTALL THE


LUBRICATION FITTING. DRIVE THE LUBRICATION FITTING
IN STRAIGHT TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE MATING
SURFACES.
1. Get the specified standard lube fitting for installation.
2. Clean the lube fitting hole as follows:
A. use cotton swabs to remove as much grease as possible from the lube
fitting hole.
B. use cleaner on a clean cotton swab to clean the hole to a depth of 1/2 in
minimum.
3. Use the correct driving tool to fit the lube fitting into the hole in the mating
part.

CAUTION:

Lubrication Fittings -- Installation

EXAMPLE: B737 LUBRICATION FITTINGS


REMOVAL/INSTALLATION

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Figure 133

Lubrication Fitting Modification and Installation

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DO NOT OPERATE POWER--OPERATED LUBRICATION


EQUIPMENT AT MORE THAN 103.5 BARS (1500 PSI). HIGH
LUBRICATION PRESSURE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO THE
AIRCRAFT.
S Lubricate the MLG uplock, Item No. 5 of the MLG Door and Uplocks Table,
with COMMON GREASE (Material No. 04--004) as follows:
Lubricate the greasers Items 1 thru 4 in the Main Landing Gear
Door and Uplock Table with COMMON GREASE (Material No.
04--004) until new grease comes out.
If you use hand--operated lubrication equipment, lubricate each greaser with a
maximum of two full strokes.
Remove the unwanted grease:
S clean the greasers with a clean MISCELLANEOUS (Material No. 19--003)
and CLEANING AGENTS (Material No. 11--026).
S ensure that the greaser ball has seated correctly.

CAUTION:

USE THE TABLES THAT FOLLOW TO DETERMINE THE


CORRECT GREASER.
Lubricate the MLG Uplock:

NOTE:

MLG Lubrication

Equipment Preparation
1. Ensure that the lubrication equipment is in a serviceable condition before
you fill it.
2. Operate the lubrication equipment to make sure that the lines and adaptor
are full of new lubricant.
3. Clean the greasers with a clean MISCELLANEOUS (Material No. 19--003)
and CLEANING AGENTS (Material No. 11--026).

MLG and Doors Lubrication


No specific lubrication equipment required.

EXAMPLE: A320 MLG AND DOORS LUBRICATION

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TOOLS

Figure 134

Greaser Table

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TOOLS

Figure 135

Greaser Table (Contd)

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Figure 136

Lubrication Points

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Bonding Connections
When a bonding connection is to be made or renewed, it is essential that the
conductor has the specified current-carrying capacity.
Braided copper or aluminium cords fitted at each end with connecting tags or
lugs (bonding jumpers) are used for bonding connections between moving
parts or parts subjected to vibration.
All bonding connections must be properly locked to prevent intermittent contact
which may be caused by vibration. Intermittent contact is worse than no
contact at all.
Bonding connections must not interfere (either mechanically or electrically) with
any associated or adjacent equipment, nor should they be excessively tight or
slack.
Provided that all insulating materials (anodic finish, paint etc) are removed from
contact faces before assembly, the following joints are considered self-bonding:
S metal-to-metal joints held together by threaded devices or rivets
S most cowling fasteners, locking and latching mechanisms
S metal-to-metal door and panel hinges
S metal-to-metal bearings

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Secondary

Primary

Bonding Classification

Between equipment containing


circuits carrying 50 volts (rms or
dc) or more, and the main earth
system.

1 ohm

Page: 275

0.5 megaohm or 100,000 ohms


per sq ft of surface area
(whichever is the less)

Between all isolated conducting


parts which may be subject to
appreciable electrostatic
charging and the main earth
system.
Between equipment supplied
fromthe unearthed system, of
any voltage, and the main earth
system.

1 ohm

0.05 ohm

Estimated and declared by


manufacturer.

Maximum Resistance

Between metallic parts normally


in contact with flammable fluids
and main earth system, and
also between the parts
themselves.

Between bonded components


and portions of main earth
system to which they are
connected.

Between extremities of the fixed


portions of metallic aircraft.

Between extremities of the fixed


portions of aircraft of
non-metallic or composite
construction.

Test Condition

Resistance Values
The Civil Aviation Authoritys requirements with regard to the maximum
resistance values for the various conditions of bonding are summarised here.

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Bond Testing
Bonding is the electrical interconnection of metallic parts (normally at earth
potential) for the safe distribution of electrical charges and currents.
Bonding provides a means of protection against charges as a result of the
build-up of precipitation, static and electrostatic induction (as a result of
lightning strikes) so that the safety of the aircraft and its occupants is not
endangered.
Bonding also reduces the possibility of electric shock from the electrical supply
system, reduces interference with the functioning of essential services (radio
communications and navigational aids) and provides a low-resistance electrical
return path for electric current in earth-return systems.
The aircrafts earthing system is automatically connected to the ground upon
landing via the nose (or tail) wheel tyre, which is impregnated with an
electrically conducting compound.

ELECTRICAL TEST EQUIPMENT

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Milliohmmeter

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Figure 137

Electrical Test Instruments

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Voltmeter

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Method 1
1. The 60--foot cable should be connected to main earth (also known as the
bond datum point) at the terminal points usually shown diagrammatically in
the relevant Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
Since the standard bonding tester lead is 60 feet, the measurement
between the extremities of larger types of aircraft may have to be
done by selecting one or more main earth points successively, in
which case the resistance value between the main earth points
should be checked before proceeding to check the remote point.
2. The 6--foot cable should be used to check the resistance between selected
points, usually specified in the bonding test schedule or the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual.
When the two spikes of the test lead probe are brought into contact with
the aircraft part, the test-meter will ndicate, in ohms, the rsistance of the
bond.

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Page: 277

Excessive Resistance
1. In the case of bonding jumpers, the connecting tag or lugs should be
removed and the contacting faces thoroughly cleaned, using a slight
abrasive if necessary. All traces of abrasive must be removed.
The connecting area should be sealed and treated with anti-oxidant as
specified in the relevant drawing and specification.
2. If a holding bolt is the bonding connection, the bolt should be removed
and the area under the bolt-head (or nut) cleaned and protected as above.
3. If the required bond value cannot be obtained at a structural joint, the
advice of the manufacturer must be sought.
Note: corrosion tends to form at a bonding or earth connection and is often the
cause of excessive resistance.

Method 2
Alternatively, the four-terminal method of resistance measurement may be
adopted with the appropriate miliohmeter (see Fig 1).
The test leads may be in the form of duplex spikes (see Fig 2) or, when used in
association with crocodile-type test leads, single spikes.
Note: In order to check that the instrument is functioning correctly, the two
hand spikes should be placed on a low-resistance conductor with the potential
spikes (P1 and P2) closely together (see Fig 3). The result of this test should
be a zero reading on the meter.
1. A test current (approx 2 amps) is supplied via the internal batteries and
passed through the resistance via cables C1 and C2.
2. The voltage drop across the rsistance is measured (P1 and P2) and
compared with the current flowing.
The resultant value is then displayed (normally digitally) on the meter.
Note: To ensure good electrical contact at the probe spikes, it may be
necessary to penetrate or remove a small area of a non-conducting
protective coating. Therefore any damage to the protective coating must be
restored after the test.

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Bond Testing (Contd)


Special test equipment, consisting of a meter and two cables each of specific
length, is required for checking the resistance of bonding.
A meter commonly used consists of an ohmmeter operating on the current ratio
principle and a single 1.2 volt nickel-alkaline cell housed in a wooden carrying
case.
The associated cables are 60 feet and 6 feet in length and are fitted with a
single-spike probe and a double-spike probe respectively.
Note: prior to testing, a check should be made on the state of the cell by
observing:
S that a full-scale deflection of the meter is obtained when the two spikes of
the 6--foot cable probe are shorted
S that the meter reads zero when the two spikes of the 6--foot probe are
shorted by the single spike of the 60--foot probe.

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Figure 138

Bond Testing Methods

Fig 3: Test Position of Hand Spikes

LOW RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR

P1

Resistance

P2

C2

Fig 2: Duplex Hand Spikes

C1

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Fig 1: Four Terminal Resistance Measurement

Resistance

C1 P1 P2 C2

Ohmmeter terminals

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of potential spikes

NOTE: observe position

Page: 278

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Millivolt Drop Test


Excessive resistance in high-current carrying circuits can be caused by loose
terminal connections, poorly swaged lead ends etc. Faults of this kind are
indicated by low terminal voltage at the connections to the service load and by
heating at a conductor joint.
If such faults are suspected, a millivolt drop test is recommended.
For continuously-rated circuits, the test should, whenever possible, be made
with the normal operating current flowing, the power being derived from an
external source.
For short-rated circuits, a suitable resistance or other dummy load should be
used in lieu of the normal load and the current should be scaled down to avoid
overheating.
The millivolt-meter should be connected to each side of the suspected joint and
a note made of the volt drop indicated. The indicated reading should be
compared with the figures quoted in the relevant publication (an approximate
guide is 5 mV/10 amps flowing).

Continuity Testing
A concealed break in a cable core or at a connection may be found by using a
continuity tester, which normally consists of a low-voltage battery (2.5 volts)
and a test lamp or low-reading voltmeter.
Before testing, the main electrical supply should be switched off or
disconnected. Check that fuses are intact and that there is no intermediate
disconnection. Switches and circuit-breakers, as appropriate, should be closed
to complete the circuit.
When carrying out a low-voltage continuity check, it is essential to work
progressively through the circuit, commencing from the relevant fuse or circuit
breaker and terminating at the equipment. Large circuits will probably have
several parallel paths and these should be progressed systematically, breaking
down as little as possible at plug and socket or terminal block connections.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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M 7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS, DIAGRAMS
AND STANDARDS

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GENERAL
Drawings are normally drawn to a uniform scale which is stated on the drawing
and is usually shown in a SCALE BOX by a ratio e.g. 1:1 (full size), 1:2 (half
size), etc.
In practice, no drawing should be measured to obtain a dimension which is not
shown. Drawings to scale 1:1 would be too large to handle comfortably, so they
are generally printed smaller for convenience. During this shrinking process
actual dimensions can become distorted, so taking a measurement directly
from the print would invariably be inaccurate.
If a particular dimension has been omitted, enquiry must be made to the Design Office or appropriate authority for the information.

SCALE

Standards
Other standards encountered when reading aircraft engineering drawings
include. ISO, international standards organisation and MS, military standard.

The layout, content and numbering system for aircraft engineering drawings is
decreed by Specification 100 of the Air Transport Association of America. This
topic is expanded on in Section M7.20 Maintenance Procedures.

AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

DRAWING PRACTICES
To understand drawings, the engineer must be familiar with common drawing
practices. The most common practices will be explained in the following pages
and will include the important aspects of:-1. scale
2. use of lines
3. methods of presentation
4. types of projection
5. special views.

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INTRODUCTION
Engineering drawing is the language of engineers. Drawings convey the designers requirements in a much clearer way than could be done by the use of
words.
Drawings are widely used and must include sufficient information to enable
manufacture, assembly, production planning, testing and inspection of the particular component, or assembly, to be carried out.
A British Standard (BS308) lays down criteria and conventions which should be
adhered to when creating an engineering drawing.
As well as showing the shape by drawing, the actual size of the shape must be
given. For reasons that will be explained later, engineers do not measure drawings to determine sizes, they refer to dimensions which are given on the drawing.
The engineer will need to know the finish required on the material. He must, of
course, also know the specification of the material from which the component is
to be made.
if you have previously used drawings your list may have been completed as
follows:
S shape
S size or dimensions
S material specification
S material finish
S relationship between the component and associated components in an assembly.
Additionally, data should be provided regarding:
S method of manufacture
S assembly/disassembly sequence
S installation and operation

ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (GENERAL)

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Figure 139

SCALE

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DATE

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Traditionally, the list of all component parts on a drawing are listed above the
title block. It is also known as the Bill of Materials.
Multi-sheet drawings may have many parts, so to reduce clutter and for
convenience they usually have separate BoM sheets reflecting all the parts,
their part numbers, their locations (by zone) and their effectivity (which mark of
aircraft they are fitted to).

PARTS LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS)

Prototype aircraft drawings are not formally released until the aircraft type goes
into production. Then the drawing will be detailed as Issue 1.
From time to time, amendments are made to engineering drawings, for
example if an item is modified in some way, or perhaps a new component is
added.
This amendment must be recorded on the drawing, as it is important to be
working from the latest issue of an engineering drawing.
This revision process is known as raising-in-issue and the drawing issue will
increase by one digit, ie from Issue 1 to Issue 2.
Conventionally, the Revision Block starts in the top right-hand corner of each
sheet and subsequent amendments are recorded to the left.

REVISION

Aircraft drawings are very large and often run over many sheets.
As can be seen on the diagram opposite, a drawing is bounded by a grid
system similar to a map. Typically, the vertical divisions are marked with letters
and the horizontal numbers.
A combination of a vertical and horizontal coordinate indicates a zone. The
zone can be used to locate sections and parts on large drawings.
For example, Zone D-1 in the diagram opposite shows the position of the
Revision Block.
With multi-page drawings, reference will be made to the map reference on the
relevant sheet, ie D-1--2 (the 2 being the sheet number).

Every print must have some means of identification.


This is provided by the title block.
The title block consists of a drawing number and certain other data conceming
the drawing and the object It represents. This information is grouped in a
prominent place always in the lower right--hand side of every sheet. When a
print is correctly folded, the title block is on the outside for easy reference.
The title block on Boeing production drawings contains the following information:
S DRAWING NUMBER: The drawing number is in 1/2--inch--high characters.
S TITLE: The title of a drawing is in 1/4--inch--high characters.
S SCALE: The scale of which the majority of views and sections are drawn is
entered as a ratio. When various parts are drawn to different scales, or if
there is no picture on Sheet One, the word NOTED is entered.
S DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE NOTES: Preprinted here are the general tolerances to be used with the various drawing dimensions if a tolerance is not
otherwise shown on the drawing.
S SH of : The total number of sheets is shown with the consecutive sheet
number such as SH 1 of 1, SH 1 of 4. On drawings with an automated parts
list (APL), this entry does not include the total number of picture sheets. The
application block of the separate parts list lists all applicable sheets for each
item.
S SIGNATURES: The signature block Is a list of approval signatures for the
drawing.
S SECT NO: The section number of the aircraft in which the item is installed.
when an installation extends through several sections MS Is used for
multisections.
S USED ON: The basic model number.

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TITLE BLOCK

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Figure 140

The drawing number should appear in the


top left--hand corner as well as bottom right.

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Engineering Drawing - Standard Layout

The title block -- normally standardised by


the manufacturer -- contains all the general
information relevant to the drawing.

The parts table only applies when the


drawing shows two or more components
assembled together. All parts (both bought
in and manufactured should be listed.

Tables are arranged so that part


numbers and revision letters build
up from the border inwards to allow
for future additions to the drawing.

Full details of all modifications


should be listed in the revision table.

Zone references are provided


for quick and easy location of
revisions (modifications).

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GENERAL
Different types and thicknesses of lines are used on drawings for the purposes
as shown in the table opposite.

TYPES AND USE OF LINES

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Limits of partial or interrupted views and sections

Limits of partial or interrupted views and sections

Hidden outlines and edges

Continuous thin irregular

Continuous thin
straight with zigzags

Dashed thick

Types And Use Of Lines

Outlines and edges of adjacent parts, alternative and extreme


positions of movable parts, centroidal lines, initial outlines prior to
forming, bend lines on developed blanks or patterns

Chain thin double dashed

Figure 141

Lines or surfaces to which a special requirement applies

Cutting planes

Centre lines, lines of symmetry, trajectories, pitch lines and circles

Chain thick

Chain thin,
thick at ends
and changes
of direction

Chain thin

Hidden outlines and edges

Imaginary lines of intersection, dimension lines, projection lines,


leader lines, hatching, outlines of revolved sections, short centre lines

Continuous thin

Dashed thin

Visible outlines and edges

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Continuous thick

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BREAK LINES
Because of limited space on a sheet of drawing paper, and so as to produce a
compact drawing, the use of break lines is often practised as shown on the
graphic below.

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Break Lines

Rectangular (wood)

Round Tube

Figure 142

Rectangular

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Round Bar

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REPETITIVE INFORMATION
Where several features are repeated in a regular pattern, such as rivets, bolts
or slots, only the number required to establish the pattern may be shown, by
marking their centerlines. Any further information may be given in a note.
The graphic below shows a typical skin joint which could be drawn in this
manner.

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Figure 143

Repetitive

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Holes
As can be seen opposite, holes can be plain--drilled, reamed or threaded.
S Drilled holes are portrayed by a thick--lined circle. Its diameter may be
shown by a note. If the hole is blind the note will include the depth.
Fastener holes are often shown as symbols with an accompanying explanatory table.
S Reamed holes symbols will include an explanatory note differentiating them
from plain holes.
S Threaded holes are defined with a thick circular line for the thread crest
and a thin, broken one for the root.

Introduction
To minimise confusion, certain conventions have been adopted to standardise
the way items appear on engineering drawings.

SYMBOLS

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Plain Drilled Holes

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Straight--through hole

Common Drawing Symbols - Holes

A hole may incorporate one or more


features, as in this case (spotfaced,
threaded and countersunk).

Reamed Hole

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Figure 144

Blind hole

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Threaded Hole

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Holes can be counterbored, spot--faced or countersunk to accomodate fastener


heads for flush fitting.
S A counterbore is a larger diameter hole, concentric to the primary hole,
with a flat shoulder. It is portrayed in plan view as two concentric thick--line
circles.
S A spotface is effectively a shallow counterbore to provide a flat, smooth
seating for a mating part or for a fastener head or nut. It is necessary when
the casting has a rough finish or is not square to the hole.
It is portrayed in plan view just like a counterbore, but the diameter of the
spotface must be given. The depth is not given; it is the minimum necessary to achieve a flat seating.
S Countersunk holes accept the tapered head of a fastener and are created
by special countersinking bits.
It is portrayed in plan view by two concentric thick lines, with details of the
hole and the angle and diameter of the countersink.

SYMBOLS - RECESSED HOLES

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Counterbored Hole

Figure 145

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Spotfaced Hole

Common Drawing Symbols - Recessed Holes

Countersunk Hole

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The figure opposite shows some typical conventions used in engineering


drawings.
These are, however, just a few used.

SYMBOLS - CONVENTIONS

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Figure 146

Typical Conventions

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Surface texture
shown in
micrometres

Surface texture
shown in roughness
numbers

Machining symbol

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When there is just a single number on the symbol, it shows the maximum
degree of roughness that is acceptable.
Sometimes, however, the surface texture is required between limits -- it must
not be too rough or too smooth.
This is shown by giving the maximum and minimum values:

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Surface Texture
Surface texture is a measure of the smoothness of the surface finish. Where
this is important, it will be specified on the drawing.
When a particular quality of surface finish is required, it will be stated by
numbers above the triangle.
The drawing should specify which scale is being used -- centreline average or
roughness number.

SYMBOLS - SURFACE TEXTURE

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Figure 147

Surface Texture Symbols

The machining symbol can be applied directly


to the line representing the surface or it can
be placed on a leader or extension line.

There are three scales commonly used for measuring surface texture.
The smaller the number, the smoother the texture.

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Horizon

Right
Vanishing
Point

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A sketch is a loosely-structured hand-drawing graphically depicting an object or


perhaps a proposed repair scheme.
They are typically created without the benefit of drawing instruments. For this
reason, an invaluable aid when creating a sketch is graph paper.

SKETCHES

Left
Vanishing
Point

Page: 299

First Angle Projection


The principle of first angle projection (European in origin) is shown opposite.
Each view represents the side of the object remote from it in the adjacent view.

Orthographic Projection
In order that drawings clearly show the designers requirements and provide
the opportunity to show all dimensions, they are usually drawn in either first- or
third-angle orthographic projection.

A perspective drawing shows an object in the way the human eye sees it.
Lines used to construct this type of drawing meet up at a distant point - the
vanishing point.
Perspective drawings are seldom used in engineering, as they cannot
accurately portray dimensions.

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PROJECTION

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PERSPECTIVE

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Front View B

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Figure 148

Side View C

Plan A

Front View B

First Angle Projection

Symbol

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Side View C

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Third Angle Projection


The principle of third angle projection (American in origin) is shown in Fig. 2.
Each view represents the side of the object nearest to it in the adjacent view.
The majority of drawings produced for aircraft purposes show the parts in third
angle projection, but you may have occasion to use older drawings that were
produced in first angle projection.
Both systems show objects as they actually are, both in size (unless for convenience the drawing is scaled up or down) and shape, when viewed in the
vertical and horizontal planes.
The projection used for a drawing must be clearly stated and the appropriate
international projection symbol must be placed in a prominent position on the
drawing. Any views not complying with the projection stipulated, e.g. a view
showing the true shape of an inclined face, as will be explained later, are generally marked with an arrow and suitably annotated.

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Side View C

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Figure 149

Plan A

Symbol

Side View C

Third Angle Projection

Front View B

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Front View B

Plan A

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GENERAL
A sectional view shows the object drawn as if part of it is removed so that the
interior shape is seen clearly. For this purpose the cutting plane selected must
be clearly shown on one of the other views as shown below.
As the example opposite shows, section lines are drawn equally spaced across
the material which has been cut. These section lines, sometimes called hatching lines, are drawn at 45o to the axis of the section.
if the drawing shows an assembly of parts, adjacent parts are hatched in different directions so as to distinguish the separate parts clearly.
Nuts, bolts, rivets, shafts and ribs are not normally shown in longitudinal section.

SECTIONAL VIEWS

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Figure 150

Sectional View

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PART, HALF, AND STAGGERED SECTIONS


If full sectioning is considered unnecessary, a part or half-section may be used,
and staggered sections are often used to illustrate particular features.
Examples of these are shown opposite.

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Figure 151

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PART, HALF AND STAGGERED SECTIONS

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AUXILIARY VIEWS
None of the types of view mentioned will show the true shape of a surface if it
is inclined to the normal planes of projection.
The true shape of such a surface is shown by means of an auxiliary view
drawn at right angles to the surface.
An example of this is shown opposite.

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Figure 152

AUXILIARY VIEW

VIEW IN DIRECTION
OF ARROW

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One of the methods shown below is usually used when dimensions are given
from a common datum. Dimensions between holes are not often used since
this allows a build up of tolerances. An alternative method, used with riveted
joints, is to locate the end holes and add a note such as 11 rivets equally
spaced.

DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM

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20

75

DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM

55

35

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35

20

Figure 153

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75

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A general tolerance is usually given for all dimensions on a drawing and is


stated in a printed box on the drawing. When the general tolerance is not appropriate, an individual tolerance may be given to a dimension. As shown opposite, tolerances may be expressed by:-S quoting the upper and lower limits, or by
S quoting the nominal dimension and the limits of tolerance above and below
that dimension.

DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES

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Figure 154

Dimensional Tolerances

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GENERAL
The blueprint system is used by the engineer to communicate his ideas to the
various people who buy the raw material, plan the manufacturing sequences,
build the parts and finally buy the product.
Manufacturing. Planning, and Quality Control personnel will find that most of
their contact with the blueprint system will be with engineering and tooling
drawings.
The purpose of this training section is to familiarize individuals from these and
other areas with the engineering production drawing, procedures and specifications most commonly used in the fabrication, assembly and installation of the
components that make up todays modern aircraft and vehicles.
Drawings used in the design, construction and maintenance of engineering projects are called production drawings. Drawings used in the design, construction and maintenance of the jigs, tools and checking fixtures that are held in the
building of an engineering project are called tool drawings.
Blueprints are simply copies of engineering drawings. Many blueprints are not
blue at all, but black lines on white, blue lines on white or even brown lines on
white. Blueprint has come to mean almost any colour of drawing reproduced
on paper. Blueprints reproduced on metal or Mylar film are also available.

BLUEPRINT READING FUNDAMENTALS

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Figure 155

Detail Drawing 1

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Drawings used In the detailing or fabrication of single parts are called detail
drawings. Sometimes these drawings may be called fab (for fabrication) drawings. Detail drawings do not put parts together.
Most detail drawings are easily recognized by their titles. If the word assembly or Installation does not appear in the title, the drawing Is a detail drawing.
An inseparable assembly delineates items or parts separately fabricated and
permanently joined together, such as welded or riveted parts not subject to disassembly. The size of the drawing gives no indication of the drawing type.
Some detail drawings are small, whereas others are large. The size of the
drawing Is governed only by the size of the part or parts being detailed.
S Remember: detail drawings do not ordinarily show location, position or
fastening method. They will occasIonally show where a fastener will eventually be installed, but they do not show the fastener itself.
Detail drawings are designed primarily to give instruction for fabrication personnel and provide only information used to make a part, since the assembly and
installation information is of little value in fabrication work.
Detail information indudes:
S Size and shape description
S Material and heat treatment requirements
S Protective finish Instruction (painting, plating, etc.)
S Machine finish if required (surface smoothness for metal)
S Part numbering and marking instructions -- the next higher drawing number
(here the part will be used).
The engineer may not issue a separate detail drawing for each individual part.
Frequently, several parts are detailed on one detail drawing, or some parts are
detailed on assembly or installation drawings.

DETAIL DRAWINGS

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Figure 156

Detail Drawing 2

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NOTE: SOME OF THIS INFORMATION IS FOUND IN THE PARTS LIST.


In addition, an assembly drawing may provide detail fabrication information
about some or all the parts from which it is made. Thus, many are actually
combination detail/assembly drawings. These are called assembly drawings
even though they are not strictly assembly. Many assembly drawings contain
some detail fabrication information.
Bear In mind that there is a great difference between detailing a part and
merely showing a part. To show a part requires only that the outline of the
part, or a symbol of some sort, be pictured. Detailing a part requires a complete
picture description. If a part is detailed on an assembly drawing, the assembly
drawing completely describes that part.
But a part can be shown on an assembly drawing by means of a symbol, incomplete picture, or even by location only, with no picture actually shown.
Remember: A part that is detailed on one drawing can be shown on many
drawings but cannot be detailed on another drawing. We see, then, that fabrication personnel are often required to work from the assembly drawings and
that assemblers often find detail Information on their drawings.

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The engineer may not issue a separate assembly drawing for each assembly.
Some assembly drawings tell how to built several different assemblies. Also,
some assemblies are built from information on installation drawings.
Most assembly drawings are recognized by their drawing titles, which must
contain the word assembly or assemblies.
The word assembly is defined as follows: An assembly Is a multiple--piece
item that can be disassembled into its component parts or units without destruction; it does not independently of Itself perform or fulfil a specific complete
function but is essential for the completeness or proper operation of a more
complex Item of equipment with which it is mechanically combined.

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An assembly may comprise of only two parts or it may comprise many, depending on the judgment of the designer. In some cases, a large assembly
may comprise several small assemblies fastened together. Information about
how to locate the parts In reference to each other (not In reference to the entire
airplane or vehIcle) and about how to fasten them together is called assembly
Information.
The primary function of the assembly drawing is to show the relationship of two
or more parts and subordinate assemblies, or a group of assemblies to form an
assembly of a higher order.
An assembly drawing must provide five items of information:
S A list of required component parts and process specifications
S Location dimensions (showing exactly how parts fit together)
S Fastening methods
S A part number for the finished assembly
S The next higher drawing number (where the assembly will be used).

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

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ENGINEERING DRAWINGS, DIAGRAMS
AND STANDARDS

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Screw

Faucet
Body

Upper
Gasket Seat

Figure 157

Handle

Assembly Drawing

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Washer

Valve
See Detail A

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AND STANDARDS

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NOTE: SOME OF THIS INFORMATION IS FOUND IN THE PARTS LIST.


Note that the Items listed above are almost identical to those listed for assembly drawings. The major difference between the two lies in the interpretation of
the word location. Assembly drawings give locations of parts only as they pertain to each other; InstallatIon drawings give position within the aircraft or vehicle structure.
Installation drawings are similar to assembly drawings in that the two are often
combined. Actually, most of the Installation drawings are combination
assembly/installation drawings. The drawing name describes the final operation
performed.
Detailed information about some or all of the assembly or installation components may also be given on the Installation drawing. Thus, many of the Installation drawings are actually combination detail assembly/installation drawings.
They, too, are named by the final operation performed by the Installation. The
word installation appears In the title of all installation drawings

Installation drawings are designed to describe exactly where on the airplane or


vehicle, or in a portion of the airplane or vehicle, certain parts or assemblies
are to be permanently affixed.
Installation drawings must provide the following information:
S A list of required component parts and process specifications
S Location dimensions (in reference to the entire airplane or vehicle)
S Fastening methods
S A part number for the finished installation (tabulation)
S The next higher drawing number (used on drawing number).

INSTALLATION DRAWINGS

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AND STANDARDS

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AND STANDARDS

Figure 158

Installation Drawing

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Illustrated parts lists often make use of exploded--view drawings to show every
part that is in an assembly.
All of the parts are in their relative position, but are expanded outward, so that
each part can be identified by its physical appearance or by its name. It can
also be identified by a reference number that is coded to the parts list.

EXPLODED-- VIEW DRAWING

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Figure 159

Exploded - View Drawing

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A schematic drawing does not show an exact image of an object; it is used to


illustrate a principle of operation.
It does, however, indicate where objects are located in relation to each other in
a system and (if applicable) direction of fluid flow.
Schematic drawings are ideal for trouble-shooting.

SCHEMATIC DRAWING

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AND STANDARDS

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AND STANDARDS

Figure 160

Schematic Drawing

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Wiring diagrams indicate such things as size of wire and type of terminals to be
used for a particular application.
Several types of wiring diagram exist; some show only one circuit whilst others
portray several circuits within a system.
They also normally identify each component by both its part number and serial
number.
More detailed diagrams show wire connections at splices or the arrangement of
parts.
Like schematic diagrams, wiring diagrams do not show an exact image of a
circuit; it is used to illustrate a principle of operation and also wire sizes.
It does, however, indicate where objects are located in relation to each other in
a circuit.
Wiring drawings are ideal for trouble-shooting.

ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM

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AND STANDARDS

Figure 161

Wiring Diagram

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CD--ROM
With the development of compact discs and their incorporation into computers,
it was a logical step to store electronic copies of drawings onto CD--ROMs.
Now a complete aircrafts drawings could be stored on perhaps 10 CDs; quite a
difference to the small building necessary for its equivalent paper copies.
Designers can distribute their drawings (and any amendments) to customers
via this cheap medium.
Doubtless as their use becomes more common, DVDs (with their superior
storage capacity) will become the preferred option over CDs.

Computer Aided Design (CAD)


The advent of computers resulted in engineering drawing software
development; computer aided design, or CAD.
Aircraft and their component parts could now be designed on a medium that
did not have the problem of physical storage space for the finished drawings;
they could be held digitally on magnetic media.
Amendments to drawings was a formality and hard--copies could be produced
via a printer linked to the computer.

Microfilm
Instead of copies of each drawing being mounted in its own individual aperture
card, hundreds could be stored onto a photographic film (microfilm). As with
the aperture card, this microfilm could be loaded into a reader for ease of
viewing and, if necessary, printing of hard--copies.

Aperture Cards
One method used to reduce drawings physical size (and thus storage space)
was to photograph them and mount the resultant slide onto a card. This card
could be loaded into a viewer for ease of reading and a hard--copy
subsequently printed off if necessary.

Introduction
Engineering drawings have historically been created on paper at 1:1 scale and
stored in cabinet drawers sufficiently large enough to contain them unfolded.
This poses problems of storage space. A modern large aircraft has thousands
of drawings; if paper copies of drawings were stored at their original scale, a
small building would be needed for all the drawing cabinets.

DRAWING STORAGE

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Drawing Storage Methods

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Figure 162

Drawing Cabinet

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AND STANDARDS

Microfilm Reader

Aperture Cards

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M 7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES

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D = 25

Page: 331

- 0,004 lower Dimension


Upper Limit = 25 mm + 0,009 mm = 25,009 mm Tolerance = 25,009 mm 24,996 mm = 0,013 mm
Lower Limit = 25 mm - 0,004 mm = 24,996 mm or 0,009 mm - (- 0,004 mm) =
0,009 mm + 0,004 mm = 0,013 mm
Actual Size says the size the finished work piece actually is.

Example: Nominal Size

DIMENSIONS
Dimensions are the ideal measurements for parts.
Upper Limit is the largest measurement that will be accepted in production.
You can calculate it with the help of the nominal size and the upper off size:
In case c: upper limit = 30 mm - 0.04 mm = 29.96 mm
Lower Limit is the lowest tolerable measurement and can be calculated using
the nominal size and the lower off size:
case c: lower limit= 30 mm - 0.06 mm = 29.94 mm
+ 0,009 upper Dimension

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A fit defines how tight or loose two joined parts fit.


In single part production, those parts which are to be joined are usually fitted
individually. In mass production this procedure would be uneconomical. It is
essential that the work pieces can be assembled and if required changed without rework, regardless where and by whom they are manufactured.
This interchange is only possible when there are uniform regulations (standards) for fits. This is why manufacturers fit standards were developed initially,
then DIN fit standards for Germany and finally international fit standards ISO
(International Organization for Standardisation).
Shaft According to fit standardization a shaft is every rounded part that is
fitted into a bore, regardless if otherwise called a peg, an axle, a bolt a pin etc.
Nominal Size is the measurement which is calculated in the draft and used in
the drawing. In the illustration below for example it is represented by the
measurements 40,20 and 30.
Tolerances In production the nominal size can never be exactly adhered to. A
certain deviation has to be accepted. The tolerance defines which difference
(measured in mm or in) is acceptable between the largest and smallest size.
Reference Line At this line the deviation from the nominal size is zero. The off
size 0 is not entered into the drawing unless misinterpretation could result.

SYSTEMS OF FITS

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Deviation

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Nominal Size

Upper Deviation
Lower

Tolerance

Lower Limit

Reference
Line

a b

Fits and Clearances - Fundamentals

Deviation

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Figure 163

Upper Limit

Nominal Size

Upper Deviation
Lower

Tolerance

Lower Limit
Upper Limit

40

-0.08
-0.03

20

+/-0.35

c
-0.04

30

-0.06

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INTERFERENCE FIT
In case of interference fit the hole is smaller than the item being fitted (for
example in the case of a bearing bushing and its housing).

TRANSITION FIT
In the case of transition fit, play or interference can occur between the parts,
depending on the size of their actual sizes. The tolerances of bore and shaft
overlap.

CLEARANCE FIT
In cases of clearance fit you will always have some play after assembly, eg in
bearings.

KINDS OF FIT
According to their purpose the work pieces to be fitted are made with a different play or interference. This is why we distinguish between several kinds of fit.

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

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CLEARANCE FIT

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

Figure 164

Basic Types Of Fit

Can be clearance or interference

TRANSITION FIT

CLEARANCE
(space between
hole and shaft)

A force is required
to push the shaft
through the hole

NO CLEARANCE

INTERFERENCE FIT

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INTERFERENCE
The difference in diameter of the shaft and the bore is called interference if the
diameter of the shaft is bigger than the diameter of the bore. Because of the
tolerances of the shaft and the bore you get a maximum interference and a
lower limit (maximum play)

CLEARANCE
Play is the difference in diameter of the bore and the shaft, provided that the
diameter of the bore is bigger than the diameter of the respective shaft. Because the shaft and the bore have to be subjected to a tolerance, in case of a
larger quantity the parts usually have different play.
You will get the largest play, if a shaft with the lower limit is fitted into a bore
with high limit.
The lowest play will result from a combination of a lower limit bore and a high
limit shaft.

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

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Bore Tolerance

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Clearance

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

Minimium Clearance
Shaft Tolerance

Maximum Clearance

Figure 165

Interference

Clearance Fit

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Bore Tolerance

Minimum Interference

Maximum Interference

Shaft Tolerance

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UNIT-SHAFT SYSTEM
When using the unit-shaft system, all shafts are manufactured with an H-tolerance (regardless of the required fit). The high limit of every shaft reaches the
reference line and is identical with the nominal size. The lower size of the shaft
is the nominal size minus the tolerance.
The unit-shaft system is used for parts of transmissions, lifting equipment, textile machines and in precision mechanics.

UNIT-BORE SYSTEM
When using the unit-bore system, all bores are manufactured with an H-tolerance (regardless of the required fit).
The lower limit of every bore reaches the reference line and is identical with the
nominal size.
The high limit is the nominal size plus the tolerance.
The unit-bore system is used for parts of machine tools, engines, motor cars,
railroads and airplanes.

FIT SYSTEMS
In order to maintain the different kinds of fit during manufacturing, you can
either use the unit-bore system or the unit-shaft system.

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

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Nominal Size

Reference Line

Nominal Size

Reference Line

Transition Fit

Types Of Fit

Unit Shaft System

Transition Fit

Unit Bore System

Figure 166

Clearance Fit

Clearance Fit

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Shaft Tolerance

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

Hole Tolerance

Interference Fit

Interference Fit

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Holes For:
standard and oversize dia solid rivets
standard and oversize dia blind rivets
standard dia blind rivets (NAS54212 & NAS54213)
standard dia Cherry-Buck titanium solid rivets
standard and oversize dia blind bolts
standard dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
1st oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
2nd oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit)
standard dia threaded pins and bolts (clearance fit)
oversize dia threaded pins and bolts (clearance fit)
standard dia threaded pins and bolts (transition fit close tol.)
1st & 2nd osize threaded pins and bolts (transition fit close tol.)
standard dia threaded pins (interference fit)
1st & 2nd osize dia threaded pins (interference fit)
standard dia special clearance fit bolts (tension)
1st & 2nd osize dia special clearance fit bolts (tension)

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Table
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

The following tables are extracted from a typical aircraft Structural Repair
Manual (in this case an Airbus A340--200/300).
They give the permitted tolerances for holes for fasteners, depending on the
type of fastener and kind of fit, as follows.

FASTENERS - HOLE AND DRILL DATA - METALLIC


STRUCTURE

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Figure 167

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 1

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Figure 168

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 2

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Figure 169

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 3

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 4

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

Figure 171

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 5

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Figure 172

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 6

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Figure 173

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 7

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Figure 174

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 8

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Figure 175

Extracts From Airbus SRM - 9

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 10

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 11

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 12

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 13

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Extracts From Airbus SRM - 14

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A300 Outer Airbrake Attachments


This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of wear limits.

WEAR LIMITS

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Outer Airbrakes - Wear Limits (A300)

AIRBRAKE No 1

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Figure 181

HINGE AND JACK RIB

CENTRE HINGE BRACKET

AIRBRAKE No 2

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A300 Twist Check


This is an example from the Maintenance Manual of twist limits.
S Record height of the points of fuselage horizontal datum using the two sight
tubes placed on either side of the fuselage.
S Z variations of the fuselage horizontal datum points indicate fuselage twist.
NOTE :The values in the table are actual measurements recorded on
aircraft at zero flight hours and must only be used as guidelines for alignment checks.
Deviation from the values and tolerances given does not automatically
mean that the aircraft is not serviceable.

TWIST LIMITS

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Definition of Datum Axes

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Figure 182

Twist Check

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Checking Method
Engine crankshaft runout is checked with a DTI by assembling the instrument
onto a stand and positioning it onto a smooth part of the crankshaft.
A preload is then applied to the DTI by pressing it against the shaft so that the
pointer deflects by a few thousandths of an inch.
The DTI is then zeroed and, as the crankshaft is turned, the DTI will indicate
the amount of deviation in both directions.

Dial Test Indicator (DTI)


Dial test indicators are precision measuring instruments that can be used to
determine the amount of movement between certain engine and airframe parts.
They may also be used to determine and out-of-round condition on a shaft or
the plane of rotation of a disk.

STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS &


BEARINGS

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

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Figure 183

Using Dial Test Indicators

Dial test indicators are used to check shafts for out-of-round and for bends.
They are also useful for checking backlash in gears and for measuring axle end play.

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FITS AND CLEARANCES

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CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Electrical circuits are protected from excess current and overheating by circuit
breakers.

These precautions apply to low voltage and high voltage equipment. Where
electrical shock and burns are concerned, it is the current that does the
damage, not the voltage.

When preparing to work on de--energized electrical circuits ensure that:


-- the external power switch is off.
-- the battery is disconnected.
-- red safety tags are fitted.

If it is necessary to work on energised circuits or on live electrical equipment,


always use adequate protective materials and extreme care.

Electrical equipment should never be operated in areas where explosive vapors


are present or suspected, unless the equipment is explosion proof and
designed specifically for use in such areas.

As well as the ever present danger of being caught or struck by moving parts,
electrical equipment also presents the dangers of electric shock, burns, fire and
explosion.

Note:These safety precautions are of a general nature and apply to all aircraft
types.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON AIRCRAFT

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Disconnect Battery

Battery

Remove External Power Plug

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Figure 184

to
aircraft

Safety precautions

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This distance may be reduced to 15mm (0.59 in) for lines that do not carry
flammable liquids i.e.: hot air, static air etc.

from lines carrying flammable liquids such as fuel, hydraulic oil, oxygen etc.

3 Wire bundles must run above or alongside piping at least 50mm (1.9 inch)

Carbon arc tracking -- installation precautions


The installation segregation rules must be observed in order to limit the
possibility of damage and interaction between routes.
The electrical cables, connectors and the boxes and panels which
accommodate them must be protected against water contamination.

must be protected against chafing by ensuring that there is no contact between


the wire bundles and mechanical cables, metal tubes, or structural
components.

2 Ensure that no mechanical stretch is present on the wire. Wire bundles

and groups which may include a variety of different wire types. i.e.: single,
shielded, multicore etc.
Individual groups must be spot tied and when these groups are bundled
together the spot ties must not be removed.
No plastic ties are allowed in unpressurised areas.

1 For ease of installation and maintenance, wires are arranged into bundles

ESPM 20--33--41

SWPM 20--10--11

ESPM 20-33--10

Each time a connector is disconnected and reconnected:


-- Do a visual check of the connector locking.
-- Carry out a functional test of the related systems.

Page: 365

-- The wire is correctly, mechanically connected to the plug or terminal


block/ module as applicable. For wires with crimp contacts this involves
pulling the wire lightly.
-- A continuity check and functional test of the related system is carried out.

General Inspections and checks (ESPM 20--52--10)


Each time a wire is added, repaired, or reconnected, ensure that:

c) For single co--ax cables and wire bundles with co--ax cable attached, the
minimum bend radius is 10 times the outside diameter of the co--ax cable.

b) The smallest bend radius for wire bundles is 6 times the outside
diameter.

a) The minimum bend radius for single wires or cables is 3 times the outside
diameter. The best and preferred value is 10 times the outside diameter.

possible in order to prevent cracks occurring in the insulation.

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IR PART 66

4 The bend radius of wire bundles must be extended to the maximum

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Design of the wiring installation shall conform to the following precedence :


S 1st-- Flight safety.
S 2nd-- Ease of maintenance , removal and replacement of parts.
S 3rd-- Cost effective aircraft production and repair.

GENERAL NOTES

CONNECTORS

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FRAME

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FRAME

GROUP SPOT TIES

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Figure 185

WIRE BUNDLE

General Installation

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WIRE BUNDLE

NOT
CLAMPED ON
HYDRAULIC,
HOT
AIR, FUEL OR
OXYGEN
TUBES

Page: 366

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A wire bundle that has an overbraid shield installed must be identified with a W
number:
-- Within 18 inches of all connectors
-- Within 18 inches of all shield terminations
-- At branches
-- Every six feet.
The shield must have the same temperature grade as the wire bundle.

5 General Conditions for Overbraid Shields (SWPM 20--25--11)

4 Conduits provide mechanical protection for wire bundles. Wires must not
be tied or fastened together inside conduit or insulating sleeving. A draw wire
must be installed for ease of modification.
Oil or temperature resistant Scotch Electrical Tape as applicable must be used
for abrasion protection and secured with flat waxed binding tape at both ends.
Make a drainage hole after installation is complete and the lowest point is firmly
established.

3 When a wire bundle is dressed downward to a connector, terminal block


etc. a drip loop must be installed to prevent fluid contamination.

required to facilitate connector removal. This is particularly important if the


connector is at the rear of an indicator which has to be pulled forward through a
panel for disconnection.

2 When wiring is terminated at a connector, a minimum length of slack is

Coaxial cables must be installed separately from other wire bundles and with
the maximum possible bend radius (10 times the outside diameter).

M7.7

IR PART 66

Page: 367

Aircraft that are fitted with AP wires at manufacture must be repaired and
modified with the same wire type or suitable alternative as listed in the Wiring
Diagrams Manual.

Aircraft that are not fitted with AP wires and cables at manufacture must not
have AP wires and cables fitted during repair or modification. Only the wire and
cable types in the Wiring Diagrams Manual are authorised for use.
If however, you find AP wires already installed, they can be left on the aircraft.

Aromatic polyimide (AP) wires and cables

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1 Wire bundles in the fuselage or wing must be clamped at every frame.

GENERAL NOTES (CONTINUED)

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Drainage hole 1/8


in diameter at
lowest point

General installation (cont)

WIRE BUNDLE
LENGTH SUFFICIENT

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Figure 186

WIRE BUNDLE CLAMPED AT EVERY FRAME

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

DRIP LOOP

WIRE BUNDLE

Page: 368

PLUG

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Note: Aromatic polyimide wires must be wrapped with insulation tape prior to
clamping to prevent damage to the insulation.

Metal clamps can be used in any area of the aircraft provided that they are
fitted with the appropriate insulation material.

Plastic clamps must not be used in areas where the temperature exceeds
250 _ F (121_ C).

Page: 369

(SWPM 20--10--12, ESPM 20--33--42)

M7.7

IR PART 66

Wire harnesses are:


-- Permitted to move in a longitudinal direction in a loop clamp
-- Permitted to turn clockwise and counterclockwise in a loop clamp
-- Not permitted to move or turn in a block clamp.

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Cable Clamps
Primary support of the wiring installation is provided by plastic and metal cable
clamps spaced at intervals not exceeding 24 inches.
Clamps must fit properly to prevent damage to the wire insulation. No wires
must be pinched in the clamp
Rubber fillers can be used to improve the fit of a clamp but must not be used
with co--axial cables.

WIRE AND CABLE SUPPORT

CONNECTORS

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Folding Wing Clamp

b) Metal clamp

a) Plastic Clamp

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Insulation

Figure 187

High Vibration Clamp

Clamps

CORRECT

Cut

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Rubber Fillers
not for Coax-Cables

Filler Plugs

INCORRECT

0.10 in to 0.25 in

Page: 370

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3 Wires passing through a bulkhead must be supported at each hole by a


cable clamp. If the clearance between the wires and the edge of the hole is
less than 1/4 inch, a suitable grommet must be fitted.

Bundles must be routed and clamped to preclude chafing against the


edges of equipment and structure. Where physical separation of at least 3/8
inch cannot be maintained, the edges must be fitted with suitable protection
strips or grommets. Shielded cables must have an external insulating cover.

No washers, ties, tapes, etc. are allowed inside fuel tanks as they could
become loose and clog filters.

1 If nylon clamps use a spacer, a washer must be fitted.

Clamps ( continued)

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Frame

Apr 2004

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Frame

Structure

Figure 188

Wire Bundle

Clamps

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Grommet

Clearance

Less Than 6mm

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It is also desirable that the back of the clamp rest against a structural member
where practicable.

Clamp installation
Clamps should be installed in the prefferred attitude, as shown below. The
mounting screw should be above the wire bundle.

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Figure 189

Clamp Installation

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Preffered
installation

Less desireable
installation

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SWPM 20--10--11

Apr 2004

Note: do not use ties inside fuel tanks

S In normal applications, ties are required at approximately 8 in intervals. In


high vibration areas the interval must be decreased to 2 in maximum.

S It is not necessary to install the new wires under existing ties. They must
however, be installed within all the support clamps of the parent bundle and
not on the outside of plastic ties or other hard material.

S Tie additional wires to the exterior of the bundle with ties between clamps at
approximately one foot intervals.

S Do not place ties on wire bundles located inside conduits.

When tying, observe the following precautions:


S Tie bundles tightly enough to prevent slipping, but not so tight that the cord
cuts into or deforms the insulation. This is especially applicable to coax
cable, which has a soft dielectric in between the inner and outer conductor.

Cotton, nylon or fiberglass lacing cord is used for tying. Cotton cord must be of
the waxed type to ensure moisture and fungus resistance.

This ensures that the wires are neatly secured in groups and bundles to aid
compliance with wire bundle separation requirements and to avoid possible
damage from chafing or equipment operation.

Wire groups and bundles are tied to provide ease of installation, maintenance
and inspection.

WIRE BUNDLE TIES

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Figure 190

BUNDLE TIES

Bundle Ties

GROUP BUNDLE TIES

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SWPM 20--10--11

Apr 2004

ESPM 20--33--41

The three illustrations below show some correct and incorrect methods for wire
bundle tying in a high vibration area.

Examples of tying bundles

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Incorrect

Correct

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Figure 191

2 in max

Incorrect

Correct

Scotch Tape

Wire bundle tying examples

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SWPM 20--10--11

Apr 2004

ESPM 20--25--51 and 20--33--44

Plastic wire ties must not be used in the following applications:


S On wire bundles with wire larger than10 AWG
S On wire bundles installed in unpressurised areas
S On wire bundles installed in high vibration areas
S On wire bundles in high temperature areas (higher than 85_ C (185 _F))
S On wire bundles designated Fly By Wire on engineering drawings
S With aromatic polyimide wires unless the bundle is wrapped with tape.
S With coaxial cables

Plastic wire ties or straps


Plastic wire ties or straps are available in a variety of different sizes, they must
only be installed with the correct tool. The tool for installing tywraps
NSA935401 is shown below.

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Figure 192

OF THE TIE WRAP

Plastic wire ties

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SWPM 20--10--13 ESPM 20--53--2X


--The cable shield must be fully closed and electrically continuous around the
repaired area.

--The repair technique adopted is dependant upon the type of damage.

Repair of shielded cables

--It may be necessary to change the wire routing to prevent the damage
reoccurring.

--Wire lengths subject to heat damage must be replaced wherever the outside
insulation has changed colour. The replacement wire length must be the same
type and size.

Repair of single conductor wires


--Wires with chafed or broken insulation must repaired by splicing if possible.

--An engine harness wire or a fire warning wire repaired with a splice is
considered an acceptable temporary repair and must be replaced when the
next maintenance is carried out.

--In a wire bundle where all the wires require repair by splicing, the splices must
be staggered. This means that the diameter of the wire bundle is increased
symmetrically, slowly and continuously so that no splices overlap.

--The maximum number of splices allowed in a wire is 3. This does not include
production splices identified in wiring diagrams.

M7.7

IR PART 66

ESPM 20--24--01

Page: 381

b) In high temperature areas, only grade D insulation tape must be used.

a) Outside the pressurised area, only aircraft fluid resistant tape must be used

Notes:

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Conditions for repair with a splice


--Replacement of the damaged wire is is always the preferred option over the
repair of the wire with a splice.

REPAIR OF WIRE AND CABLE

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Existing wire

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Crimped splice

Repair of wire and cable

Staggered splice locations

Figure 193

Crimped splice

New wire

Wire tape wrapped to protect against chafing and abrasion

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Existing wire

Page: 382

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--Splices must not be installed:


S inside metal or flexible tubes
S within 12 in of a termination device
S under clamps or other wire bundle support
S inside fuel tanks
S in wire harnesses that are frequently bent (hinged panels or doors)

--Splices must not be used to salvage scrap lengths of wire.

Splice restrictions
--There shall not normally be more than two splices in any wire segment.

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Apr 2004

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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There is a wide range of techniques available for creating electrical


connections, almost all of which involve crimping tools. This section will cover
those which are most commonplace.

High quality electrical connections can be consistently achieved by using the


correct terminations, with the correct tool for the job, accompanied by the
correct wire preparation technique.

A high proportion of aircraft faults are due to poor connections caused by


normal wear and tear. It is therefore vitally important that tradesmen with a
responsibility for creating new connections do not build in any further, future
problems.

The importance of high quality, low resistance connections in electrical and


electronic systems can not be over emphasised.

INTRODUCTION

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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It is strictly forbidden to use the Superchamp for crimping!

Wire strippers
The graphic below illustrates two common hand wire strippers.The stripmaster
on the left is a versatile automatic hand stripper. The gripper holds the wire in
position and one light squeeze of the handle severs and strips the insulation
slug up to 7/8 in.
The Superchamp tool can also be used for wire stripping.

In all cases, the greatest care should be exercised during wire stripping
as any decrease in overall conductor diameter will incrrease the
resistance of the joint.

The first and one of the most important operations required before any wire can
be assembled to connectors, terminals, splices, etc. is the stripping and
preparation of the wire.
The following general precautions are to be observed when stripping any type
of wire:
S When using any type of wire stripper, hold the wire so that it is
perpendicular to the cutting blades.
S Adjust automatic stripping tools carefully; follow the manufacturers
instructions to avoid nicking, cutting, or otherwise damaging strands.
S When using hand plier strippers, the removal of lengths of insulation longer
than 3/4 inch is easier to accomplish in two or more steps.
S Use stripping blades appropriate to the insulation thickness.
S When stripping coaxial cables with a knife, scratch the soft outer insulation
carefully without damaging the underlying shield.
S After stripping ensure that the insulation is cut cleanly with no frayed or
ragged edges.
S Make sure all insulation is removed from the stripped area .Some wire types
are supplied with a transparent layer of insulation between the conductor
and the primary insulation which can be missed during stripping.
S Where necessary, re-twist strands to restore natural lay and tightness.

STRIPPING WIRE AND CABLE

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

SWPM 20--00--15 ESPM 20--25--11

Page: 387

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Wire Size
24
22
20
18
16

Apr 2004

BLADE or DIE

Numbering system on blades:

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Figure 194

Wire stripping

Blades for thick


wire Insulation

(BLADES)

CHANGEABLE

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Blades for thin


wire insulation

Page: 388

Wire Stripping Allowed

Crimping Forbidden

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ESPM 20--25--41; 20--53--51


SWPM 20--61--17; 20--63--00

Apr 2004

Rear release contact removal


1. Slip the white removal tool around the wire of the contact to be extracted.
2. Slide the tool along the wire into the insulator until it buts against the
shoulder of contact.
3. Remove wire and tool rearwards.

Rear release contact insertion


1. Press the wire into the coloured slot with the thumb.
2. Under this pressure the slot will open to accept the wire.
3. Hold the connector in one hand and insert the contact into its
cavity,pushing with tool perpendicular to the insulator face. When contact is
in place a metallic click is audible.
4. Remove tool to the rear. Check that contact is firmly in position by pulling
gently.

The graphic below illustrates the rear release system

All connector contacts are inserted from the rear. There are however two
general systems for removal of connector contacts:
The Rear release system and
The Front release system

General
Great care must be taken when inserting and removing connector contacts.
The internal mechanism of the connector is easily damaged and can only be
repaired by connector replacement.

CONTACT INSERT & REMOVAL

CONNECTOR TOOLS

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Figure 195

Rear release removal

Rear release contacts

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Rear release insertion

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

REMOVAL

Incorrectly Locked Contact

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SWPM 20--61--11; 20--61--16 (-19)

--Align tool squarely with insert face.


--Push tool squarely into insert hole until it butts against insert face.
--Holding the tool firmly, advance the slider knob so that the contact is ejected
from its seated position.
--The contact may than be pulled free of the grommet by hand.

Front release contact removal

--Slip insertion tool over the wire and butt it against the contact shoulder
--Align tool and contact axially with the grommet
--Guide contact carefully through grommet hole, pushing tool axially to grommet
--Remove tool and check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gently.

Front release contact insertion

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Incorrect

Figure 196

Correct

TOOL

TUBE

CONTACT

FRONT RELEASE CONTACT REMOVAL

PUS
H
SLIDER
FrontHAN
release contacts
DLE

WIRE

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FRONT RELEASE CONTACT INSERTION

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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ESPM 20--25--21 (-22)


SWPM 20--00--12

Apr 2004

--Rotate the multi--locator turret to the correct colour coded position.and push in
to engage.
--Select the appropriate wire size on the selector knob.
--The crimping operation is completed as for MS3191--1.

Prior to crimping with this tool the following set up must be carried out:

This tool is similar in construction to the MS3191--1. The major difference is that
it has one, multiple locator turret secured by two allen screws instead of three
separate turrets.

Crimping tool MS3191--4

Page: 393

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IR PART 66

ESPM 20--25--21

All crimping tools must be inspected and


certified at a regular interval.

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Crimping tool MS3191--1


Crimping tool MS 3191--1 is a precision tool used to crimp standard contacts
size 12, 16 and 20.
Each contact size uses its own colour coded locator which must be inserted
prior to crimping.
The locator is needed to position the contact in the correct position for crimping
so that no additional setting of the tool is required.
The handle ratchet mechanism will open automatically after crimping when the
handle is fully depressed.

CONNECTOR CONTACT CRIMPING-TOOL

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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LOCATOR

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Apr 2004

COLOR CODE DATAPLATE

YELLOW

BLUE

RED

CODE

COLOUR

LOCATOR

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

P/N

CONTACT
SIZE

Figure 197

WIRE
SIZE

Crimping Tool

Positioners
R, B, Y

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ESPM 20--25--11 (-21)


SWPM 20--61--00

Apr 2004

Assembling the back-shell


With the contacts inserted, screw the back-shell onto the body of the
connector. Tighten the back-shell nut using the plug wrench as necessary until
it is mechanically tight.

Filler wires can be used to increase conductor outside diameter for larger
contact sizes. Cut filler wires flush with rear of crimp barrel taking care not to
damage the strands of the primary wire.

The illustration below shows some correct and incorrect examples of connector
contact crimping.
In all cases, ensure that:
-- All the strands of the conductor are in the crimp barrel
-- The end of each conductor is bottomed in the crimp barrel
-- The conductors are visible in the inspection hole.

In almost all cases the wire insulation must have no direct contact with the end
of the crimp barrel. Adherence to the correct stripping length dimensions will
ensure that a small gap exists to provide flexibility.

The pictures below give a general idea of the wire stripping lengths required for
connector contacts. For exact stripping lengths appropriate to each contact
type, refer to the SWPM and ESPM.

As previously specified, for a good crimping result it is first necessary to


prepare the wire correctly.

CRIMPING OF CONTACTS

CONNECTORS

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PLUG WRENCH

FILLER WIRE

PRIMARY WIRE

CORRECT

INCORRECT

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Apr 2004

Clamp

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Connector

INSPECTION HOLE

Figure 198

FILLER WIRE CUT HERE

LOCATION OF FILLER STRANDS

Crimping check

Plastic Inserts

WIRE NOT BOTTOMED

AND CONTACT

WIRE BOTTOMED

SPACE BETWEEN INSULATION AND CONTACT

NO SPACE BETWEEN INSULATION

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The solder sleeve slides into position over the wire with the solder band
centered over the stripped area of outer insulation and the shield ground
wire. It should be noted that one end of the solder sleeve is slightly wider
than the other. The wider end should be toward the shield ground wire.

The heatshrink gun is then used to shrink the sleeve into position and
enable the solder in the sleeve to run. This creates an electrical connection between the ground wire and the cable shield.

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ESPM 20--42--21; 20--48--21


SWPM 20 10--15

Apr 2004

Post shrinking inspection:


--Solder sleeves exhibiting dark areas or slight discoloration are acceptable,
provided that the solder can be inspected and the solder sleeve is not
ruptured or split.
--Ensure that the seal rings have melted and provide an environmental seal.
--Ensure that the solder band has melted fully around the pigtail and shield
braid.

The shield ground wire and the cable shield must be stripped to the correct dimensions.

The solder sleeve is equipped with two sealing rings on the inner ends of the
sleeve and a band of solder in the center.

The solder sleeve pigtail is the most common method for attaching a shield
ground wire to shielded cables.

SOLDER SLEEVE PIGTAIL

CONNECTORS

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Solder Ring

Apr 2004

Correct stripping of shield


and ground wire insulation

Seal Ring

Solder sleeve pigtail

CONNECTORS

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Figure 199

Seal Ring

Solder sleeve pigtails

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Two Shield Ground Wires

Heat Shrink Gun

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ESPM 20--48--00

RED

BLUE

YELLOW

22--18

16--14

12--10

Apr 2004

YELLOW

26--24

2,7 - 6,6 mm2

1,0 - 2,6 mm2

0,25 - 1,6 mm2

0,1 - 0,4 mm2

WIRE SIZE COLOR CODE

colour coded to identify the wire sizes that can be crimped in each lug or splice.

In addition, pre-insulated terminal lugs contain an insulation grip ( a metal


reinforcing sleeve) beneath the insulation for extra grip on the wire insulation.
Pre-insulated terminals accommodate more than one wire size, the insulation is

In this range of terminals and splices, the insulation is part of the terminal and
splice construction. It extends beyond its barrel so that it will cover a portion of
the wire insulation, making the use of an insulating sleeve unnecessary.

Ring tongue type terminals are used for most aircraft applications.

PRE INSULATED DIAMOND GRIP (PIDG) TERMINALS AND SPLICES

CONNECTORS

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SERRATIONS

COLOR CODED

INSULATION GRIP

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 200

FUNNEL RAMP ENTRY

PIDG Terminals & Splices

WIRE STRANDS

COPPER SLEEVE

TINPLATED COPPER TONGUE

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COPPER SLEEVE

INSULATION

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The following video gives a general overview of the crimping process for AMP
PIDG terminals and splices.

Video: Introduction to Crimping Basics

After the crimping operation is complete, the quality check described below
must be carried out.

The crimp tool has an Insulation grip position selector which sets the insulation
crimp, appropriate to the insulation thickness.

The picture below illustrates a typical AMP crimping tool for PIDG terminals
and splices.

CRIMPING OF PIDG TERMINALS AND SPLICES

CONNECTORS

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TOUC
H
LEVER

Apr 2004

COLOR CODE INFO TABLE

LOCATOR

INSULATION CRIMP
SETTING

RATCHET

AMP T HEAD CRIMPING TOOL

CONNECTORS

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Figure 201

Crimping of Terminals

a) strands must be
visible
b) dots must be present

QUALITY CHECK:

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SWPM 20--30--12

Apr 2004

The illustration shows the unsealed variant. Sealed, moisture resistant versions
are also available which are supplied with a crimp ferrule and insulating sleeve.

After crimping, the closed end splices may be placed side by side in an upright
position within 30 degrees of eachother.

The correct splice size is determined by the cross sectional area of the all the
wires to be inserted.

The length of the breakout is limited to 21/2 in max, unless further limited by
the bundle assembly drawing.

The use of closed end splices is possible where it is specified in the aircraft
wiring diagram manual chapter 91.

CLOSED END SPLICES

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Crimp Tool

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Figure 202

Closed End Splice

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to

45_

45_
to

45_
to

to 45_

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Note: Only one un-stripped wire allowed per end cap.

A typical wire cap crimping tool is shown below.

-Stowed wires must be visible at the outside of the bundle.

-After installation of wire caps, the spare wires must be wrapped, tied and
stowed near the unused termination.

The same conditions apply for spare wire caps that were previously described
for dead ending of wires, i.e.
-Spare wire caps must be installed within four to six inches of connectors.

SPARE WIRE CAPS

CONNECTORS

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Figure 203

Crimping spare wire caps

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Correct colour codes.

Wire size corresponds to marking on terminal.

Conductor strands visible.

Conductor strands visible in window.

Insulation correctly crimped.

Both ends crimped on upper side.

Apr 2004

Crimping in center of crimp abrrel.

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wire properly inserted

CORRECT

CRIMPING-INSPECTIONS

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Wire not properly inserted or incorrect stripping length

Wire incorrectly inserted in the terminal.

Number of dots incorrect.

Wire size does not correspond to marking on terminal..

Conductor strands not visible.

No strands visible in window.

Insulation crimping incorrect .

Both ends not crimped on upper side.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

INCORRECT

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POSITIONED

SPLICE INCORRECTLY

CORRECT

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Figure 204

PRINTED HERE

MAX WIRE SIZE

TOOL TURNED 180 DEGREES

Crimping inspections

PRINTED HERE

MAX WIRE SIZE

INCORRECT

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INSULATION CRIMPED ON WRONG SIDE

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SWPM 20--30--00

Apr 2004

Note: The maximum number of terminals on one stud is four.

Terminal strips
Install terminal strips as indicated on the illustration below.

TERMINAL STRIPS, BLOCKS & MODULES

CONNECTORS

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Figure 205

Terminal strips

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C--Type - One Block 8 sockets, one bus, eight common contacts.

D--Type - One Block 8 sockets, two busses, four contacts per bus.

A--Type - One block, 8 sockets, four busses, two contacts per bus.

Different bussing configurations are also possible:

In some installations the contacts are labeled A, B, C and D.

The two upper contacts are both labeled - A. The two lower contacts are both
labeled - X.

The completed block installation below right details how connections are
presented on wiring diagrams.

The installation method above right is an alternate method for inserting or


changing a single block on the track.

The left lower picture shows the proper method for installing the terminal blocks
on the tracks.

The left upper picture on the following page illustrates the different terminal
block configurations which are available.

TERMINAL BLOCKS

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Figure 206

Terminal blocks

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eg.:

eg.:

eg.:

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Terminal block contact replacement


The process for contact preparation, insertion and extraction is described on
the illustration below.

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Figure 207

Crimping terminal block contacts

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ESPM 20--44--51

Apr 2004

Typical module configuration and identification is illustrated below.

--All unused positions can be environmentally sealed by the insertion of a seal


plug.

--Many different combinations are used with different wire size contacts in the
same module.

--Each module has its own number mounted on top of the module.

The main differences between terminal modules and blocks are:

Terminal modules
Terminal modules can accomodate either ten or twenty one contacts.

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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PRINTED ON WIRING

CONNECTORS

Apr 2004

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Figure 208

VIEW ON BLOCK

G
H
J
K

B
C
D
E

Terminal modules

BLOCK NUMBER

BLOCK NUMBER

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TYPICAL COMBINATIONS

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ESPM 20--51--22
SWPM 20--20--00

Apr 2004

The illustrations below show some typical bonding techniques.

1. To minimise radio and radar interference.


2. To eliminate fire hazard by preventing a spark between two metallic
components at different potentials.
3. To minimise the damage to the aircraft and its passengers from lightning
strikes .
4. To provide a low resistance return path for single wire electrical systems.
5. To aid in the effectiveness of the shielding.

The reasons for bonding may be summed up as follows:

An aircraft can become highly charged with static electricity whilst in flight.
Aircraft electrical bonding is the process of obtaining the necessary electrical
conductivity between the component metallic parts of the aircraft.
Bonding also provides the low resistance return path for single wire electrical
systems.
This low resistance return path also aids the effectiveness of shielding and
provides a means of bringing the entire aircraft to the earths potential when it
is on the ground.

BONDING

CONNECTORS

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Surface

Apr 2004

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Bonding

Tank

Bearing

Bonding

Structure

Figure 209

Bonding

Junction box

Structure

Anti- vib
mounting

Bonding metal clamp

Bonding

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Metal
conduit

Bonding
metal clamp

Black box
mounting

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SWPM 20--20--00
ESPM 20--51--22

Apr 2004

The illustration below shows methods for measuring bonding resistance.

Values for bonding are detailed in the aircraft maintenance manual.

If this process is done correctly, measurements not higher than 0.025 can be
obtained.

Measurement of bonding resistance


To ensure a low resistance connection for bonding leads, non conducting paint
and anodizing films must be removed from the surfaces to which the bonding
terminals are to be attached.

BONDING RESISTANCE

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Figure 210

Bonding resistance measurement

Basic Structure

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Structural Interface

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Bonding

Test leads

Bonding Meter

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When installing grounds, the following conditions apply:


-Grounds must be seperated; AC, DC and shields.
-There must be no more than four terminals on one stud.
-In fuel vapour area (see right) dual grounds must be installed.

Grounding points must be of sufficient dimensions in order to allow the required


current flow, including fault current, without generating heat.

Grounding is the process of connecting these systems and the shields of


shielded cables to the aircraft metallic structure at pre-designated points.
Grounding must be effected with particular care by means of good quality
contacts.

The aircraft metallic structure is used as a conductor for current returns for the
single wire electrical systems.

GENERAL

GROUNDING

CONNECTORS

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Additional ground wire, same


wire size or one size larger

TERMINALS

SAFETY NUT

Figure 211

SWPM 20--20--00

Grounds

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TYPICAL GROUND STUD IN FUEL VAPOUR AREAS

CONNECTORS

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TYPICAL COMMON GROUND

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ESPM 20--44--71

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NOTE: Exact values are given in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual

Instruments, computers etc.

5M

200M

Between terminals and grounds

C) Wires for other systems :

100M

Between terminals

B) Wires without accessories terminals, plugs, contacts etc:

10M

5M

Galleys, lighting, service systems

Other service systems

2M

Engine cowlings, landing gear, wheels, etc.:

A ) Wires for accessories:

Summary of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements Chap. EEL/4--1, Page 9.

General overview of insulation-resistance measurement values.

Insulation resistance testing should only be carried out on wires disconnected


from their systems at both ends.

The usual test voltages are 250V or 500V.

The insulation resistance is measured between individual wires (wire to wire)


and between individual wires and the aircraft structure (wire to ground).

Carry out tests prior to installation where possible.

INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

CONNECTORS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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Apr 2004

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Measurement of insulation resistance

MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RESISTANCE WIRE TO


GROUND
ESPM 20--52--24

INSULATION ERROR

MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RESISTANCE WIRE TO


WIRE

INSULATION ERROR

INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Figure 212

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Continuity testing must only be performed on circuits with no power applied.To


use an ohmmeter or multimeter as a continuity tester it is necessary merely to
contact the end terminals of the circuit being tested with the test probes of the
meter.

Testing continuity is the process whereby an ohmmeter or multimeter is used to


determine if a circuit has a complete (continuous) current path.

CONTINUITY TESTING

CONNECTORS

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Turn off power


to the circuit

Apr 2004

Plug the black test


lead into the COM
input jack. Plug the
red test lead into
the ohms input jack

Select resistance

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

Figure 213

Continuity testing

View reading

Connect the
probe tips across
the protion of
the circuit to be
measured

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ESPM 20--52--23

Apr 2004

The reflected pulse form will give an idea of the incident:


-Any short will reflect a negative pulse (picture 2b).
-Any open coax cable will reflect an positive pulse (picture 2c).

The TDR is sensitive to impedance changes. Problems in the cable will be detected and displayed as changes in impedance along the cable. These will be
displayed as hills and valleys in the reflected pulse. The TDR is capable of finding shorts, opens, defect shield, foreign substances in the cable ( water, etc.),
kinks and more.

Principle
The TDR sends an electrical pulse down the coax cable and detects any reflections made by discontinuities.

General
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR ) is a measurement concept that is beginning to find great usefulness in the analysis of wideband systems.

COAX CABLE TESTING

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

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PICTURE 2

REFLECTED IMPULSES

PICTURE 1

ZV

Apr 2004

TESTED COAX CABLE ZM

IMPULSE
GENERATOR

TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER

CONNECTORS

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M7.7 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND

ZE

Figure 214

Z = TERMINATION
RESISTOR

OSCILLOSCOPE

Coax Cable Testing

PICTURE 3

DENTED CABLE
4% IMPEDANCE CHANGE. IMPULSE IS OPPOSITE TO
FRAYED CABLE

FRAYED CABLE
8% IMPEDANCE CHANGE,
CORROSION MAY OCCUR LATER

TYPICAL CABLE PROBLEMS

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SHORTED CABLE
SHORTED TO THE CENTER
CONDUCTOR.THE IMPULSE IS
OPPOSITE TO OPEN CABLE.

OPEN CABLE
POSITIVE IMPULSE

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M7.8 RIVETING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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Types
There are essentially two types of rivet head; one that protrudes and one that
sits flush with the material. These are known as universal and countersunk
heads. The most common countersink angle is 100o.

Sizes
The most common diameters of solid rivets fitted in aircraft are:
S 3/32in (2.4mm)
S 1/8in (3.2mm)
S 5/32in (4.0mm)
S 3/16in (4.8mm)
Different lengths are available in 1/16 increments.

Rivets
A rivet is a metal pin with a formed head at one end; either protruding or
countersunk.
A hole is drilled through the parts to be joined, the rivet is inserted into the hole
and the end opposite the head is hammered to hold the components together.
As the rivet tail is hammered down, its cross-sectional area increases together
with its bearing and shearing strengths (its resistance to the force of the
components trying to slide apart). This process creates a union betwen the
parts at least as strong as the individual parts.
Because weight is an important factor when constructing aircraft, the
solid-shank rivet is the most preferred method when joining metal parts
together.

Joining Methods
Modern materials, particularly composites, use adhesive to form a permanent
bond.
Traditionally, aluminium alloy (and other metal) parts are joined using rivets.

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Storage Time (Hours)


48
72
150
Infinite

Page: 430

One further cook is permissable if time runs out, but then the rivets must be
discarded.

Storage Temperature (oC)


0
-6
-15
-40

Heat Treatment
D-, DD- and E-rivets are made from an alloy called duralumin and are very
hard and brittle. Before fitment they are heated to approximately 4950c and
held at the temperature for long enough that all rivets are completely heated
through. The rivets are then quenched. This process produces a soft rivet that
is designed to harden over a period of time. The hardening process can be
speeded up by cold working the rivet. Rivetting provides just such a cold
working process and rivets that are driven within 30 minutes of quench will
change from soft and malleable to hard fasteners. If rivets are not to be used
within the 30 minute post-quench period, they can be frozen to retard the
natural age hardening process. freezer storage life depends on storage
temperature:

Material
Aircraft structure is made up of many materials, including steel and titanium.
The designer must consider various factors (weight, heat, load etc) when
deciding which material to use, only sacrificing weight when it is necessary.
For its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, the most common material used in an
aircraft structure is aluminium alloy.
This section will concentrate on aluminium alloy solid rivets (as opposed to
steel and titanium, which are rarely encountered).
To prevent dissimilar metal corrosion and other stresses, rivets are composed
of the same alloys as the structures they are joining together.
As covered in Module 6, aluminium is alloyed with various other elements,
depending on where it is fitted and what loads it is subjected to.

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Aircraft structure consists of various components manufactured separately and


subsequently joined together.

INTRODUCTION

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RIVETING

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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Aeronautical Material Specifications


Air Force Navy
Air Force Navy Design
Aeronautical Standard
American Standards Association
American Society for Testing and Materials
Military Standard
Naval Aircraft Factory
National Aerospace Standard
Society of Automotive Engineers

99.00 % minimum aluminium


Copper
Manganese
Silicon
Magnesium
Magnesium and Silicon
Zinc
Other elements
Unused series

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Rivets also have a letter assignation which is commonly


used for quick identification, as well as head markings.

1XXX
2XXX
3XXX
4XXX
5XXX
6XXX
7XXX
8XXX
9XXX

Wrought Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements

The aluminum industry uses a four--digit index system


for the designation of its wrought and cast aluminum
alloys, and this is carried across to rivet coding.

Abbreviations for Common Aircraft Hardware


Standards/Specifications

AMS
AN
AND
AS
ASA
ASTM
MS
NAF
NAS
SAE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Shank
Diameter

Figure 215

Solid Rivets

Length measurements correspond to grip length.

Shank
Diameter

Countersink
Angle (100o)

426
(Countersunk)

Length
of Rivet

470
(Universal)

Rivet part numbers indicate


head style, material and size.

5/16in Length

4/32in Diameter

2117T4 Alloy

Universal Head

Airforce Navy

AN 470 AD 4 - 5

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1.5D

2117 5056
AD
B

1.5D

2017 2024
DD
D

7050
E

2 raised
Raised
dashes
cross
Raised
Raised
Dimple
dot
ring

Page: 432

Hole is normally drilled 0.1mm larger in


diameter than rivet shank diameter.
When driven, rivet swells to diameter of hole.
Exact dimensions are given in aircraft SRM.

.5D

1100
A

Plain

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Allowance
The amount of protrusion of the rivet shank that is sufficient to form the shop
head (tail).

Sphere of Influence
The area of sheet metal over which a rivet will achieve a water-tight joint (typically 5D).

Spacing
Spacing is the distance between fastener rows, taken from the hole centres.
Use 4D as a rule of thumb.

Edge Margin
Use 2 to 2.5 D as a rule of thumb.

Edge Distance
The bolt and pin hole edge distance values are from the centre of one fastener
hole to the nearest edge of the component.
The edge distance values applicable to the protruding head fasteners for the
wing structure are quoted in terms of the fastener nominal shank diameter D.
For example, factor 2.0 x D = edge distance .
The edge distance values applicable to protruding and countersunk head fasteners are given in the repair instructions provided by the SRM.

Pitch
The bolt and pin hole pitch values are from the centre of one fastener hole to
the centre of the next fastener hole in a row and are quoted in terms of the
fastener nominal shank diameter D. For example, factor 4.0 x D = pitch.
RD

SP
EM

1.1D to 1.5D

0.5D

Allowance

0.6D to 0.75D

Fastener Pattern Terminology

1.3D to 1.5D

ST

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When a sheet metal repair is to be done, there are certain minimums that must
be attained for rivet spacing, edge margin and fastener diameter.
The fastener spacing and margin data applicable to metallic and composite
structures are given in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Chapter 51.

Layout

RIVETED JOINTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 433

1.6D to 1.7D

EM -- Edge Material
RD -- Rivet Diameter
SP -- Spacing
ST -- Skin Thickness
P -- Pitch

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Extract from Airbus SRM

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 216

Fastener Edge Distance

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

Figure 217

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

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Figure 218

Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

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Grip Ranges/Recommended Lengths: Standard Aluminium Alloy Rivets (Boeing)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

Figure 219

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

Figure 220

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

NACA Method
BACD 2027 Type II Countersink
Driven Head

Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing)

Driven Head

Drive to Fill Countersink

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Because the aircraft engineer will encounter both metric and Imperial units of
measurement (particularly when carrying out structural repair work), a
pocket-sized manual (such as the Zeus book) is an invaluable aid for quick
conversion work.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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RIVETING

Figure 221

Standard Drill Sizes & Decimal Equivalents

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Wing Structure
Maximum rivet spacing of the wing structure is deemed to be 3.75D (solid rivet)
or 4.5D (or 10t, whichever is smaller) for a Hi-Lok rivet.

Pressurised Fuselage
To prevent skin plates buckling, the maximum permissable rivet spacing of a
pressurised fuselage should be 6D or 18t (whichever is the smaller).

INTER-RIVET BUCKLING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 441

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RIVETING

Figure 222

Fuel Tank Fastener Spacing

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Introduction
If skin is too thin to cut-countersink, it is shaped (dented) to accept the head of
a countersunk fastener by dimpling.
There are three methods of dimpling.
S Coin Dimpling. A male die fits through the rivet hole and the coining ram in
the female exerts a controlled pressure on the underside of the hole whilst
the male is forced into the upper side.
The pressure on the dies forges the edges of the hole to exactly fit the
shape of the dies.
Coin dimpling gives the hole sharply-defined edges that closely resemble
machine dimpling. The top and bottom of the dimple are formed to a 100o
angle, enabling dimpled skins to be stacked (or nested).
S Radius Dimpling. The pilot on the male die passes through the hole in the
material and presses into the female die. The dimple formed does not have
parallel sides as the lower side has an angle greater than 100o, therefore
these dimples cannot be nested.
Radius dimpling equipment is smaller than that used for coin dimpling and
can be used in locations too tight for coin dimpling.
S Hot Dimpling. Magnesium and some of the harder aluminium alloys (such
as 7075) cannot be successfully cold-dimpled, as the material is so brittle
that cracks will form during the process.
To prevent this cracking, the material is heated during the process.
The equipment is similar to that used for coin or radius dimpling except that
the dies are heated.
The material is put in place and heat and pressure applied. The metal
softens under the heat and the pressure then increased to form the dimple.
The amount of heat and duration it is applied is carefully controlled to
prevent the temper condition of the metal being destroyed.

DIMPLING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 443

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100o
100o
100o
100o

Female Die

Movable Coining Ram

Sharp Break

Coin Dimple

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Coin Dimpling

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Male Die

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 223

Dimpling

Radius Dimpling

Setting Block

Pilot Tip

Punch

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Hot Dimpling Machine

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Gun Riveting
The rivet gun, used with a back-up dolly (bucking bar), forms the upset head.
This is known as reaction riveting.
A correctly-shaped rivet set (rivet snap) is held in the gun and located on the
manufactured head end of the rivet. At the same time the dolly is held against
the end of the rivet to be upset.
When the gun operates, the dolly reaction to the pneumatic hammering of the
gun forms the upset head.

Riveting Methods
For the installation of rivets, the following methods can be employed:
S pneumatic rivet gun
S hand hammering
S continuous squeeze-riveting.

TOOLS USED FOR SOLID RIVETING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 445

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Adjusting of Force

WOODPLATE

SafetySpring

Rivetset

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Trigger

Figure 224

Rivet Guns

IR PART 66

Page: 446

M7.8 (Cat B1)

Rivet Gun Capacity (Boeing -- assembler / installer manual)

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MAKE SURE THAT THE HAMMER BLOWS ARE HEAVY AND AS


FEW AS POSSIBLE BECAUSE A LARGE NUMBER OF LIGHT
BLOWS WORK-HARDEN THE RIVET. THIS CAN RESULT IN
CRACKS IN THE UPSET HEAD.
Make sure that the tools are sufficiently large to quickly form the upset head.
The subsequent times for the formation of the upset head are recommended:
S three or four seconds is the optimum time,
S seven seconds is the maximum time.
Hold the back-up dolly in position until the rivet is fully installed.
Before you install rivets in the aircraft structure, make some test pieces to
check the rivet and tool precision. These test pieces must be the same type of
material and thickness as the parts to be riveted, and the rivets must be the
same type of material, length and diameter as the rivets to be used.
Visually check rivets before they are installed. If a rivet appears defective (eg
deep scores or indication of wire drawing) reject it. Some apparent defects (eg
isolated nicks, abrasions, die marks or fins) are acceptable up to a maximum
depth of 0.10mm (0.004 in).
Rivets made from 2017 and 2024 materials must be kept in a refrigerator after
they have been heat-treated.

NOTE:

Hand Riveting
Hand hammering (also known as percussion riveting) is the basic method
used to make the upset head of a rivet. For this method follow these steps:
1. Support the manufactured head with a correctly-shaped rivet set
2. Hold a dolly against the end of the rivet and hit it until the upset head has
achieved the correct shape.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 447

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Rivet Set for Flush (Countersunk) Head

Rivet Set for Universal Head

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 225

Rivet Sets

Curved Rivet Snap

Straight Rivet Snap

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Upset Rivet Set


(for frame area)

Reworked Rivet Set


(for stringer area)

Page: 448

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Squeeze Riveting
The continuous squeeze method is the preferred method for riveting, but if this
method is not available then pneumatic hammering is the next recommended
method.
The hand hammering method is used primarily for small repairs that include
very few rivets. It can also be used if other methods are not available.
A squeeze riveting tool makes the upset head of a rivet in a single continuous
action. Tools to perform this are either hydraulically or pneumatically operated.
Static and portable types of tools are available.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 449

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Guard

Trigger

May 2004

CP214 C Rivet
Squeeze

CP351
C-Type
Squeeze

CP351
Alligator-Type
Squeeze

Trigger

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Die

Air
Supply

Guard

Air
Supply

Guard

Rivet Squeezers

C. Installed Rivet

Figure 226

MS

With trigger pulled, add enough snap die


length so the total distance between die
faces (C dimension) equals T + A

A. C Yoke Squeeze

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X & Y - snap dies. If X & Y length must be


adjusted, use a steel washer.

T - material thickness

MS - maximum stroke

G - steel washer (die length adjustment option)

C - T + A (opening left after full travel of piston)

A - desired rivet button thickness

With jaws closed so the die seats are


parallel to each other (surfaces B & D)
and jaw faces E & F form a straight line,
add enough snap die length so that the
C dimension equals T + A

B. Alligator Squeeze

Page: 450

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3/32
7/64
1/8
9/64
5/32
11/64
3/16
13/64
7/32
15/64
1/4
17/64

2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8

CWM LRTT CoM

in

mm

Rivet Diameter

2.57
2.97
3.35
3.76
4.17
4.57
4.95
5.36
5.77
6.17
6.55
6.96

in

in
0.097
0.113
0.128
0.144
0.160
0.176
0.191
0.207
0.223
0.239
0.254
0.269

Minimum
2.46
2.85
3.25
3.66
4.06
4.47
4.85
5.26
5.66
6.07
6.45
6.83

mm

Hole Diameter

0.101
0.117
0.132
0.148
0.164
0.180
0.195
0.211
0.227
0.243
0.258
0.274

Maximum

mm

May 2004

Extract from Airbus SRM

Hole Diameter - Solid Rivets

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Replaceable Pilot-Pin

Countersink Bit

Stop

Typical Microstop
Countersinking Tool

Adjuster

Page: 451

Flush Rivets
The use of a countersunk fastener requires a countersunk recess in the
surface of the material. The countersunk recess receives the head of the
fastener and therefore gives a smooth surface.
The tools, used to produce the countersunk recess, are of various types:
S a countersink bit with an integral pilot pin, a cutting edge to produce the
required internal corner radius and an adapter for use with a drilling
machine,
S a countersink bit with a replaceable pilot pin and an adapter for use with a
drilling machine,
S an adjustable countersink tool with an integral pilot pin and a cutting edge to
produce the required internal corner radius,
S an adjustable countersink tool with a replaceable pilot pin.
NOTE: The diameter of the pilot pin must fit the diameter of the fastener hole.
The diameter of the countersink bit must be larger than the maximum diameter
of the required countersunk recess.
Before countersinking, observe the minimum part thickness (see table
opposite).

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Introduction
The dimensions of a fastener hole have an important relation to the strength of
the fastened joint.
CLearance fit, transition fit or interference fit fasteners are used depending on
the loading.
Deburr the hole using a suitable deburring tool.
NOTE: A twist--drill is not permitted for this step.

HOLE PREPARATION

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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Extract from Airbus SRM

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 227

Minimum Part Thickness for 100o Countersinking

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Flush Rivets (Contd)


CAUTION: CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN THROUGHOUT THIS PROCEDURE
TO ENSURE THAT THE COUNTERSINK PRODUCED IS NOT TO DEEP.
Obtain a piece of scrap metal to use as a test piece, similar in type and
thickness to the material that is to be used for the repair . Also obtain a
fastener of the same type and diameter as the ones to be installed.
Drill several holes to the required diameter in the test piece.
Adjust the micro stop on the countersinking tool to give a minimum countersink.
Make a countersink on the test piece. Gradually increase the amount of
countersink by adjusting the micro stop until the required depth is obtained.
Check the depth with the correct fastener. Refer to Chapter 51--10--00 of the
SRM for the required Aerodynamic Smoothness for the type of fastener.
When the required depth of countersink has been obtained, check that the
remaining parallel portion (excluding the de--burred area) of the hole is at least
0.2 mm (0.008 in.) long.
Complete the test by fully installing a fastener in the test piece and check for
correctness.
NOTE: When using a micro-adjustable countersinking tool, ensure that the stop
on the tool does not rotate when countersinking. Rotation of the stop can cause
damage to the surface of the material around the countersink.
NOTE: If a large number of countersinks are to be made, the adjustment of the
tool must be checked from time to time.
To achieve adequate seating of the fastener, the edge of the countersunk
recess/hole must be chamfered (see opposite).
Some countersinking tools produce a chamfer (radius) in a one--step operation
with the countersinking. If the produced radius has the correct dimension for
the required fastener (refer to Chapter 51--44--11), no further chamfering is
necessary.

HOLE PREPARATION (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 228

Underhead Radius/Chamfer Limits

Applicable to 100o countersink-head fasteners.

Applicable to plain holes for protruding-head fasteners.

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NOTE: Install the rivets before the pot-life of the sealant or jointing compound
ends.
6. Make sure that the contact surfaces of the parts are fully together and that
there are no gaps between them. Gaps will prevent the correct forming of
the rivet and reduce the joint strength.
7. Align the holes as necessary and attach the parts together temporarily.
Take care not to cause damage to the local area with tools.
8. Put the rivet fully in the hole. For this operation make sure that the parts
are correctly supported where necessary.
9. Form the upset head. To do this, use one of the methods given in the general section. Hold the tools perpendicular to the surfaces and do not compress the rivet too much. If the upset head is over-compressed, it is possible for the material to crack.

NOTE: If necessary, the rivet can be shortened to the required length.


This does not apply to titanium rivets.
3. Get the correct rivet set and back--up dolly for the rivet type and dimensions.
4. Make sure that the hole, and if applicable, the countersunk portion is in a
satisfactory condition. This includes clean and free from burrs.
5. Clean the parts as necessary. Apply sealant or jointing compound if it is
called for in the related repair drawing, assembly drawing or is normally
used in the area concerned.

Select the required rivet. If, for any reason, the dimensions of the required rivet
are not known, proceed as follows:
1. Accurately measure the diameter of the hole. If the diameter of the hole is
within the tolerances for a standard rivet (Refer to SRM 51--40--40), select
a rivet of this diameter. If the diameter of the hole is not within the tolerances, increase the diameter of the hole to suit an oversize rivet if applicable, or the next standard size.
2. To find the required rivet length, accurately measure the total thickness of
the materials to be joined. Refer to rivet length data tables to find the correct length that is relevant to the rivet diameter found above.

INSTALLATION PROCEDURE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 229

Bucking Bars - Details

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Aerodynamic Smoothness
Aircraft designers insist that certain areas of the aircraft surface must be
aerodynamically smooth. It may also be necessary to fit a panel or other
component over countersunk fasteners, in which case it is important that there
is no protrusion of the fasteners that can result in damage to the component
being fitted.
To achieve a flush finish to a countersunk rivet, a microshaver is used. The
tool is micro--adjustable and should be set up on a piece of spare metal. The
cutters height is set so that, upon lowering to the metal surface, no material is
removed. Check the setting by increasing the cutters height one step at a time
until material is removed, then backing off again.
The aircraft SRM must be consulted before shaving rivets.

General
Inspect rivets after they have been installed. This is necessary to make sure
that the joint is tight, and that the rivets are fully seated and correctly formed.
Make sure that the adjacent area has no damage or distortion.
The acceptance limits given in the following tables are applicable to those
rivets that become part of the structural strength after installation. For example,
rivets that fasten skin or formed and extruded sections.
A large number of cracks found in a high percentage of installed rivets indicates that the rivets have not been correctly heat-treated. It can also mean that
the installation time allowed for heat--treated rivets has been exceeded. It is
necessary to scrap and replace all of these rivets (including those which are
not used) from the batch concerned, or have them heat--treated again.
Deformation or buckling of the plating is only permitted within the limits given in
SRM Chapter 51--10--30. This type of damage is a result of:
S too much tool pressure
S rivets expanded between the sheets
S trapped foreign material.
Make sure that the head of a countersunk rivet is level with or slightly above
the surface of the material. Refer to SRM Chapter 51 for the rivet head protrusion limits.

INSPECTION AND PERMITTED LIMITS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Microshaver

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 230

Upset Rivet Dimension (Airbus)

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 231

MALFORMATION

PERMITTED IF IN UPSET
HEAD HEIGHT LIMITS

NOT PERMITTED
(RIVET SHANK VISIBLE)

Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 1

PERMITTED IF IN UPSET
HEAD HEIGHT LIMITS

PERMITTED

ECCENTRICITY

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MAX 5% OF TOTAL
PLATE THICKNESS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 232

MAX 30% OF
CIRCUMFERENCE

Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 2

RAD 0.3mm (O.012in)

TOOL IMPACT DAMAGE

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NOTE: Cracks in the heads of titanium and monel rivets are not permitted.
Lack of head/material abutment (seating) is permitted within the limits given in
the SRM.

Acceptable Limits
Ovality of the upset head is permitted if the dimensions are within the upset
diameter limits. These limits, together with the applicable rivet material, are
given in the following tables.
Eccentricity of the upset head is permitted if the rivet shank cannot be seen.
Malformation of the upset head is permitted if the shape is within the dimension
limits given in upset rivet dimension tables.
Tool impact damage around the two heads is permitted within the limits given in
sketch.
Cracks in the upset head of aluminium alloy 2017 and 2024 rivets are permitted
within the limits given in the table/sketch. Cracks in the upset head of other aluminium alloy rivets are not permitted. Cracks in the structure material under
either head are not permitted.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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RIVETING

Figure 233

Acceptable Limits for Cracks (Airbus)

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

CWM LRTT CoM

Vertical cracks due to overheating


during heat-treatment is unsatisfactory.

Cracks Analysis: Shop Head (Boeing)

Vertical cracks due to laps in


the material is satisfactory.

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Figure 234

Vertical cracks in CRES alloy,


nickel-copper alloy and titanium rivets.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 235

Cracks Analysis: Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Figure 236

Cracks Analysis: Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing)

Unsatisfactory - displaced metal or cracks


with an intersection on the flat surface.

Satisfactory - no
displaced metal or gaps.

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Gap Inspection Shim

Exposed area of
countersink is not permitted.

CWM LRTT CoM

May 2004

Shim

Shim is wedged and does not


move freely in
this direction.

No measurable
gap is allowed.

W = 0.5 in
nominal.

Length is optional.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Shim

60% of the head


must not have a gap
that a shim can find.

Protruding Head Gap Inspection Method

Shim

Shim touches the shank or


head-to-shank fillet and
moves freely in this direction.

Shim

M7.8 (Cat B1)

IR PART 66

Page: 466

Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

Shim

Shim stops
suddenly when it
touches the shank
and is not wedged.

Gap Inspection Method for Flush-Head Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets

Shim is wedged.
A light force is
necessary to
remove the shim.

Gap Analysis: Rivet Heads/Tails (Boeing)

Shim

the shank or
in this direction.

Figure 237

Shim touches
moves freely

No measurable
gap is allowed.

0.002 in
nominal.

R = 0.25 in
nominal.

Shim is wedged and


does not move freely
in this direction.

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Method
1. If the head type is protruding and its centre cannot be accurately established (covered in sealant or paint), file it slightly to produce a flat.
2. Centre-punch the head as a guide for the drill-bit.
NB Alternatively, to prevent undue stress by centre-punching, position the
drill-bit and turn the chuck by hand to create a start for the drill-bit.
3. Carefully drill (using a bit of the same size as the rivet shank diameter) just
to the bottom of the rivet head. To prevent damage to the structure, do
NOT be tempted to chisel off the head. Provided you have drilled centrally,
the head will part easily during the last part of this operation.
4. Support the structure on the reverse side. Using a parallel pin-punch of the
rivet shank diameter, drift out the rivet tail.

Safety
S As with all operations involving drills, wear eye protection.
S Check whether there is anything behind the rivet (wire loom, pipes etc).
S Warn anyone in the vicinity you are about to drill.
S Rivet removal generates a lot of debris. Prevent, as far as possible, this
entering cavities.
S Be scrupulous in cleaning your work area.

Caution
Fastener holes are one of the main sources of structural fatigue and failure. It
is vital that they are not damaged during the rivet removal process.
You cannot automatically increase a rivet size if holes are enlarged. In certain
areas, the SRM cannot authorise this and the aircrafts design department
must be approached for a concession, incurring delays and expense.
Fasteners will not form correctly in enlarged holes, thus reducing their
effectiveness.
Therefore, great care should be taken during this operation.

SOLID RIVET REMOVAL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

Page: 467

M7.8 (Cat B1)

IR PART 66

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Extract from Boeing 737-- 300 SRM

Step 4

Drift
Punch

Figure 238

Solid Rivet Removal

Step 3

Drift
Punch

Support the

Back-Up
Support

NOTE: start the drill by hand. Use a drill-bit 1/32


diameter smaller than the rivet shank.

Drill through the head of the rivet so that the drill does not
damage the skin or cut the sides of the rivet hole.

Page: 468

M7.8 (Cat B1)

IR PART 66

CAUTION: to prevent cracked dimples or damaged


understructure when removing rivets from dimpled holes,
drill a hole into the rivet shank before driving it out.

Drill

Drive out the rivet shank with a drift


punch and hammer. Use a block of wood
or a bucking bar as a back-up support.

Step 5

Back-Up
Support
Centre-punch the centre of the manufactured head.
For both flush and non-flush rivets use a block of
wood or a bucking bar as a back-up support.

Step 2

Centre
Punch

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Insert a drift punch into the hole


drilled in the rivet and tilt the punch
to break off the rivet head.

Manufactured
head

File a flat area on the


manufactured head with a file.

Step 1

File

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
RIVETING

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M7.8 (Cat B1)

IR PART 66

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Installation
Tube assemblies are laid in a manner so that they can yield along their length if
there is movement and vibration, so that there is no significant additional stress
on the fittings. This is achieved by providing suitable bends in the tubing.
For the same reason the vibration of the line itself must also be reduced to a
minimum. This is achieved by clamping at short regular intervals.
The proximity of lines to each other must also be observed to prevent them
damaging each other through contact.

M7.9 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

CAUTION:

Page: 470

PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY


OF SPECIALISTS. A PIPE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRESSURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.

Cleaning and Pressure-Testing


A manufactured pipe assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at
1 1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.

The smallest permitted bend radius for the tube assembly is dependent on the
tube material, the wall thickness and the outer diameter.
At the same time, the lines must be able to connect to the connections exactly
matching the axis and be free of tension so that they maintain the necessary
seal over longer operating periods.

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General
A tube assembly consists of the tube and both tube fittings. Tube assemblies
are differentiated according to their use as low, medium and high pressure tube
assemblies.
Extruded tube material of various non-corrosive steels, aluminium and titanium
alloys is available.
Their dimensions are determined by the nominal diameter, the external diameter and the wall thickness.
The higher the quality of material that is selected for a line, the easier it is to
achieve the same operational pressure with reduction of the wall thickness and
thus less flow resistance due to the larger inner diameter.
Steel lines are increasingly being used as pressure lines, even if this could be
accomplished with aluminium lines. The reason for this is the greater operating
safety and the longer life expectancy.
S At pressures of over 1500 PSI (105 bar) we speak of high pressure lines,
S under 1500 PSI (105 bar) medium pressure lines
S suction and return lines we speak of low pressure lines.
Medium and low pressure lines are preferably made of aluminium alloys for
weight-saving.
Lines in the engine area, where there is danger of fire, and in the landing gear
area, where there is danger of being hit by stones, must principally be made of
steel. Titanium lines are still the exception; they can be used due to reasons of
weight or as flexible metal pipes instead of hoses.

TUBES AND PIPES / TUBE ASSEMBLIES

M7.9 PIPES AND HOSES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 239

Bulkhead

Correct Tube Alignment

Bulkhead Fitting

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WHEN INSTALLING A BONDED CLAMP, ENSURE ANY


PAINT OR ANODIZING IS REMOVED FROM THE LINE
WHERE THE CLAMP IS FITTED FOR ELECTRICAL CONTINUITY.

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CAUTION:

Bonded Clamps
A bonded clamp is used to secure metal fuel, oil or hydraulic lines. It has an
electrical lead connected to the aircraft structure to ground the line.

Support Clamps
Support clamps are used to secure fluid lines to the aircraft structure or to
assemblies in the engine nacelle.
In addition to providing support, these clamps prevent chafing and reduce
stress.
The two clamps most commonly-encountered are the rubber cushioned
clamp and the plain clamp.
The rubber cushioned clamp secures lines which are subject to vibration. It
reduces the transmission of vibrations to the line and prevents chafing.
In areas subject to contamination by fuel or hydraulic fluid, cushioned clamps
utilizing Teflon are used, which are highly-resistant to deterioration.

Introduction
For appearance sake and ease of attachment, all fluid lines should follow
structural members of the aircraft and be secured with appropriate clamps; ie
all fuel lines must be bonded to the structure with integrally bonded line support
clamps.
It is important that no fluid line be allowed to chafe against any control cable or
aircraft structure, electrical wiring bundles or conduit-carrying electrical wires.
Furthermore, you should avoid routing fluid lines through passenger
compartments. If, however, this is unavoidable, it must be supported and
protected against damage and installed in such a way that it cannot be used as
a hand-hold.

CLAMPS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 240

Clamp Types

Cushioned Clamp

Plain Clamp

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DO NOT OVER-TIGHTEN THE JOINT IN ATTEMPTING TO


CURE A LEAK. THIS MAY RESULT IN FAILURE OF A COMPONENT.

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CAUTION:

Leak Inspection
If a leak is apparent from a correctly-tightened joint, it should be dismantled
and mating surfaces thoroughly inspected for debris or damage.

Flare Angle
Aircraft flared fittings have a standard flare angle of 37o and are not
interchangeable with vehicle-type flares, which are 45o.

M7.9 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Dimensions
See next page.

Page: 474

Single Flare
A single flare is formed with either an impact-type flaring tool or one having a
flaring cone with a rolling action.
S Impact-Type
This method involves the tubing being clamped in flaring blocks (the grip
die) whilst a plunger is driven into the end of the tube using light hammer
blows whilst rotating the plunger.
S Roll-Type
This is the preferred method, involving an entirely self-contained unit
producing a good flare.
The tube is clamped and the flaring cone is turned into the tube end,
expanding the flare until it reaches the edges of the die. No hammering is
required.

Types of Flare
There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
S Single Flare
S Double Flare.

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Introduction
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare.
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between
the inside of the flared tube and the flare cone of the fitting provides the actual
seal, therefore surfaces must be scrupulously clean and free of cracks,
scratches and nicks etc.
The sleeve provides added strength and suports the tube to prevent vibration
concentrating on the flare.
This fitting is relatively complicated to manufacture, but has proved its worth for
use in engines because it is relatively vibration-resistant.

FLARE-TYPE FITTING

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PIPES AND HOSES

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Nut

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 241

Tube

Sleeve

Steel
Pilots

Grip
Die

Roll-Type Flaring Tool

Impact-Type Flaring Tool

Tubing

Yoke

Single Flare Fittings and Tools

Grip
Die

Flaring Tool
Plunger

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Tubing

Page: 475

SIDE VIEW

TOP VIEW

Grip Die
shown in vice

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Flare

Minimum
Flare

Flare

Maximum
Flare

Aug 2004

Sleeve
External
Diameter

Sleeve
External
Diameter

37o

3/4

5/8

1/2

3/8

5/16

1/4

3/16

1/8

Tube OD (in)

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Dimensions
Single flares must be manufactured to certain tolerances to ensure a strong,
leak-free joint.

Single Flare (Contd)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

1.187

0.937

0.781

0.656

0.484

0.421

0.359

0.302

0.200

+0.000
-0.015

Page: 476

0.093

0.078

+0.000
-0.010

0.062

+0.000
-0.010

0.062

0.046

+0.000
-0.010

+0.000
-0.010

0.032

0.032

+0.000
-0.010
+0.000
-0.010

0.032

0.032

B Radius
+0.010 (in)

+0.000
-0.010

+0.000
-0.010

Steel or Aluminium Alloy Tubing (in)

External Sleeve Diameter

Dimensions for Single-Flare Tubing

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AN939
Elbow

AN832
Union

AN833
Elbow

AN941
Elbow

AN824
Tee

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Common Aircraft Pipe Fittings

AN938
Tee

AN827
Cross

AN821
Elbow

Figure 242

AN916 Elbow

AN917 Tee

AN914 Elbow

AN912 Bushing

AC
AN
Feature
Angle
35o
37o

Recess
Coarser Threads Finer
Grey
Blue
or
or
Colour
yellow
black
Longer Body Length Shorter

AC

Flared Fitting Types


Page: 477

M7.9 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Flared fitting part numbers are either AN or MS. Some older types (AC)
still exist. It is important to be aware of this and note that there are a
number of physical differences that mean they are NOT interchangeable.

AN

Tapered Pipe Thread Fittings

AN915 Elbow

AN913 Plug

AN910 Coupling AN911 Nipple

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Body Length

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Body Length

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Procedure
S The tubing is inserted into the flaring die to a depth determined by the
stop-pin and then clamped.
S The upsetting tool is inserted and, with as few blows as possible, the initila
upset is formed.
S The upsetting tool is then substituted for the flaring tool and then hammered
to form the double flare.

Double Flare
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 in or smaller can be
double-flared to provide a stronger connection.
A double flare is smoother and more concentric than a single flare and thus
provides a better seal. It is also more durable and resistant to the shearing
effect of torque.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Page: 478

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3. Complete flare

2. Form initial upset

1. Position tubing against stop

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 243

Double Flare

0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.046

B Radius
+0.010

Dimensions for Double-Flare Tubing

0.224
0.302
0.359
0.421
0.484

1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8

Tube
Size

37o

A Diameter
+0.010
-0.010

Tube Size
(Nominal
External
Diameter)

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IR PART 66

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Tools
Care must be taken to ensure that the correct tool is used for bending tubes.
The choice of tool depends on the diameter of the tube.
The swivel handle of the larger tube benders has an angled slot. The whole
swivel handle can slide outwards so that the tube can be laid in the guide
groove.
After this the swivel handle is pushed down again and the tube clamp is placed
around the tube. The left side of the swivel handle is now on the zero marking
of the scale.
It is recommended to lightly lubricate the tube at the bend point before bending.
To bend the tube, secure the tube bender with the form wheel handle in a vice.
The tube is bent by pulling both levers together. With steel tubes, you usually
arc the bend a little further than the marking on the scale, as the tube springs
back a little after bending.
This is hardly ever the case with light metal tubes.
After bending, the swivel handle is pushed up over the slot again, the tube
clamp moved back and the tube removed.

BENDING TUBES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 244

Tube Bender

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Tools (cont.)
Tube benders for small tube diameters have no slot in the swivel handle; instead, it is on the reverse side of the lug.
When you open the swivel handle with the lug, the tube can easily be inserted
here too.
With both of these tube benders you are not limited to making 180 bends, you
can also make any open bend to your required angle.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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Figure 245

Tube Clamp

Tube Bender

Swivel Handle

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Form Wheel Handle

Tube 3/8

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Form Wheel

Guide

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With an open tube bend, you must ensure that the dimension (X) from the
middle of the tube to the middle of the tube at the desired point is marked
exactly.
First, you bend the right bend to 90, during which the tube must be held so
that the right marking on the tube covers the marking (L) on the form wheel
(see Figure 207).
Then the tube is pushed further right in the tube bender until the left marking on
the tube covers the marking (R) on the form wheel. Now the second 90 bend
can be made.

TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 246

Bending

Form Wheel Handle

Tube 3/8

Tube Clamp

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Swivel Handle

Form Wheel

Guide

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It is often very advantageous to fabricate the tube bend at the installation site
to ensure that it fits exactly.
Tube bends must be made in such a way that the tubes can be installed totally
tension free with no tension in the clamps and fittings.
Some tube assemblies must be bent with very exact measurements due to the
aircraft structure. This is especially so at an S--bend that must run parallel, i.e.
it is very important at an offset.
First, the required measurement (Y) from tube centre to tube centre must be
determined. You can bend any offset angle.
The tube is bent as widely as possible when a small offset is required. In the
example below, a 15, 30 or 45 angle is shown on the left. Sharper angles of
60, 75 or 90 can easily be used with a larger (Y) measurement.
The manufacturer recommends that a 45 angle is bent where possible.
A table, which you can use to determine the correct dimension of an offset,
comes with the tube bender.

TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 247

Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 1

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To carry out an offset, you can draw and bend at a certain point according to
the table, using the measurements (X) and (Y).
As an example, assume a required dimension of 2 inches at Y (from tube
centre to tube centre).
If we want to bend an offset of 45 we see from the table, under the offset
angle 45, that the measurement (Y) of 2 inches is next to the measurement
(X) of 3 17/32 inches.

TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 248

Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 2

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On the straight tube, the measurement (X) is therefore drawn at 3 17/32 inches
at the place where the offset shall be.
To bend a 45 offset, we must bring the first marking on the tube to the 45 line
marking on the tube bender (shoe). Then, we bend an angle of 45.
Now the tube is repositioned and we bring the second marking on the tube to
the 45 line marking on the tube bender (shoe).
Double-check you are set for the correct bend direction. Then an angle of 45
is bent again.

TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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Latch

Figure 249

Form Handle

Tube 3/8

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Bending Form

Shoe

Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 3

Shoe Handle

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 250

Material/Diameter/Thickness Table

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Ref. AMM A340 / ATA 20--23--00

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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Lay Lines
Lay lines run along the length of a hose. They are yellow, red or white stripes,
incorporating MIL-SPEC numbers and various other manufacturers
information.
Besides identifying the hose, it serves to indicate whether the assembly is
twisted when installed.

Applications
There are essentially three types of hose ratings:
S Low pressure ................. up to 600 pounds per square inch (psi)
S Medium pressure .......... up to 3000 psi
S high pressure ................. 3000 psi +

Why hoses?
Flexible hoses are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary to
moving parts and in areas of high vibration.

M7.9 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 494

Inspection
At designated intervals, hoses should be inspected for deterioration. Particular
attention should be paid to indications of leakage and mechanical damage
(braid separation from the covering or broken wire braids).
Damage limits will be found in the SRM.

Construction
Hoses are built up from layers.
S The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible
(chemically) with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount
of porosity.
The four main compounds used to construct inner liners are
Neoprene (for petroleum-based fluids)
Buna-N (better suited for petroleum-based fluids)
Butyl (phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol))
Teflon (compatible with almost every fluid carried).
S Reinforcement layers cover the inner liner and determine the hoses
strength.
Common materials used for reinforcement layers are
cotton
rayon
polyester fabric
carbon-steel wire
stainless steel wire braid.
Diligent design of reinforcement layers can minimise the dimensional
changes of hoses under pressure.
S The protective outer cover is usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or
stainless steel braid. It is put over the reinforcement to protect from physical
damage or heat.

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General
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual
to fabricate hose assemblies.
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements:
S there must be a certain amount of slack between both fittings because
hoses reduce their length by between 2% and 4% and expand in diameter
when under pressure. Tensile stress on the fittings is unsafe and therefore
not permitted.
S they must not twist when the end-fittings are tightened. Twisted hoses have
a shortened life and can be damaged or buckle when there is movement.
End-fittings can loosen off.

HOSES

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PIPES AND HOSES

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High pressure

Medium pressure

Low pressure

A lay-line is a visual indicator for twisting

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 251

Flexible Hoses

Assembly length

Hose length

Swaged fittings require special machinery


to assemble and cannot be reused.

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PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY


OF SPECIALISTS. A HOSE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRESSURE CAN CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.

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CAUTION:

Cleaning and Pressure-Testing


The completed hose assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at
1 1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.

Method
Determine the length of hose required (usually using old assembly as
pattern).
Protect the outer covering by wrapping with tape, then cut the hose to length
with a fine-tooth saw, ensuring both ends are square-cut.
1. With the socket held firmly in a vice (using suitable protection for its surface) and the tape removed, screw the hose into it. Having bottomed the
hose in the socket, back it off approximately half a turn.
2. With the socket still held firmly in the vice, force the lubricated end of the
assembly tool into the hose sufficiently far for the nipple to be inserted.
3. Using the assembly tool, the nipple is then screwed into the socket,
squeezing the hose tightly between socket and nipple.
4. Finally, back off the nipple to leave a gap, permitting the nut to turn freely.

Reusable Fittings
It is possible to re-manufacture certain hose assemblies by re-using the
end-fittings (the socket, nut and nipple).
Prior to this, however, it is important to thoroughly inspect the salvaged fittings
for wear or other damage.
If any doubt exists as to the items serviceability, it is to be discarded.

HOSES (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Page: 496

M7.9 (Cat A)

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Breakdown of
Reusable Hose Fitting

Nipple

Nut

Socket

Hose

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Hose

Shoulder
of Socket

Hose

Figure 252

Vice
Jaws

Assembly
Tool

Reusable Hose Fittings

Shoulder
of Socket

Socket

2. Lubricate assembly tool and


force into hose to open inner liner.

Vice
Jaws

1. With socket held in vice,


screw hose into socket.

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Nut

Adaptor

Swivel Type

1/32 to 1/16 inch clearance

Page: 497

4. After installation there should be


clearance between nut and socket to
permit nut to turn freely.

Assembly
Tool

Nipple

Use wrench
on hex

3. Nipple is screwed into


socket with assembly tool.

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Hose Installation
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
S applicability
S length
S cleanliness
S damage.
Check the hose identification tag for:
S part number
S cure date (within limits)
S assembly date (within limits)
When fitting a hose assembly, it is important:
S not to twist it, thereby placing it under undue strain. Check the lay line
printed along the hose length
S that it is subjected to the minimum of flexing during operation
S that it is supported at least every 24 inches
S that it is not stretched tightly between its fittings 5--8% slack must be
present to allow for contraction in length of pipe when pressurised.
S that the minimum bend radius is observed.

HOSES (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Page: 498

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Flexure

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 253

Prevent twisting

Installation Example 1

Flexure

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Clamp

Page: 499

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TAKE CARE WHEN REMOVING FIRE SLEEVES; EARLY


PRODUCTS CONTAINED ASBESTOS.

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CAUTION:

Protective Sleeves
There are areas on an aircraft that produce wear (from abrasion) or extreme
heat.
Flexible hoses must be protected from these dangers with suitable sleeving.
Sleeving is available in a variety of materials, including
S heat shrink
S nylon spiral wrap
S Teflon.

Hose Installation (Contd)


It is possible to replace a short bend radius with an elbow fitting, but the largest
possible bend radius is still preferred.
The minimum permissable bend radius is determined by the operating pressure, the type of hose and the nominal size. The bend radius required increases when the hose has to carry out movements in the operating condition.
If they can move and become twisted, they are to be fixed with clamps to prevent this.
Clamps are also necessary where there is a danger to the hoses due to vibration, long lengths or sharp edges.
when bonding clamps are fitted to pipelines, paint and anodizing must be
removed so that a low resistance electrical path is provided.

HOSES (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
PIPES AND HOSES

Figure 254

Chafe marks

Installation Example 2

Bend radius too small

Clamp too big

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Chafe marks

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PIPES AND HOSES

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M7.10 SPRINGS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SPRINGS

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Maintenance
In most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any unserviceability is
usually rectified by replacement. Checks include:
S An inspection for corrosion, damage, we, broken coils and distortion.
S Checking for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs can be
checked using a vernier calliper and tension springs are normally in their
fully closed state unloaded.
S Check for springiness. This may require a special process using masses
and checking the extension/change in length with each added mass. A
graph is plotted of mass against change in length from which the elasticity
of the spring is ascertained. The spring should return to its free length
condition when unloaded. Remember, a spring should obey Hookes law
(Robert Hooke English physicist 1635 -- 1703) in that extension (or
compression) is proportional to the force applied.
S If a spring is corroded, it should be discarded even if it appears to function
correctly, this is because the spring will have become weak and may fail
under load.

IR PART 66
M7.10 (Cat A)

Page: 504

1. Ensure that the tension springs (1) are correctly attached to the sidestay
and the lockstay.
2. Examine the tension springs (1) for:
A. impact damage
B. distortion
C. scores
D. corrosion.
3. Examine the end fittings of the tension springs (1) for:
A. damage
B. cracks
C. corrosion.
4. Move the tension springs (1) around their longitudinal axis. This will ensure
that the tension springs (1) are free to move in their end bearings.
5. Ensure that the spring eye--ends at the side--stay end are correctly
attached to the inner retainer spring.
6. Ensure that the cotter pins (2) and (3) are serviceable and correctly installed.
7. Look at the points D. Ensure that the tension springs (1) do not touch the
edges of the side stay.

Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs - Inspection

EXAMPLE

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Definition
Springs are any of several elastic devices used variously to store and to furnish
energy, to absorb shock, to sustain the pressure between contacting surfaces,
and to resist tensional or compressional stress.
Springs are made of an elastic material, eg specially formulated steel alloys or
certain types of rubber or plastic. A torsion spring that stores energy, eg for
operating a watch, is a metal strip wound spirally around a fixed centre.
For reducing concussion in some heavy trucks and railroad cars, helical (or
coil) springs are used. Coil springs are commonly used for the same purpose in
motor cars, as are leaf springs that consist of flat bars clamped together. These
have been replaced in some vehicles by torsion bars that absorb stresses by
twisting.
The helical--coil compression spring provides the force to keep the operating
surfaces together in the friction clutch.
The extension spring is employed for a spring balance; the distance through
which it is extended depends on the weight suspended from it.
The disk spring, which consists of a laminated series of convex discs, is widely
employed for heavy loads.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SPRINGS

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SPRINGS

Figure 255

Lock Stay Lower


Connector Link

Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs

Side Stay

Side Stay

Lock Stay

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Page: 505

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
SPRINGS

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M7.10 (Cat A)

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M 7.11 BEARINGS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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There are five basic types of anti--friction bearings:


S tapered, needle, ball, spherical and cylindrical.
Each is named for the type of rolling element it employs.

ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing


or directly in the bearing body.
Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over
the shafts during assembly (eg crankshafts) must be two-part bearings.
To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film
has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary.
The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected
to and the lubricant.
Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and
they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
continuous maintenance.

SLIDING BEARINGS

Page: 508

Correct lubrication is vital in all kinds of bearings. It provides a film that


separates the bearings moving parts, carries away heat and protects bearing
surfaces from corrosion.
As a bearing rotates, the mating surfaces of its components create a lubricant
film in the bearing that separates components, preventing metal-to-metal
contact. This action reduces friction and prevents wear and corrosion.
Bearings are protected with a preservative coating during storage and
shipment.This is NOT a lubricant. However, it IS compatible with the relevant
lubricant and need not be washed off prior to installation, but it is essential to
lubricate the bearing at installation.
Grease is one of the most popular lubricants. It should be packed into the
bearing so that it will coat between the rollers and cage. In the case of a
tapered bearing, forcing grease through the bearing from the large to the small
end will ensure correct distribution. Any excess grease should be smeared on
the outside of the rollers.
It is important not to over-grease bearings. Too much grease in the housing will
cause excess churning and generate extremely high temperatures; potentially
a fire hazard.

Bearings are used to support the journals of shafts and axles.


Bearings for supporting journals, which are designed to accept forces at rightangles to the drilling axis, are called journal bearings or roller bearings.
Bearings for pivot journals, which are designed to accept forces in a longitudinal direction, are called pivot bearings or axial bearings. These are different
to sliding bearings or anti-friction bearings.

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LUBRICATION

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BEARINGS (GENERAL)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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Ball

Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types

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Figure 256

Tapered Rollers

Needle Rollers

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Spherical Rollers

Cylindrical Rollers

Page: 509

M7.11 (Cat A)

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False Brinelling
False brinelling (elliptical wear marks in an axial direction at each ball position
with a bright finish and sharp demarcation, often surrounded by a ring of brown
debris) indicates excessive external vibration.
A small relative motion between balls and raceways occurs in non-rotating ball
bearings that are subject to external vibration.
When the bearing isnt turning, an oil film cannot be formed to prevent raceway
wear. Wear debris oxidizes and accelerates the wear process.
Correct by isolating bearings from external vibration and using greases
containing antiwear additives (such as molybdenum disulphide) when bearings
only oscillate or reverse rapidly, as in actuator motors.

Overheating
Symptoms are discolouration of the rings, balls and cages from gold to blue.
Temperatures in excess of 400oF can anneal the ring and ball materials. The
resulting loss in hardness reduces the bearing capacity causing early failure.
In extreme cases, balls and rings will deform. The temperature rise can also
degrade or destroy lubricant.
Common culprits are heavy electrical heat loads, inadequate heat paths and
insufficient cooling or lubrication when loads and speeds are excessive.
Thermal or overload controls, adequate heat paths and supplemental cooling
are effective cures.

M7.11 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 510

Reverse Loading
Angular contact bearings are designed to accept an axial load in one direction
only. When loaded in the opposite direction, the elliptical contact area on the
outer ring is truncated by the lower shoulder on that side of the outer ring. The
result is excessive stress and an increase in temperature, followed by
increased vibration and early failure.
Failure mode is very similar to that of heavy interference (tight) fits. The balls
will show a grooved wear band caused by the ball riding over the outer edge of
the raceway.
Corrective action is to simply install the bearing correctly. Angular contact
bearings must be installed with the resultant thrust on the wide face (which is
marked thrust) of the outer ring and the opposite face of the inner ring.

Normal Fatigue Failure


Fatigue failure (usually referred to as spalling) is the fracture of the running
surfaces and subsequent removal of small, discrete particles of material.
Spalling can occur on the inner ring, outer ring or balls. This type of failure is
progressive and, once initiated, will spread as a result of further operation. It
will always be accompanied by a marked increase in vibration, indicating an
abnormality.
The remedy is to replace the bearing or consider redesigning to use a bearing
having a greater calculated fatigue life.

True Brinelling
Brinelling occurs when loads exceed the elastic limit of the ring material. Brinell
marks show as indentations in the raceways which increase bearing vibration
(noise).
Severe brinell marks can cause premature fatigue failure.
Any static overload or severe impact can cause brinelling.
Examples include:
S Using hammers to remove or install bearings
S dropping or striking assembled equipment, and
S pressing a bearing onto a shaft by applying force only to the ring being
press-fitted, ie do not push the outer ring to force the inner ring onto a shaft.

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Excessive Loads
Excessive loads usually cause premature fatigue.
Tight fits, brinelling and improper preloading can also bring about early fatigue
failure.
This type of failure looks the same as normal fatigue, although heavy ball wear
paths, evidence of overheating and a more widespread spalling (fatigue area)
are usually evident with a shortened life.
The solution is to reduce the load or redesign using a bearing with greater
capacity.

BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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Ball
path

Spalled
area

Aug 2004

TRUE
BRINELLING

Brinell marks
ball spaced

Ball path

EXCESSIVE
LOADS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Figure 257

Bearing Defects 1

NORMAL FATIGUE
FAILURE

Spalled
area

Ball path

OVERHEATING

Silver/gold

Blue/black

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Thrust

REVERSE
LOADING

Ball band caused by ball


riding over edge of raceway

FALSE
BRINELLING

False brinell
marks

Ball path

Thrust

Page: 511

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Corrosion
Red/brown areas on balls, cages or bands of ball bearings are symptoms of
corrosion. This condition results from exposing bearings to corrosive fluids or a
corrosive atmosphere. The usual result is increased vibration followed by wear,
with subsequent increase in radial clearance or loss of preload. In extreme
cases, corrosion can initiate early fatigue failures.
Correct by diverting corrosive fluids away from bearing areas and use integrally
sealed bearings whenever possible. If the environment is particularly hostile,
the use of external seals in addition to integral seals should be considered.

Lubricant Failure
Discoloured (blue/brown) ball tracks and balls are symptoms of lubricant
failure. Excessive wear of balls, ring and cages will follow, resulting in
overheating and subsequent catastrophic failure.
Ball bearings depend on the continuous presence of a very thin - millionths of
an inch - film of lubricant between balls and races, and between the cage,
bearing rings and balls.
Failures are typically caused by restricted lubricant flow or excessive
temperatures that degrade the lubricants properties.
Any steps taken to correct improper fit, control preload better and cool the
shafts and housings will reduce bearing temperatures and improve lubricant
life. During inspection both contamination and insufficient lubricant should be
carefully checked, otherwise bearing failure may occur

Contamination
Contamination is one of the leading causes of bearing failure. Contamination
symptoms are denting of the bearing raceways and balls, resulting in high
vibration and wear.
Contaminants include airborne dust, dirt or any abrasive substance that finds
its way into the bearing. Principle sources are dirty tools, contaminated work
areas, dirty hands and foreign matter in lubricants or cleaning solutions.
Clean work areas, tools, fixtures and hands help reduce contamination failures.
Keep grinding operations away from bearing assembly areas and keep
bearings in their original packaging until you are ready to install them.
Seals are critical - damaged or inoperative seals cannot protect bearings from
contamination.

M7.11 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 512

Tight Fits
A heavy ball wear path in the bottom of the raceway around the entire
circumference of the inner ring and outer ring indicates a tight fit. Where
interference fits exceed the radial clearance at operating temperature, the balls
will become excessively loaded. This will result in a rapid temperature rise
accompanied by high torque. Continued operation can lead to rapid wear and
fatigue.
Corrective action includes a decrease in total interference - better matching of
bearings to shafts and housings - taking into consideration the differences in

Loose Fits
Loose fits can cause relative motion between mating parts. If the relative
motion between mating parts is slight but continuous, fretting occurs. Fretting is
the generation of fine metal particles which oxidize, leaving a distinctive brown
colour. This material is abrasive and will aggravate the looseness.
If the looseness is enough to allow considerable movement of the inner or
outer ring, the mounting surfaces (bores, outer diameters, faces) will wear and
heat, causing noise and runout problems.

Misalignment
Misalignment can be detected on the raceway of the non-rotating ring by a ball
wear path that is not parallel to the raceway edges. If misalignment exceeds
0.001in/in you can expect an abnormal temperature rise in the bearing and/or
housing and heavy wear in the cage ball-pockets.
The most prevalent causes of misalignment are:
S bent shafts
S burrs or dirt on shaft or housing shoulders
S shaft threads that are not square with shaft seats, and
S locking nuts with faces that are not square to the thread axis.
The maximum allowable misalignment varies greatly with different applications,
decreasing, for example, with speed. Appropriate corrective action includes:
S inspecting shafts and housings for runout of shoulders and bearing seats
S use of single point-turned or ground threads on non-hardened shafts and
ground threads only on hardened shafts, and
S using precision grade locknuts.

The use of stainless steel bearings is also helpful.

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BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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materials and operating temperatures. Increased radial clearance will also


increase bearing life under the above conditions.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Page: 513

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MISALIGNMENT

Non-parallel ball path


on outer raceway

Wide ball path on


inner raceway

CONTAMINATION

Balls wll be similarly


dented, dull or scratched

Irregular dents or material


embedded in raceways

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Figure 258

Bearing Defects 2

LOOSE FITS

Outer ring slippage


caused by improper
housing fits

LUBRICANT
FAILURE

Blue / black raceways

Balls wll be also


be blue / black

Silver / gold

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TIGHT FITS

Discoloured, wide ball path


at bottom of raceways

Page: 514

Red / brown stains


or deposits on rings

CORROSION

Ball path

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When installing bearings, the following basic rules have to be observed:


S Check drilling surface and bearings for satisfactory condition
S Apply surface protection
S Install bearing with a drawing die and make sure that the projecting length is
central
S Roll the bearing with tools
S Check flange
S Test the bearing with testing load - if necessary seal gap.

INSTALLATION OF BEARINGS

when removing bearings, the following basic rules must be observed:


S Use the correct removal tools
S Avoid damage to the structure when using the circular cutting guide
S The circular cutting guide must have an exterior diameter which is sufficiently large so that only the flange will be cut
S The lower and upper tool must be equipped with adequate bushing guides
or guide pins
S If possible, use a column-type drilling machine as the drive. After the flange
has been cut free, the bearing has to be squeezed out with an ejection tool.

REMOVAL OF BEARINGS

Installation and removal of Boeing aircraft bearings is described in the Boeing


Process Specification BAC 5435.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Figure 259

Pressure Plate

Bushing

Single-Drum Tool

Bearing Installation Tooling

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M7.11 (Cat A)

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Check bearings manually for smooth operation. Bearings that are considered
as satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that do not operate smoothly or
show signs of jamming must be disassembled and subjected to visual inspection and greasing according to the following instructions:
S The following treatment of bearings has to be performed in a well-ventilated,
dust-free room with a constant temperature (20o C). Optimum cleanliness
during the entire treatment is essential.
-- Remove clamping rings and cover plates carefully. Rinse the bearings
manually in a container filled with Inhibisol until all grease and other residue has been removed.
-- Rinse the cleaned bearings in a second container filled with the same
cleaning solution, and then rinse for a third time in another container with
the same cleaning solution.
-- Cleaning fluids which are used for cleaning and rinsing have to be renewed depending on the number of bearings to be treated, but a minimum of one change per day must be carried out.
-- In the case of filtering used cleaning fluids for reuse, filter systems that
will remove 98% of all foreign material larger than 10 microns must be
used.
-- Dry the completely clean bearings with a gentle stream of air. The bearing should not be allowed to rotate.

BEARINGS THAT CAN BE DISASSEMBLED

Check bearings manually for smooth operation; bearings that are considered
satisfactory may be installed. Bearings that dont operate smoothly or show
signs of jamming are not suitable for installation.

BEARINGS THAT CANNOT BE DISASSEMBLED

NOTE:

M7.11 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 517

TREAT THE OUTER BEARING WITH A THIN FILM OF THE SAME


GREASE THAT WAS USED FOR FILLING. RE-INSTALL COVER
PLATES AND CLAMPING RINGS.

BEARINGS HAVE TO BE GREASED WITHIN TWO HOURS OF


THE FINAL RINSE.

AFTER DRYING, THE BEARING HAS TO BE HALF-FILLED WITH


GREASE MIL G-3278+Z. USE A NIROSTA SPATULA.

DO NOT TOUCH THE BEARINGS WITH BARE HANDS DURING


CLEANING, DRYING AND GREASING. USE RUBBER GLOVES OR
TONGS.

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When installing anti-friction bearings in components and aircraft controls


(elevator, aileron and rudder), the following instructions must be observed unless otherwise defined in special instructions (refer to process specification).

INSTALLATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

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Figure 260

Typical bearing lubrication device

Bearing Lubrication

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Bearings are protected with a preservative


coating during storage and shipment.
This is NOT a lubricant. It is essential to
lubricate the bearing at installation.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
BEARINGS

Page: 518

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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M7.12 TRANSMISSIONS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TRANSMISSIONS

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Specifications
Chains used for aircraft purposes are generally of the simple roller type to British Standard 228.
Chain assemblies are produced to standards prepared by the Society of British
Aircraft Constructors (SBAC). These standards provide a range of chains built
up in various combinations with standard fittings, eg end connectors with internal or external threads, bi-planer blocks for changing the articulation of a chain
through 90o and cable spools for connecting chains to cables having eyesplices.

Introduction
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are generally used
wherever it becomes necessary to change the direction of control runs in systems where considerable force is exerted.
The change of direction is achieved by the use of sprockets and bi-planar
blocks.
Chains may be found in
S control column installations
S aileron and elevator controls
S trim control systems.
Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with cable assemblies.
Incorrect assembly of chains should be rendered impossible by the use of nonreversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of wheels, guards
and connectors.

CONTROL CHAINS AND SPROCKETS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TRANSMISSIONS

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TRANSMISSIONS

Figure 261

Standard Chain Fittings

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0.375 in

0.50 in

0.50 in

3500 lb

1800 lb

1900 lb

800 lb

Minimum
Breaking Load

1166 lb

600 lb

634 lb

267 lb

Proof
Load

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1. NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO BREAK AND


REASSEMBLE RIVETED LINKS OR ATTACHMENTS. IF IT IS
NECESSARY TO DISCONNECT A CHAIN, THIS SHOULD BE
UNDERTAKEN ONLY AT THE BOLTED OR SCREWED
ATTACHMENTS.
2. THE USE OF CRANKED LINKS FOR THE ATTACHMENT
OF THE CHAIN TO END FITTINGS, ETC, IS NOT PERMITTED. THUS WHERE A CHAIN IS REQUIRED TO TERMINATE IN A SIMILAR MANNER AT EACH END, THE
LENGTH SHOULD BE AN ODD NUMBER OF PITCHES. FOR
THE SAME REASON, AN ENDLESS CHAIN SHOULD HAVE
AN EVEN NUMBER OF PITCHES.
3. THE USE OF SPRING CLIP CONNECTING LINKS IS
PROHIBITED AND THE ATTACHMENT OF CHAINS TO
OTHER PARTS OF THE SYSTEM SHOULD BE EFFECTED
BY POSITIVE METHODS SUCH AS PRE-RIVETED OR
BOLTED JOINTS.

8mm

WARNING:

BS
Number

Chain
Pitch

Chain Assemblies
A simple roller chain consists of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins
and bushes.
The chain has three principle dimensions (known as gearing dimensions):
S pitch
S width between inner plates
S roller diameter.
The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the rollers.
For aircraft purposes, four sizes of chain are standardised by the SBAC.
The proof-load for a chain should be 1/3rd of the minimum breaking load.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TRANSMISSIONS

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Figure 262

Chain Details

Typical Chain End Assembly

Bush
Outer Plate

Roller

Inner Plate

Outer Plate
Bearing Pin

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Roller Diameter

Width between
inner plates

Pitch

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Installation of Sprockets
During installation, Sprockets should be checked to ensure that they are attached in the manner and method specified by the relevant drawings this
should include alignment and positive engagement on the drive shaft. The drive
shaft bearings should also be checked for play.
The correct positioning of sprockets is of particular importance when non-reversible chains are used.
During maintenance, sprockets should be checked for security and wear on the
teeth. Pulleys should be checked for damage and excessive wear on the walls
and on the chain guide section.

The figure opposite illustrates typical arrangements of chain assemblies.


(a) shows the simple transfer of straight-line to rotary motion.
(b) illustrates how a change of direction of straight-line motion is obtained.
(c) shows a change of direction of motion in two planes by the use of a biplaner block.
A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against
the crossing of controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent the
possibility of reversing the chain end to end on its wheel. Neither do they prevent the possibility of the chain being assembled to gear on the wrong face
where two wheels are operated by the same chain.
Such contingencies can be overcome by the use of non-reversible chains.

Installation of Chain Assemblies


New chain assemblies will come prelubricated, this lubrication should not be
removed. If a chain assembly is being refitted then it should be lubricated with
an approved lubricant as detailed in the AMM.
After installation it is important to check the chain for twist and alignment with
the sprocket. The chain should run smoothly over the teeth of the sprocket and
there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up over the sprocket.
Chains need to be pretensioned enough to prevent backlash but not over
tensioned. Chain guards should be fitted in such a way that they dont rub
against the chain or allow the chain to jump off its sprockets if it loosens off.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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(b)

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TRANSMISSIONS

Figure 263

(c)

Bi-Planer Block

End-Connector

Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements

End-Connector

End-Connectors

End-Connector

End-Connector

(a)

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A SPECIAL FEATURE, SUCH AS AN ATTACHMENT COLLAR, KEY


OR FLAT ON THE SHAFT IN CONJUNCTION WITH A SPECIALLYSHAPED HOLE IS INCORPORATED IN THE WHEEL MOUNTING
TO ENSURE THAT IT CAN BE ASSEMBLED ON ITS SHAFT IN
ONE DEFINITE POSITION ONLY.
(See lower illustration opposite) this is an instance where the use of jockeys is
necessary or where contra-rotation of the wheels is required.
It can be seen that the feature of non-reversibility does not affect the ability of
the chain to gear on both sides.

NOTE:

Non-Reversible Chains
Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second
outer plate is extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of
the chain.
The complete system of non-reversibility involves the use of five features:
S the non-reversible chain
S the shroud on the wheel
S correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft
S the chain guard
S non-reversible connectors.
By providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and making use of the chain
guard (see illustration opposite), the reversing of the chain end-to-end on its
wheel is not possible.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Guard

Connectors
non-interchangeable

Incorrect

Correct

Mounting on Wheel Y

Connectors
non-interchangeable

Non-Reversible Chain Assemblies

Non-Reversible Chain with Jockey Pulley

Guard

Stop Piece

Correct Assembly

Guard

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Figure 264

Incorrect Assembly

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Inspection of Chain Assemblies


General. Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete
inspection at the periods specified in the appropriate Maintenance Schedule.
Removal. When it is necessary to disconnect the chains, the assemblies must
be removed at design breakdown points.
Checking Articulation. The chain should be checked for tight joints by articulating each link through approximately 180o.
Checking for Deterioration. The chain should be examined for damage,
cracks and wear to plates and rollers and for evidence of corrosion and pitting.
Proof-Loading. It is not necessary to proof-load a chain after removal for routine examination. However, if it is desired to replace a portion only of the assembly, proof-loading of the complete assembly is necessary.
The proof-load table should be evenly applied and, unless this can be assured,
it is considered preferable to fit a complete new assembly.

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1
2
4
6

8mm
0.375 in
0.50 in
0.50 in

28 lb

28 lb

16 lb

12 lb

Tensile
Load

Page: 529

3. The percentage extension over the nominal length should be calculated by


the following formula:Percentage extension = M - (X x P) x100
XxP
M = Measured length under load in inches
X = Number of pitches measured
P = Pitch of chain in inches.
4. If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole
run should be replaced.
5. If kinks or twists exist the chain should be rejected.
Protection and Storage. After the chain has been cleaned, inspected and
found to be acceptable, it should be thoroughly soaked in an appropriate oil,
time being allowed fro the lubricant to penetrate to the bearing surfaces.
If not required for immediate use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface,
carefully coiled and wrapped in greaseproof paper, care being taken to ensure
the exclusion of dirt and the prevention of distortion, during storage.

BS
Number

Chain
Pitch

Checking Elongation. If elongation through wear is suspected, the following


procedure is to be followed:
1. The chains should be cleaned by immersion in clean paraffin and brushed
with a stiff brush. After cleaning, they should be immediately dried by hot
air to ensure that no paraffin remains, otherwise corrosion will occur. The
chains should be measured when clean but before any oil is applied.
2. The chains should be placed on a flat surface and stretched by the application of a tensile load (see table). The length should then be measured between the centres of the bearing pins, elongation being calculated by the
formula given in the next paragraph.

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Maintenance Inspection
Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified
in the relevant Maintenance Schedule.
Recommended methods for checking chains is as follows:
S The continued smoothness of operation between the chain and the chain
wheel or pulley should be checked. If the chain does not pass freely round
the wheel or pulley, it should be removed and checked (see Inspection of
Chain Assemblies).
S The chain should be checked for wear. If it is worn so that the links are
loose and can be lifted away from the wheel teeth, it should be removed
and checked for excessive elongation (see Inspection of Chain Assemblies).
S The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, adequacy of lubrication and freedom from corrosion. If the inspection reveals the chain to be
corroded or otherwise defective, it should be replaced.
S In instances where it becomes necessary to adjust the tension of the chain
in systems incorporating turnbuckles or screwed end connectors, care
should be taken to ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during adjustment. The connectors should be held firmly while the locknuts are being
slackened or tightened.

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Background
The Airbus A340 has a Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS), which has two
elevators for pitch trim control.The elevators are attached to the trailing edge of
the THS.The THS is attached to the rear fuselage and moves about an axis to
permit pitch trim.
The hydromechanical operation system of the THS (referred to as THS actuator) is controlled electrically (by the Flight Control Primary Computers (FCPC))
and mechanically.
The THS has a mechanical control system which has the function of a standby
system.The pilots can use two control wheels,which are installed in the cockpit
centre pedestal, to operate the THS mechanically.
Cables transmit the mechanical commands from the control wheels to the
mechanical input shaft of the THS actuator. An override mechanism ensures
that the mechanical pitch trim commands cancel the electronic pitch trim commands.

A340 Detailed Visual Inspection of the Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer


(THS) Mechanical Control Loop.

EXAMPLE

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ENSURE THAT THE FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES ARE


CLEAR; MOVEMENT OF FLIGHT CONTROLS CAN CAUSE
DAMAGE AND/OR PERSONAL INJURY.
2. In the cockpit, slowly turn the pitch trim control wheels from one stop to the
opposite stop.
3. In the avionics compartment, ensure that the toothed belts (View B) have
no cracks, delamination of teeth and no wear marks over the full length.
4. Ensure that the chain and the cable can move freely.

WARNING:

Inspection
The following is a precis from the Aircraft Maintenance Manual detailing the
inspection of the system belts, chains and cables.
1. Ensure that the following components of the mechanical pitch--trim control
loop are in the correct condition:
A. pitch--trim control mechanism
B. chains and gears of the pitch--trim control mechanism and of the THS
actuator
C. pulleys
D. cable tension regulator
E. control cables
F. THS input shaft.

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INSPECTION OF BELTS, CHAINS AND CABLES

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Drive
belt

Control
mechanism

Figure 265

Fwd
THS
control
chain

Location of THS Drive Belts

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B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection.


Examine the parts for wear, using a micrometer or a vernier caliper.
Compare the dimensions with the permitted dimensions shown in Fig. 601.
Replace the parts that are out of tolerance.

EXAMPLE

INSPECTION OF SCREWJACKS

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1. Yoke/bushing
(2 locations)

3. Bushing/pin
(2 locations)

2. Fitting/pin
(2 locations)

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Screwjack
gearbox

Ball nut

Screwjack

B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection

See view (right)

Figure 266

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
TRANSMISSIONS

Upper
gimbal

Page: 534

Lower
gimbal

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Minimum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the shortest centre distance and the thickest teeth at the highest point of pitch line runout.
Maximum backlash: occurs when all tolerances give the greatest centre distance and the thinnest teeth at the lowest point of pitch line runout.
Backlash Tolerance: the allowable amount of backlash.
Backlash Variation: the difference between the maximum and minimum backlash occurring in a whole revolution of the larger of a mating pair of gears.

Definitions

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Backlash in a gear train


Backlash can be measured in a gear train by locking one end of the train, and
then measuring the limits of movement at the other end of the gear train. The
measurement can be made using a DTI that is placed against the so that it
measures tangential movement.
In the example below, if the backlash in each gear is 0.001mm then the total
backlash would be .003mm

Purpose of Backlash
The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making
contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash
is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion between the gear components and the housing.
On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive
is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load.

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Maintenance of gears
When inspectng gear mechanisms the following lists of defects may be found:
S Corrosion is unlikely to affect gears as they are continually woking in a well
lubricated environment. If corrosion is found the gear is unserviceable.
S Cracks will lead to the gear being replaced.
S Erosion is caused by cavitation and will effect gears over extended periods
of time. Erosion requires gear replacement.
S Chipped/missing teeth will require replacement
S Wear limits are laid down in the relevant AMM.
S Uneven wear as shown below
S Backlash is
-- the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth on the pitch circles
-- the play between mating tooth surfaces at the tightest point of mesh in a
direction normal to the tooth surface when the gears are mounted in their
specified positions.
-- The amount of backlash in a pair of mating gears can be affected by:
-- changes in centre distance
-- variance in tooth thickness
-- temperature ranges causing differential expansion of the gears and
mountings.

GEARS

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Helical Gear

Hypoid Gear

Bevel Gear

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TRANSMISSIONS

Figure 267

Helical gears are similar to the spur gear


except that the teeth are at an angle to
the shaft, rather than parallel to it as in a
spur gear.
Helical gears may be used to mesh two
shafts that are not parallel, although they
are still primarily used in parallel shaft
applications.

the teeth are hyperboloid in shape.


Additionally the shafts do not intersect

Hypoid gears are like bevel gears, except

Bevel gears are primarily used to


transfer power between intersecting
shafts and can be used for any
angle up to 1800

Types of Gear

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Worm Gear

Spur Gear

Worm gears are special gears that


resemble screws, and can be used
to drive spur gears or helical gears.

Page: 536

Spur gears are the most commonly used


gear type. They are characterized by
teeth which are perpendicular to the face
of the gear.

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Figure 268

Uneven gear wear

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TRANSMISSIONS

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M 7.13 CONTROL CABLES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators, such as


linkages, shafts and chains, predominantly weight-saving.
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every
space via guiding pulleys or deflector rolls.
Handling, checking, adjustment and stretching are relatively easy.
Cables used in airplane construction normally consist of individual cable wires
with a minimum tensile strength of 1200N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of 2 or
7%.
The steel wires are twisted into strands and these are twisted into cables. Normally the wires are twisted in one direction and strands the opposite.
The number of steel wires in one strand and the number of strands in one
cable are the result of the following calculation:
S 3/32 - 7x7
or
S 1/8 - 7x19
In this calculation the fractional numbers stand for the diameter of the cable
(inch).
The first figure tells you that the cable consists of 7 strands and the last figure
tells you how many steel wires there are in a strand.

CABLE LINES (GENERAL)

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CONTROL CABLES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 269

Build-Up of Cables

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Control cables must be handled and stored carefully in order to avoid kinking in
the cable. New cable should be supplied on wooden drums that are at least 40
times the diameter of the individual cable itself.
Cable should be unwound from a reel that has been mounted on a spindle.
After cutting lengths of cable off the drum they should be coiled into radii of not
less than 50 times the cable diameter and never in a diameter of less than
150mm (6in).
Cable should always be cut with cable cutters or heavy duty pliers but or
alternatively, they can be cut using an anvil, hammer and chisel. Cable should
never be cut using a flame (e.g. an oxyacetylene cutting torch).
After cutting, the cable ends on both the cut length and the drum should be tied
with strong cord to prevent their ends from splaying.

CONTROL CABLE HANDLING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 270

Tying cable ends

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WEAR GLOVES WHEN YOU TOUCH THE CABLES.


BROKEN STRANDS CAN INJURE YOU.
1. Check for broken wires.
A. The very important areas where the wires can break are the lengths of
the cable that go through fairleads and around pulleys.
B. Examine the cables. Ensure that there are no broken wires. To do this:
-- move a cloth along the cable, in two directions.
-- If the cloth catches on the cable:
S make a visual inspection to find the broken wires.
-- The permitted limits for the cables with broken wires are:
S for class 7 x 19 cable, 6 broken wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
length of cable with not more than 3 broken wires for each strand.
S for class 7 x 7 cable, 3 broken wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
length of cable with not more than 2 broken wires for each strand.
Note: there must not be broken wires in two consecutive one--inch (25.4 mm)
lengths of cable.
For the lengths of cables which can touch pulleys or go through fairleads and
pressure seals, not more than 3 broken wires is permitted.
2. Check of the external wear of the cable.
A. Make a visual inspection of the cables, especially the lengths that can
touch pulleys, fairleads or pressure seals. Ensure that they are not
worn.
-- The permitted wear limits in a same one--inch (25.4 mm) length of cable
are:
S for class 7 x 19 cable, a maximum of 6 wires worn to 50% or more of
their diameter
S for class 7 x 7 cable, a maximum of 3 wires worn to 50% or more of
their diameter, if there are no broken wires.

WARNING:

Check of Control Cables and Pulleys

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Note: the number of permissible worn wires in a same one--inch (25.4 mm)
length of cable is decreased by one wire for every broken wire.
A maximum of two one--inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable with wear (within the
limits specified above) is permissible on the total length of the cable (between
the two cable terminals) on the condition that the wear is not on two
consecutive one--inch (25.4 mm) lengths of cable.
If a wire is worn to more than 60 % of its diameter, you must call it a broken
wire.
3. Internal cable wear.
A. In some areas (for example around pulleys and quadrants) the cable
can wear internally more than it wears externally. To find such wear,
move the strands apart to examine the cable internally.
4. Corrosion.
Note: Corrosion of cables specially occurs in these areas:
S battery compartments
S toilets
S landing gear wells
S other areas where fumes, vapours and liquids that can cause corrosion can
collect.
A. If a cable has a broken wire in a length that does not touch airframe
components which can make it wear (pulleys, fairleads etc):
-- carefully examine the cable. Ensure that it has no corrosion.
-- If necessary, remove the cable. Bend the cable to make sure that the
internal strands do not have corrosion.
B. If you find surface corrosion:
-- loosen the cable,
-- make a full inspection of the inner strands.
C. Discard the cable if you find corrosion on the inner strands.
D. If you find light surface corrosion, remove it and protect the cable again.
Cables should also be inspected for kinks, bird caging, and stretching (beyond
limits)

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All cables in an aircraft, especially control cables, require careful inspection at


regular intervals in order to ensure their satisfactory function and serviceability
at all times.
(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM)

INSPECTION OF CABLES

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CONTROL CABLES

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Individual outer wires worn less than 40%


(worn areas individually distinguishable)

Individual outer wires worn 40--50%


(note blending of worn areas)

Individual outer wires worn more than 50%

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 271

Cable Inspection (A320)

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0.011 in.(0.30 mm)

0.015 in.(0.40 mm)

0.019 in.(0.50 mm)

Less than or equal to


1.181 in.(30 mm)

From 30 mm to less
than 3.149 in. (80 mm)

More than or equal to


3.149 in.(80 mm)
0.007 in.(0.20 mm)

0.007 in.(0.20 mm)

0.005 in.(0.15 mm)

Max. Eccentricity
at Bottom of Groove

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4. Inspection of pulley wobble


A. Do a wobble check at each turn of the pulley.
S For pulley with a diameter less than 80 mm (3.1496 in.), the wobble must
not be more than 0.25 mm (0.0098 in.).
S For pulleys with a diameter of 80 mm (3.1496 in.) or more, the wobble must
not be more than 0.30 mm (0.0118 in.).

Max. Eccentricity
at Top of Groove

Pulley Small Diameter

(Extract from Airbus A340 AMM)


1. Examine pulleys for cracked edges, signs of incorrect wear in the bottom of
the groove, cracked hub, excessive play.
2. Examine the pulleys while in operation:
S ensure that the pulleys turn freely
S ensure that the cable does not skid in the groove.
3. Ensure that the eccentricity agrees with the values shown in this table:

INSPECTION OF PULLEYS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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Figure 272

Pulley Inspection (AMM A320)

Normal pulley wear

Badly-aligned cable

Pulley too big for the cable diameter

Jammed pulley

Badly-aligned pulleys

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Cable tension too high

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Pulley flange

Pulley flanges

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IT IS IMPORTANT TO POSITION THESE DISCS CORRECTLY.


TRANSPOSING THEM WILL RESULT IN THE TRANSITION AT
THE SLEEVE OF THE TERMINAL BEING SHARP-EDGED, WHICH
IS NOT PERMITTED UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES.
After the rolling discs have been installed on the support shaft of the expanding
machine, they are mounted with discs and bolts.
The rolling disc with two pins can only be turned counter--clockwise. When the
shanks of the machine are moved away from each other, the rolling discs will
not turn.
When the shanks are pressed together, the rolling discs move in opposite
directions via a pair of gear wheels with a ratchet.
The shanks are opened and closed until the sleeve of the terminal has rounded
the circumference of the rolling disc.

NOTE:

Description of Tools
Equipment for rolling on terminals consists of
S Several sets of rolling discs
S Several sets of Swaging Rolls for balls
S A caliper gauge for terminals
S A caliper gauge for balls
S Allen key for the screws of the rolling disc mountings.
Rolling discs for terminals and balls are made for several cable diameters and
are marked accordingly.
LOWER is the designation for the rolling disc with two pins.
UPPER is the designation for the rolling disk with two holes.
When the expanding machine is placed on the two shanks, the LOWER disc
is down and the UPPER disc is up.

ROLLING ON TERMINALS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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CONTROL CABLES

Figure 273

Hand-Operated Rolling Tool

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THE CABLE DIAMETER IS INDICATED AT THE FRONT OF THE


ADAPTER. MOVE A SHORT PART OF THE CABLE INTO THE
TERMINAL AND BEND IT. THE END OF THE CABLE WILL BE
TIGHT WHEN COMPLETELY PUSHED INTO THE TERMINAL.

CWM LRTT CoM

NOTE:

Roll on a sleeve terminal as follows:


S Check the sleeve diameter of the terminal using the caliper gauge. The terminal sleeve must fit into the respective test hole of the gauge marked
SLEEVES. The ball must fit into the test hole marked BALLS. The cable
diameters are marked on the gauge at the respective holes.
S Select and clean the rolling discs suitable for the respective cable diameter.
S Install the rolling disc with the two pins and the inscription LOWER in the
lower support shaft, and the rolling disc with the inscription UPPER and
the two holes in the upper support shaft of the expanding machine. Fix both
discs with the washers and screws.
S Install the guide.
S Make sure that the correct adapter for the cable diameter is installed.

ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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CONTROL CABLES

Figure 274

Inserting Cable in Terminal

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S
S

May 2004

IT IS NOT PERMITTED TO PERFORM MORE THAN FOUR


ROLLING SEQUENCES. EXCESSIVE ROLLING CAUSES
BRITTLENESS AND HARDENING OF THE MATERIAL OF
THE TERMINAL.
Perform the rolling procedure quickly.
After the first operational sequence, a rolling mark will appear on the sleeve
of the terminal. Turn the terminal about 90o to compensate for this rolling
mark and perform a second operational sequence as described. After the
second operational sequence, the terminal sleeve must not show deep impressions.
Check the diameter of the terminal sleeve with the caliper gauge as described. A slight rolling mark is permitted. The diameter of this rolling mark
must not exceed the sleeve diameter by more than 0.010 in.
If the diameter of the sleeve terminal has not been tapered sufficiently, a
third operation sequence must be carried out. For this you must rotate the
terminal through 90o.
In case a fourth operation sequence is necessary, the terminal must be
turned about 90o again.

CAUTION:

S Mark the cable which has been completely inserted into the terminal at the
end of the sleeve of the terminal with chalk or tape in order to indicate if the
cable slips out.
S Turn the rolling discs into the starting position, using the two pins.
S Press the terminal against the conical guide of the adapter and clamp the
cable into the clip at the guiding-device.
S Push the guiding device with the terminal into the starting position for the
rolling procedure.
S Turn the rolling discs using the two pins until the terminal is clamped.

ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS (CONT.)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Page: 552

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 275

Go No-go gauging

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Page: 554

Rolled-on balls and terminals are checked for sufficient tensile strength by
using the Cable Terminal Pull Tester.
The Pull Tester consists of a vice with steel cheeks with inserted copper
cheeks and a gauge. When, for instance, a 1/8 cable and terminal are
checked, you must first select the correct copper cheeks. These must then be
inserted into the steel cheeks.
The correct swivel for the terminal must be selected. The cable with the swivel
is attached to the test device. The copper cheeks are tightened with two clamping screws to the extent that the cable cannot slacken under the test load.
By turning a hexagon head screw, the cable is tightened with hydraulic power.
The scale of the indicating device shows the load in pounds. The scale has
load marks for the respective cable diameter. If not, you must refer to a test
table.
After one or two minutes the pointer has to be returned to the load mark. The
full test load should be applied for 5 seconds. Then take off the tension slowly
and evenly.

Check manufactured cable lines according to the following instructions:


S Check final dimensions
S Check terminals for specified diameters (use caliper gauge of the terminal
expanding machine)
S Visual check of the terminals
S Use magnifying glass (6x magnification). There must be no cracks, notches
or abrupt changes in cross-section.
S Check satisfactory stability of connection.
All connections between cable and terminal must be subjected to a test of their
tensile strength. In this check, you must evenly apply the respective test pull
force (given in a table), observing the specific speed with which the tension
may be increased.
You must also observe the duration over which the full test pull force is allowed
to be applied.
Note: If a slippage between cable and terminal is indicated during this test (by
means of marks that have been applied to the cable before the test), the connection is not stable enough. This cable line has to be either discarded or the
cable can be used for shorter cable lines after the terminals have been cut off.
If the test is performed without slippage, the connection is considered as satisfactory.

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Cable Terminal Pull Tester

M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Tools: Cable Terminal Pull Tester AT520CT

INSPECTION OF MANUFACTURED CABLE LINES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 276

Pull Tester AT520CT

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Page: 556

NEVER LOCK THE BRAKE LEVER ROD UNTIL THE


INSTRUMENT IS CLAMPED ON THE CABLE OR A FALSE
READING MAY RESULT.
The gauge is not marked in specific units. Convert the dial reading to tension in pounds by referring to the calibration chart attached to the lid of the
carrying case. For example, the dial reads 59 on the 1/16 inch cable and is
converted to 150 pound tension by referring to the calibration chart.

CAUTION:

The cable tensiometer is a precision instrument designed for rigging control


cables.
The entire operation of testing cable tension can be done with one hand. The
size of the instrument permits entry through small openings, so that cables in
confined areas can be tested and its tension read.
The tensiometer must be handled as a precision instrument, and calibrated annually to ensure that the indications are correct.
CAUTION:
Before the tensiometer is used, be sure the correct riser is mounted on the instrument for the size cable to be tested.
This information is given on the calibration card in the instrument carrying case.
The tensiometer should be operated as follows :
S Move the trigger away from the case as far as possible and place the instrument on the cable with sectors resting against the cable. Tension should not
be taken next to a terminal end or turnbuckle, as an inaccurate reading
could result.
S Close the trigger with the fingers of the hand in which the instrument is held.
Do not twist or pull; this may cause a false reading. Do not let the trigger
snap against the case, as this may also give a false reading. The tension
should be checked three or four times, moving the instrument slightly along
the cable.
If the dial is visible, take the reading and then disengage the instrument by
moving the trigger away from the case.
If the dial cannot be seen, the pointer is locked in position by pushing the small
brake lever rod at the top left of the case forward. The pointer is unlocked by
returning the brake rod to its original position.

Installed cable lines have to be tightened to a certain tension depending on


their location and purpose. A newly-manufactured cable that is delivered by the
meter, coiled on a reel, would increase its length under load. This is the reason
why it is necessary to preload the cables before they are made into cable lines.
The pre-stretch load equals the test load and can be found in the respective
table of the manual. The tension applied has to be done with a steady speed.
The load must be applied for 5 minutes.
The cable is only allowed to be preloaded when it is not bent. In the case of
cables longer than 30m, the cable may be preloaded over a movable guide
pulley.
Correct tension is essential because loose cables cannot transfer control
inputs. Loose cables can also lock and thus endanger the airplane and occupants.
Cables with excessive tension are also undesirable in airplanes. They can
damage pulleys and support structure etc.
When the cable tension is adjusted, the ambient temperature is important. In
flight, temperatures may vary to a high extent between the ground temperature
at the departure airport, the ambient temperatures during flight and the temperature at the destination.
Large differences in tensions are created, because the airplane is manufactured from aluminium alloy and the cables are made from steel. The tension
values to be adjusted for the individual aircraft types are therefore specified in
the respective AMMs.
The cable is tightened by turning a turnbuckle. A spring wire clip has to be inserted into the barrel hole of the terminals to prevent the terminals from turning
with the cable. The side of the left-hand thread of the turnbuckle is marked by a
groove.
When tightening cables, they must be tensioned evenly throughout the system
otherwise correct system rigging may be difficult to achieve and some
turnbuckles may be out of safety.
A turnbuckle is in safety when the threaded portion of the turnbarrel assembly
is visible through the safety inspection hole. This is often check using locking
wire that is inserted into the inspection hole. If it pushes through the inspection
hole and out through the reverse hole then the turnbuckle is NOT safe.

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CABLE TENSIOMETER

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CABLE TIGHTENING AND MEASURING TENSION

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CONTROL CABLES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 277

Cable Tensioning

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Locking turnbuckles
Locking of turnbuckles employs either:
S Wirelocking, the gauge and type of locking wire is given in the AMM.
S Lock nuts.
S Special locking clips.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Page: 558

M7.13 (Cat A)

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 278

Locking turnbuckles

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Cable and Conduit


Cable and conduit is relatively lightweight and installation is simple compared
with other methods of remote control.
Teleflex and Bowden are typical methods of cable and conduit control, in
which each system consists primarily of a cable passing through a covering
(conduit) fitted with appropriate end fittings.
In principle, if the conduit is bent, a pull on the cable will tend to straighten the
conduit, but because of the natural stiffness and the fact that the ends of the
conduit are fixed, straightening is prevented.

Remote Control Methods


Chains, sprockets, pulleys, cable, levers and rods are used for remote control,
but advantage may be gained by the use of a cable and conduit since the
control can be bent to pass through the structure.

Introduction
Manually-operated remote controls are installed in aircraft to operate, from the
flight deck, such components as trim tabs, brake control valves and engine
controls.
They can also be adapted for other uses such as the indication of landing gear
movements, position of flaps etc.

CONTROL CABLES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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Single-Entry
Unit

180o
Double-Entry Unit

Nipple-Type
Connector

Typical Remote Control System

Teleflex

90o Double-Entry
Unit

Clamp Block

Anti-Torsion
Tube

Clamp-Type
Connector

Junction Box

Quick-Break
Unit

Spent Travel Tube

Swivel Joint

Straight-Lead
Unit

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Figure 279

Sliding End
Fitting

Rotary Movement
Not Exceeding 90o

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Page: 561

M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN THE LAY OF THE CABLES


(LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND) THEY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE.
EG A No 2 CABLE MUST BE USED WITH A No 2 TRANSMITTING
UNIT.

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NOTE:

M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

SUPPORT MUST BE GIVEN TO BENT PORTIONS OF THE CONDUIT, BUT CLAMP BLOCKS, SPACED 3 FT APART, SHOULD BE
USED TO SECURE STRAIGHT PORTIONS TO THE AIRFRAME.

Page: 562

Sliding End Fittings


These are used where it is not necessary to convert the pull-push movement of
the cable into a rotary movement; they are used in lieu of wheel units.
Various types of sliding end fitting are available, each comprising a guide tube
terminating in a fork, eye, ball joint or an internal or external threaded fitting.
The cable is attached to the end fitting by means of a special collet attachment
or by means of a lock spring and plug.

NOTE:

Conduits
The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel and
tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth
curves to radii of not less than 3 inches.
Where there is relative movement between conduit and component, flexible
conduit may be fitted, but to avoid backlash only the minimum length should be
used. Flexible conduit may be bent to a radius of not less than 9 inches.

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Cables
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or
right-hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the
transmitting and receiving ends of the control run.
The helix winding may also be used as a thread by which various end fittings
can be attached to the cable.
The cable is designed for transmitting both pull and push.
There are two types of cable in use:
1. No 2 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is
wound with a compression winding. The latter is wound with a left-hand
helix winding which is pitch-spaced by a spacer winding. The cable is 3/16
diameter.
2. No 380 Cable. This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is
wound direct with a right-hand helix winding and spacer winding. In this
method of construction there is improved efficiency and a reduction in backlash, particularly when the cable is under compression. The cable is 3/16
diameter.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS

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CONTROL CABLES

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Tension
Wire

Spacer
Winding

Helix
Winding

May 2004

No 2 Cable

Compression
Winding

Figure 280

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Helix
Winding

Fork end

Eye end
(fork joint)

Ball and
socket end

End screwed
to take fitting

Ball Ends

Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings

No 380 Cable

Tension
Wire

Spacer
Winding

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Page: 563

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M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 564

5. Junction Box Unit. These are installed where it is necessary to reverse


the direction of travel of the control cables, or to branch a run of cable so
as to operate two components (eg on both port and starboard sides of the
aircraft).
In one type the box contains a gear wheel and provision is made for two
cables to pass through the box, one on either side of the gear wheel. The
gear wheel may be rotated to move both cables, or one cable may operate
the gear wheel which in turn operates the other cable.
6. Swivel Joints. This can be installed where rotary movement of the control
lever at the receiving end does not exceed 90o. This type of joint consists
of a ball and socket connection inside a housing attached to the end of the
rigid conduit. The housing must be rigidly secured to the aircraft structure.
The ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same size as the conduit. A
suitable sliding end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable so that
the guide tube slides freely over the swivel joint tube.

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End Fittings
The transmitting end of a control is usually fitted with a wheel unit consisting of
a hand-operated gear wheel enclosed in a casing.
Alternatively, where the control loading is light and the control run fairly straight,
a pull-push operating handle can be used.
At the remote end, the cable operates an appropriate wheel unit or is coupled,
by means of a sliding end fitting, direct to the actuating mechanism on the
component being controlled.
Swivel joints are also provided to take up the angular movement of an
actauting lever at the end of a control run.
1. Single-Entry Unit. In this wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of
a conduit connector and is led into a slot in the gear wheel. The rotary
travel of the unit is limited to 270o of travel of the gear wheel and a minimum of 40o engagement must be maintained at all times between the gear
wheel teeth and the cable.
2. Double-Entry Unit. Where greater travel than can be obtained with a
single-entry unit is required, a double-entry unit may be used. In this wheel
unit the cable enters the unit by means of a conduit connector and, after
wrapping round the gear wheel, emerges via another conduit connector at
a point 90o, 120o or 180o from the point of entry.
The end of the cable that emerges from the unit may be accommodated in
a short length of conduit known as a spent travel tube.
3. Anti-Torsion Tube. It is sometimes necessary to prevent the control cable
from turning in the conduit and so altering the relative adjustment. This is
done by installing an oval-sectioned anti-torsion tube in place of a spent
travel tube. This tube serves as a guide to an oval ferrule secured to the
spent travel end of the cable.
4. Straight-Lead Unit. In this unit the cable passes straight through and
consequently engages on only a few teeth of the gear wheel. Therefore,
these units are not suitable for heavily-loaded controls. It can be interposed
in a control run or fitted at the transmitting or receiving ends of a control.

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CONTROL CABLES

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Cable

Conduit
Connector

May 2004

Straight Lead
Unit

Single-Entry
Unit

Gear
Wheel

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 281

Spring

Bearing Circlip

Swivel Joint

Body

Ball End
(welded to
conduit)

Conduit

Return Spring
(Optional)

Pull-Push
Control Unit

Attachment Coil
(Lock Spring)

Cable
Lock
Nut

Conduit
Connector
Nipple

Teleflex System Components

Junction Box
Unit

Double-Entry
Unit

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Conduit

Page: 565

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End Fittings (contd)


7. Torsion Drive. In certain installations the final linear movement of the control is converted to rotary action by the use of a distributor box coupled, via
a torsion drive, to the component to be operated. The torsion drive is similar to a normal flexible drive.
8. Distributor Box. This is similar in construction to a receiver unit with a gear wheel attached to the face of the cable gear wheel. The attached gear
wheel drives a pinion on a cross shaft which engages with one or two
tongue ends of the torsion drive cable.
To convert the rotary motion of the torsion drive to the linear movement of a
trimming tab, a sprocket-driven screw jack may be used.
To prevent vibration from affecting the setting of a wheel unit control, or to
lock the control in any position, a damping device may be fitted. This device
consists of a spring-loaded friction plate pressed against the gear wheel.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 282

Cable

Torsion
Drive

Screw Jack

Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive

Distributor
Box

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Page: 567

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Quick-Break Units
Quick-break units of various types are installed in control runs to facilitate
removal of components without disturbing the control. The cable joining fittings
are similar in all types of quick-break unit and consists of rods machined with
interlocking slotted ends attached to the ends of the cables.

M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Remove sliding tube from end of


cable and test for freedom.
If stiff, fit new parts.
Check alignment of swivel joint (if
fitted).
Renew damaged parts and reset the
assembly.
Renew wheel unit.

Lack of lubricant in conduit.

Bent sliding end fitting.

Fouling between end fitting and


airframe due to damage or faulty
installation.
Worn wheel unit gear wheel, allowing
cable to override.

Page: 568

Dismantle, clean, assemble and test.


If unsatisfactory, renew swivel joint.

Dismantle end fittings and remove


the cable from the conduit.
Smear the cable with high-altitude
grease and re-assemble.

Kinked cable.

Jammed swivel joint.

Renew cable.

Damaged conduit.

Remedy
(a) Flexible type - renew complete
conduit.
(b) Rigid type - cut out damaged
portion and renew.

Probable Cause

Servicing
Servicing of the control system consists of checking its operation, examining
for wear and damage, renewing defective parts and periodical lubrication.
Stiff control movement may be caused by the following:

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Conduit Connectors
Some conduit connectors are similar in construction to all-metal pipe couplings
without an olive. The standard nipple-type connector consists of a screwed
nipple that is threaded onto a rigid conduit, before the conduit is flared. The
nipple is then screwed into a wheel unit or conduit connector body, thus
retaining the conduit secure against a shoulder in the internally-threaded
connection hole.
Another type of conduit connector, termed a clamp connector, consists of a
split block bored out to house the unflared ends of a conduit. The conduit is
gripped by tightening two clamping bolts, and is located by two bifurcated pins.

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CONTROL CABLES

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Body

Conduit

May 2004

Nipple-Type Connector

Tecalemit
Nipple

Conduit
Connector
Nipple

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Cover Plate

Figure 283

Conduit
Clamp

Lock Pins

Teleflex Conduit Connectors

Body

Clamp-Type Connector

Clamp Connector Bolts

Conduit Connector

Typical Quick-Break Unit

Interlocking Rods

Conduit

Conduit

Conduit
Connector
Nipple

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M7.13 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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Page: 570

4. Cable. The cable must be kept clean, free from kinks and well lubricated. If
dirty, it may be cleaned in kerosine, wiped dry with a non--fluffy cloth and re
lubricated. A cable that has been damaged, strained or over heated, must
be renewed.
The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
A. Assemble the conduit in position.
B. Cut the cable 2 inches in excess of requirements.
C. Fit the cable into the unit and engage with the transmitting end fitting.
D. Assemble the receiving end fitting and mark the required length of
cable.
E. Remove the cable from the conduit and cut to length.
F. Replace the cable and, at the same time, smear the cable with high altitude grease as it enters the conduit.
G. Connect the cable to the end fittings and check for freedom of movement and range of movement.
H. Ensure that all fittings are in safety and correctly locked. Lubricate, as
necessary.
5. Sliding End Fitting. To attach the cable to a sliding end fitting, unscrew
the hexagon plug, screw the locknut right back and pass the cable through
the plug, then proceed as follows:
A. Screw the lock spring on to the end of the cable, so that about 3/16 in
(two threads) of cable projects through the spring.
B. Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the end fitting
and screw the plug tight down. During this operation the end fitting must
be prevented from rotating.
C. Check that the free end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but
not beyond the fork gap (fork end fittings only). If satisfactory, position
the tab washer, tighten the locknut and lock with the tab washer.
D. Check the distance from the face of the bore to the sliding tube which
should not exceed 0.45 inches. This ensures that the lock spring is tightly compressed.

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Teleflex System Installation


1. Conduit. Rigid conduit must be clean, free from dents and deformations
and reasonably straight. When renewing a conduit, never use conduit that
has been previously bent for some other part of the system. After fitting the
cable in the conduit, it should be possible to work the cable backwards and
forwards by hand. If this is not possible, the run of conduit has not been
installed properly.
Damage to rigid conduit may be repaired by inserting a new length of conduit and making the connection by use of a connector. Bending, if necessary, should be done by use of a bending machine, or by using a special
hand bender. Flexible conduit, if damaged, must be completely renewed.
2. Conduit Connectors. When tightening a nipple type connector, two
spanners should be used to prevent twisting of the conduit. If there is any
end play between the conduit and the body of the connector after tightening, dismantle the connection and check the flare on the conduit; flaring of
a conduit should be done only with the special flaring tool provided.
When fitting a clamp type connector, the ends of the two lengths of conduit
must be square and unflared. To fit the connector, remove the locking pins
and slacken off the clamping bolts. Slide the two lengths of conduit into the
connector and ensure that the ends butt centrally in the transverse slot,
then tighten up the clamping bolts. Insert a drill of the correct size through
the locking pin holes. Operate the drill which will cut half way through the
wall of the conduit. Insert the bifurcated locking pins and open out their
legs. The correct size drill is 3/32 in dia for No. 2 and No. 3 conduits.
3. Wheel Units. To fit the cable into the single entry unit, tuck it into the slot in
the gear wheel and ensure that the cable helix engages with the gear wheel
teeth to give a wrap of at least 40o. On double entry units, the cable should
engage with the gear wheel correctly and project through the lead out hole
throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end, when fully
extended, does not foul the blanked end of the spent travel tube. All wheel
units should be packed with high altitude grease.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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Lockspring

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 284

Tabwasher

Swivel Tube

Outer Sliding Tube

Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting

Forked-End Type

Plug Permanently Secured to Tube

Locknut

Inspection Hole

Cable

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Hand Lever
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing
control or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then
rotate the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable
through the end fitting slot.

End Fittings
Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end of
the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop and
is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever to the
normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the
transmitting or receiving end of the control run.

Cable Nipples
When a control assembly is made up, the ends of the cable are threaded
through brass nipples which are soldered or swaged to the cable.

Conduit
The conduit consists of a close coil wire, covered with cotton braiding and
finished with a black waterproof coating. Caps are fitted on each end of the
conduit to prevent the braiding from unravelling and to reinforce the end of the
conduit. On some installations, rigid conduit is used to house the cable over
straight runs.

Cable
This short run, lightly--loaded type of control has a cable made of non
corrodible steel wire, which. is designed for pull operation only. The return
action is provided by a spring. This is the sort of cable that is used for operating
the brake cable on push bikes

BOWDEN CONTROLS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Page: 572

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Cap

Waterproofing

May 2004

Stop

Nipple
Cable
Cap
Conduit

Hand Lever

Spherical

Bowden Control Components 1

Typical Hand Lever

Parking
Catch

Spade Grip

Cable

Coiled Wire

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Figure 285

Cable and Conduit

Cotton Braiding

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Types of Nipple

Trunnion
Plain

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Junction Box
A junction box is used for connecting a single cable to two others where there
are two components to be operated by a single control or where one
component is operated by two controls.

Connectors
Two types of connector are used. The cable connector is used for joining two
cables only and cannot be employed where a conduit is fitted. It is also used
for joining a length of Bowden cable to a cable of a different type, such as may
be used for long straight runs. The control connector is used for joining two
Bowden controls, as illustrated.

Adjustment Stop
The remote end of the cable usually passes through a plain stop and is
attached to the component by the cable nipple. The plain stops, which may be
fitted to both ends of the conduit, consist of hexagon headed screws drilled to
allow the cable to pass through. The head of each screw is counterbored to
receive the protective cap fitted over the end of the conduit.
When the stop is fitted to the remote end of the conduit, it is mounted in a Tee
barrel, which must be securely fixed to a rigid member of the airframe. Where it
is inconvenient to fit plain stops at the ends of the conduit, a double ended stop
may be fitted in the length of the conduit.
The stops also enable the length of the conduit to be adjusted, thus altering the
tension of the cable.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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Locknut

Tee-Barrel

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Typical Junction Box

One cable entering operates two cables


leaving (for spring-return controls)

Adjustable Stop
and Tee-Barrel

Adjustment Stop

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

Figure 286

Safety Hole

Control
Connector

Cable
Connector

Double-Ended Stop

Note: thread of adjustment


end must cover safety hole

Bowden Control Components 2

Cable

Barrel Connecting Conduits

Locknut

Adjustment End

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Conduit

Cable

Page: 575

Conduit

Cap

Slider Connecting Cables

Cap

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Page: 576

4. Renewing a Control. When a cable or conduit is to be renewed, the faulty


component should be used as a guide to the length required for the new
part. The conduit may be cut to the exact length required, but it is advisable
to leave the cable rather longer than necessary, because it simplifies the
fitting of the cable.
The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
A. a nipple to one end of the cable. Lubricate the cable.
B. Thread the adjustable stop over the cable and slide on the conduit making sure that the protective caps are fitted at each end. If required,
thread on a second adjustment stop.
C. Fix the control temporarily in position on the aircraft along the route it is
to follow.
D. Make sure that the stops are at their minimum length and that the part
to be operated is in the normal position, then slide the other nipple on to
the cable. Pull the cable taut and, with a lead pencil, mark off the correct
position for the nipple.
E. the control from the aircraft, cut the cable to length and solder the second nipple in position.
F. Fix the control correctly in the aircraft. Adjust the stops until all slack in
the cable is taken up and then tighten the locknuts.

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Installation
1. Conduit.The conduit must be clean, free from kinks or distortion and not
damaged. If damaged, the conduit must be renewed. Any bends in the conduit should be as large as possible. The minimum radius of bend is twelve
times the diameter of the conduit.
Where the cable is connected to a lever, the alignment should be such that
the centre line of the conduit is in a straight line through the mid position of
the rise and fall of the arc of travel of the lever.
If this adjustment is not made, the cable may rub on the edge of the stop
and be worn away.
When the conduit has been correctly aligned, the Tee barrel forming the
adjustable stop mounting must be securely locked in this position. This is
important as, should the Tee barrel swivel, the control will be distorted. The
control should be attached to the airframe by pliable clips. For controls
longer than 2 ft., the conduit should be supported every 12 in. The conduit
of a Bowden control should never be in tension.
2. Cable. Care must be taken when handling the cable to avoid kinking it, as
this will cause the cable to work harshly in the conduit. The cable must be
clean, free from fraying or corrosion and lubricated with graphited synthetic
grease applied at room temperature (60-70oF.) The grease must be well
rubbed into the interstices of the cable.
3. Servicing. The control should be inspected periodically as follows:
A. Inspect the cable ends for fraying or other damage. Frayed cables must
be renewed.
B. Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear, especially at bends and
at the ends.
C. If there is any slackness in the cable, screw out the conduit adjustment
stops until the slackness disappears. After adjustment, make sure that
all components are still in safety and securely locked.
D. Operate the control lever over its full range and ensure that the spring
returns the lever freely and smoothly to its stop.
E. Check the security and locking of mountings and clips.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
CONTROL CABLES

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M 7.17 AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 287

Taxiing

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Towing
In general when an aircraft is towed on firm level ground it will be via a towing
arm attached to either nose or tail wheel. If the aircraft is on soft ground, then a
towing bridle is used which is attached to both main wheels, whilst the aircraft
is steered using a towing arm attached to the nose or tail wheel. When towing
tailwheeled aircraft on soft ground they should be towed forward whilst nose
wheeled aircraft can be towed forward or backward.
Checks that should be carried out during towing operations include:
S Ensure undercarriage is locked and has ground locks fitted
S Ensure brake system is serviceable and has sufficient reserve pressure to
operate the brakes. The braking system should also be checked when first
moving the aircraft.
S Tyres are correctly inflated.
S Ensure the correct number of personnel are available, this includes a
supervisor in overall charge of the tow and lookouts at the extremities of the
aircraft who are in constant contact with the suprvisor.
S There must be a qualified operator to operate the brakes from the flightdeck
who is in contact with the tow supervisor at all times.
S Where necessary, ensure nosewheel steering is disconnected/disengaged.
S The tug driver should be fully qualified and take orders only from the towing
supervisor.
S Navigation light must be swithched on.
S Permission to tow must be obtained from ATC prior to towing.
S On completion of the tow, ensure the landing gear is pointing straight ahead
and has turned at least one full turn in order to relieve stresses on the
landing gear and tyres.

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Page: 579

On completion of the tow the aircraft should be parked up observing the


following precautions:
S The aircraft should be parked so that it doesnt interfere with the movement
of other airfield traffic.
S Park into wind wherever possible.
S Covers blanks and locks should be fitted as required.
S Wheels should be chocked fore and aft.
S doors and hatches should be secured.

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General
An aircraft may be moved under its own power, manually, using a tug or tractor
and finally by using hand operated self powered trolleys.

TAXIING AND TOWING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 288

Towing via Nose Landing Gear

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IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT A TOWBAR WITH A DAMPING


SYSTEM IS USED.

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You can use the nose landing gear tow--bar fitting to tow or push the aircraft:
S with maximum weight,
S with the engines between zero and idle.

Speed imits, when the passenger/crew doors are fully open and locked and/or
cargo doors open in vertical position:
S the permitted maximum speed is 10 km/h (6.21 mph).

Speed limits, when the door is closed and locked or removed:


S for a tractor with a tow bar, a maximum speed of 25 km/h (15.5 mph) is
permitted
S for a tractor without a tow bar (ie using a lifting device), a maximum speed
of 32 km/h (19.8 mph) is permitted.

You can use the MLG attachments to tow the aircraft:


S with the engines shut down,
S when the aircraft is bogged down.

NOTE:
NOTE:

NOTE:

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 581

THE ENGINE THRUST RESISTANCE AT GROUND IDLE IS 400


DAN (FOR EACH ENGINE IN OPERATION).
USE THESE COEFFICIENTS FOR THE FRICTION BETWEEN THE
TYRES OF THE TOW TRACTOR AND THE GROUND,
I.E. DRY CONCRETE OR ASPHALT : 0.80
WET ASPHALT : 0.75

IN ALL CALCULATIONS FOR MTW (MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT),


WHEN THE AIRCRAFT IS PUSHED REARWARDS WITH THE
ENGINES AT IDLE, THRUST RESISTANCE MUST BE ADDED TO
THE TOWING LOADS.

Approximate Towing Load

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Towing
During maintenance work, the aircraft is normally moved and steered by a
tractor attached to the nosewheel axle via a towbar. When towing in a limited
space, it is essential that the aircraft does not turn on a locked wheel, since this
can result in deformation and excessive wear of the tyres.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 289

Towing via Main Landing Gear

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DURING TAXIING/TOWING OPERATIONS (INCLUDING


LOW SPEED OPERATIONS), EACH PERSON IN THE AIRCRAFT MUST BE IN A SEAT WITH THE SEAT-BELT FASTENED. IF THE SEAT-BELT IS UNFASTENED, THERE IS A
RISK OF INJURY IF THE AIRCRAFT STOPS SUDDENLY.

2. ENSURE THAT NO OBJECTS (FOD) CAN BE BLOWN


AWAY OR INGESTED BY THE ENGINES.

1. ENSURE THAT, WHEN THE AIRCRAFT MOVES UNDER


ITS OWN POWER ON THE GROUND, NO-ONE ENTERS AN
AREA WHERE THE AIRCRAFT CAN CAUSE INJURY OR
EVEN DEATH.

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Marshalling signals
The person taxiing an aircraft should obey all marshalling signals, but has final
decision on whether to take notice of the signal or not.
The marshaller is responsible for providing the aircaft flight deck with signals
that will allow the aircraft to manoeuvre safely.

WARNING:

Taxiing
The aircraft is normally taxied with all engines running, but in exceptional
circumstances may be taxied on one engine. The nose wheels are steered
hydraulically via the nosewheel steering system, which is controlled by a hand
wheel (tiller) in the cockpit to a maximum steering angle (depending on the
aircraft type) of +/- 70o.
If nosewheel steering is not available, the aircraft may be steered by differential
use of LH and RH landing gear wheel brakes.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 583

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Chocks Removed

Chocks Inserted

Start Engine

Slow down engine


on indicated side

Cut Engines

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 290

Stop

Brakes On

Move Ahead

Turn Right

Turn Left

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Page: 584

Slow Down

Proceed to next
Marshaller

This way

Negative

Affirmative

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 291

Lifting and Shoring

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M7.17 (Cat A)

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Aircraft Jacks
Aircraft jacks are usually hydraulically operated and are used to raise and lower
the aircraft.If the aircraft is to be raised for long periods, then trestles are used
in conjunction with the jack
There are four types of jack:
S Bottle jack -- Used for wheel changes.
S Bipod -- One of the legs of a quadrupod jack is removed to leave two load
bearing legs and one adjustable support leg. This is used for arc lifts. This is
a difficult operation and is not often carried out.
S Tripod -- Three legs, equally disposed. Used for vertical lifts.
S Quadrupod -- Four legs, equally disposed. Two fixed and two adjustable to
allow for uneven ground.
Hydraulic jacks can range in height from about 3 feet (1 m) to about 15 feet
(5m). Some of the larger jacks may have an operating platform part way up the
main body reached by a fixed step ladder.
Hydraulic jacks comprise a basic central hydraulic unit around which are the
support legs. The moving pillar has either a screw thread and locking collar or a
collar and locking pin which enables the jack to be mechanically locked when
the aircraft is at the correct height. This prevents the collapse of the jack due to
fluid leakage. To release the locking device the jack must be raised slightly
to off--load the collar.
Raising the jack is by means of a pump after the fluid control valve has been
closed. Some jacks may be powered pneumatically and controlled from a
central control panel. The air release valve must be opened whenever the jack
is raised or lowered.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 586

Shoring
An aircraft on jacks is subjected to structural stresses. Shoring is necessary to
give support to the wings in order to release loads on the structure before
modifications or major repair work can be carried out.

To lower the jack, release the locking collar and slowly open the oil control
valve to control the speed of fall. The air release valve must be closed when
the jack is stationaryand the oil--control valve must remain closed--when the
locking device is engaged.
An adapter is fitted into the top of the pillar and this locates into a jack plate or
pad which is fitted, usually by pip pins, onto the underside of the airframe
(check location in the AMM and painted on the airframe).
The adapter and plate form a ball joint which gives a degree of flexibility when
raising and lowering the aircraft. The bottom of the legs of the jack fit into
plates with a ball socket joint to allow for uneven ground. It is essential that the
plates sit firmly on the ground and that the legs are aligned with a small recess
in the plate socket to prevent binding.
When jacking ensure all legs are adjusted so that they carry equal weight, pins
are fully in, and that the jack is vertical (some have a spirit level fitted).
The lifting of an individual landing gear strut is accomplished using a landing
gear jack positioned under a jack point integral with the base of each strut.
No special provision for aircraft shoring is necessary beyond the lifting of the
aircraft with hydraulic jacks and the installation of a rear fuselage support (tail
steady) to steady the aircraft.
Lifting for aircraft recovery is by standard recovery methods using lifting airbags.

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Lifting and Shoring


Aircraft need to be supported clear of the ground for maintenance purposes
and this is usually achieved using jacks and trestles
Aircraft lifting is generally accomplished using three hydraulic jacks; one positioned under the front fuselage and one under each wing.
An auxiliary jack may be provided on each side of the centre fuselage.

JACKING, TRESTLING AND SHORING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 292

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Lifting practices
Whenever possible, jacking procedures should be carried out on a site
protected from the wind, preferably in a hangar. When jacking in the open, the
aircraft must be headed into wind.

ENSURE THAT ALL SERVICING EQUIPMENT IS CLEAR OF


THE AIRCRAFT DURING LIFTING AND LOWERING PROCEDURES.

CAUTION:

Page: 588

THE AIRCRAFT MUST ONLY BE JACKED ON A LEVEL


SURFACE KNOWN TO BE CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING
EACH JACK.

ENSURE THAT ALL CRITICAL STRESS PANELS ARE


FITTED PRIOR TO JACKING THE AIRCRAFT TO AVOID
DAMAGING THE AIRFRAME.

CHECK THAT PERSONNEL HAVE BEEN CLEARED FROM


INSIDE THE AIRCRAFT AND THAT ALL PERSONNEL IN
THE VICINITY OF THE AIRCRAFT HAVE BEEN INFORMED
OF THE PROCEDURE IN PROGRESS.

BEFORE COMMENCEMENT OF JACKING PROCEDURES,


ENSURE THAT THE LANDING GEAR LEVER IS IN THE
DOWN POSITION AND THAT ALL LANDING GEAR LOCKS
ARE FITTED.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

WARNING:

WARNING:

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Lifting
A complete aircraft, or an individual landing gear strut and its wheel assembly
is lifted clear of the ground using hydraulic jacks.
Three main jack points are provided on the aircraft primary structure to accommodate aircraft lifting jacks. One is situated immediately forward of the nose
landing gear compartment and one under each wing outboard of the main
landing gear struts.
The jack points provide threaded receptacles for the attachment of removable
jack adaptors.
Two auxiliary jack points may be provided on the primary structure on each
side of the centre fuselage and may be used as an alternative to the main jack
points if maintenance requires it.
A rear fuselage support is positioned under a specific station (depending on the
aircraft type) to steady the aircraft during maintenance procedures whilst the
aircraft is on jacks.
Auxiliary steps are used to provide access to the passenger stairs when the
aircraft is on jacks.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Jacking Point

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 293

Jacking Point

Jacking Point

Jacking

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Safety Jack

Page: 589

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THE PROCEDURE FOR LOWERING A LANDING GEAR STRUT IS


THE REVERSE OF LIFTING.

Chock the two other wheels (when lifting one landing gear strut)
Ensure aircraft parking brake is off
Position landing gear jack under jack point on base of strut
Operate jack until wheels are lifted just clear of ground.

NOTE:

S
S
S
S

Lifting on landing gear struts using bottle jack


A jack point is provided on all three landing gear struts to accommodate the
landing gear hydraulic jack.
Any strut and its wheel assembly can be individually lifted clear of the ground
for maintenance procedures such as wheel or brake change.
If both tyres on one landing gear strut are deflated, there is insufficient clearance to insert the landing gear jack under the base of the strut. If, in this case,
it is impractical to lift the aircraft using the main jacks, a landing gear ramp can
be positioned in front of the affected wheels and the aircraft towed onto the
ramp to give the required clearance for landing gear jack insertion.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 294

Landing Gear Jacking Points

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ALL GUIDE--LINES ARE FOR AIRCRAFT PARKING IN NORMAL


WEATHER CONDITIONS.

BEFORE YOU CAN DO THIS PARKING PROCEDURE


AGAIN,THE AIRCRAFT MUST FIRST DO A FULL FLIGHT
CYCLE.

YOU MUST CONTINUE TO DO THE SCHEDULED


MAINTENANCE DURING THE PARKING PERIOD.

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Safety Precautions
S Park the aircraft on a flat surface, ensuring that the wheel of the nose
landing gear is on the aircraft axis and the aircraft points into the wind
S Install safety devices on the landing gears
S Make sure that the flaps, slats, spoilers and thrust reversers are retracted
S Make sure that the THS is set to neutral
S Put the wheel chocks in position:
-- NLG: -- in front of and behind the wheels
-- MLG: -- in front of the FWD wheels and behind the AFT wheels
S Ground the aircraft.

S If the aircraft is parked in high wind conditions, check the aircraft stability
and moor the aircraft if necessary.
S If the aircraft is parked in cold weather conditions, do the cold weather
maintenance procedures.

NOTE:

CAUTION:

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 592

Close--Up
S Make an entry in the aircraft log book or attach a tag on the captains sidestick to inform the crew that protection covers/devices are installed
S Remove the ground support and maintenance equipment, the special and
standard tools and all other items
S Make sure that you close all access/doors.

Aircraft Maintenance Configuration


S Push the DITCHING push button switch to close the avionics ventilation
skin valves
S Make sure that the windows of the cockpit are closed.

Installation of Protection Devices on Engines


Protection of:
S engine air intakes
S engine exhaust nozzles and the centre plug openings
S engine air inlet scoop.

Installation of Protection Devices on APU Area


Protection of:
S APU exhaust duct
S outlet duct of the APU oil cooler.

Installation of Protection Devices on the Fuselage


Protection of:
S total temperature sensors
S pitot probes
S angle--of--attack sensors
S static probes.

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Parking Procedure (of not more than 2 days): ensures preservation for a
parking period of not more than 2 days.

PARKING

A/C STORAGE METHODS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Figure 295

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Examples of Protection Devices on Fuselage

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ENSURE THAT THE AVIONICS VENTILATION CONTINUES TO


OPERATE CORRECTLY.

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Ensure that there are no leaks from:


S the wings
S the lower fuselage
S the landing gears
S the engines
S the APU
S the horizontal and vertical stabilizer.

General Visual Inspection of Airframe from Ground for Correct Condition

Remove Cover Slips from


S total temperature sensors
S pitot probes
S angle--of--attack sensors
S static probes.

Removal of Protective Equipment


S APU exhaust plug
S APU oil cooler outlet plug
S Engine inlet cowl cover
S Engine inlet scoop cover.

NOTE:

Open the avionics ventilation skin valves.

Aircraft Configuration

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 594

Remove the ground support and maintenance equipment, the special and standard tools and all other items.

Remove tag from the captain side-stick or write in the log book that the protection covers/devices are no longer installed.

Remove the wheel chocks from the main and nose landing gears.

Remove ground cables from the aircraft.

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RETURN TO OPERATION (PARKING OF NOT MORE THAN 2


DAYS)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Figure 296

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Parking Intervals (Not More Than 2 Days)

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IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THERE IS NO CANNIBALIZATION


OR REMOVAL OF PARTS DURING THIS PARKING PERIOD.

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May 2004

Protection of the Water and Toilet System


Potable water system
S Ensure the system is empty and dry. If necessary, drain, flush and dry the
system.
Toilet system
S Ensure that the system is empty. If necessary, drain, flush and use disinfectant to clean the system.

YOU CAN IGNORE THIS STEP IF THE LAST FLIGHT CYCLE WAS
IN THE LAST 24 HOURS (ENGINES AND APU OPERATED). IN
THESE CONDITIONS, THE PARKING PERIOD STARTS FROM
THE END OF THIS LAST FLIGHT CYCLE.
S Operate the APU for at least 5 min. at no-load governed speed
S Run the engines and let them become stable at ground idle for 15-20 mins
S Do a thrust reverser full cycle

NOTE:

Protection of the Engines and APU

Aircraft Configuration
Ensure that the fuel tanks are 90% full (minimum).Over 30 days tanks must be
full

NOTE:

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 596

Put aircraft in parking configuration. Ensure that all the external structural drain
holes are not clogged. Ensure that all the engine drains are not clogged.
Carry out full parking procedure.
Seal the air conditioning /ventilation inlets and outlets with STORAGE
PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 and adhesive tape.
Put tarpaulins on the MLG wheels.

Protection of the Doors


S Open all doors including
-- the passenger/crew doors
-- the emergency exit doors
-- the cargo compartment doors
-- the landing gear doors
-- all other the pressurized access doors and
S apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 on seals of all the doors
S Close all doors.

Protection of the Electrical System


S Remove or disconnect the batteries.

Protection of the Seats


S It is recommended to do the protection of the cockpit and passenger seats
with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002.This is to prevent
discolouration by the sun during a long parking period.

Protection of the Fuel System


S Drain water from all the fuel tanks. You must wait for one hour after refuelling is completed before you do the water drain procedure.

Protection of the Air Data System


S Flush the total pressure line of the Air Data Module
S Flush the static pressure line of the Air Data Module
S Drain and flush the standby static and standby total pressure lines of the Air
Data Module

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Parking Procedure (of not more than 12 Weeks): ensures preservation for a
parking period of not more than 12 weeks.
It keeps the aircraft in Flight--Ready condition.
Periodic Ground Checks must be carried out at 7--day and 15--day intervals.
S If the aircraft is parked in high wind conditions, check the aircraft stability
and moor the aircraft if necessary.
S If the aircraft is parked in cold weather conditions, do the cold weather
maintenance procedures.

PARKING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 297

Protection Devices on Engine

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Page: 597

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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May 2004

Periodic Ground Check (at 15--day intervals)


Procedure
Do a general visual inspection of the airframe from the ground for condition.
S Ensure that there are no leaks
S Ensure that there are no signs of bird nesting in all areas of the aircraft to
which birds have access
S Check for bird excrement. If present, remove it.
S Do a check of the outer skin for unusual contamination.
Make sure that the extension of the landing gear shock absorbers is correct.
Do a check of the tire pressure.
Do a check of the hydraulic reservoir level.
Drain water from all the fuel tanks.
CAUTION:

Page: 598

MAKE AN ENTRY IN THE AIRCRAFT LOG BOOK OR


ATTACH A TAG ON THE CAPTAINS SIDE-STICK TO INFORM THE CREW THAT PROTECTION COVERS/DEVICES
ARE INSTALLED.

Put the aircraft in parking configuration.


Let the engines and the APU become cool and install protection covers/plugs
on the fuselage,the engines and the APU area.
Record any discrepancy in the log book.
Install tarpaulins on the MLG wheels.

Move the aircraft.

Operate Air Conditioning system.


Operate all the flight control surfaces on full travel and ensure that they operate
correctly.
Do the operational test of the bleed air system.
Do the operational test of the wing--ice protection system.
Do the operational test of the engine air intake ice protection.
Do a thrust reverser cycle.

Operate the APU and the Engines


S Start the APU
S Start the engines with APU bleed and operate them at idle power.

Periodic Ground Check (at 7--day intervals)


Check of Aircraft Condition
Ensure that the protection covers/plugs are correctly installed.
Do a general visual inspection of the airframe from the ground for condition.
Make sure that there are no leaks from:
S the wings
S the lower fuselage
S the landing gears
S the engines
S the APU
S the horizontal and vertical stabilizer.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

System Test
S Do the functional test of the nose wheel steering with the handwheel and
with the pedals
S Do the operational test of the Normal braking system and Alternate braking
system.

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Periodic Checks and Return in Operation


During the parking period, do the periodic checks:
S at 7--day intervals
S at 15--day intervals.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Figure 298

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Parking Intervals (not more than 12 weeks)

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Page: 599

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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-- WHILE THE AIRCRAFT IS IN STORAGE, ENSURE THAT


YOU DO THE MAINTENANCE CHECKS SPECIFIED FOR
STORAGE.
BEFORE YOU PUT THE AIRCRAFT BACK INTO SERVICE,
IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT YOU MAKE SURE THAT ALL
THE CALENDAR TASKS SCHEDULED FOR THE PERIOD
DURING WHICH THE AIRCRAFT WAS IN STORAGE ARE
COMPLETED (REFER TO THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM).
DO NOT CHANGE OR STOP THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM WITHOUT APPROVAL FROM YOUR LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

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Protection of the APU


S Do the preservation of the APU.

Protection of the Engines


S Do the preservation of the engines.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

WHEN YOU USE ADHESIVE TAPE, DISCOLORATION OF THE


AIRCRAFT PAINT OR TRANSFER OF COLOURS CAN OCCUR.
THIS IS WHY YOU MUST USE THE MINIMUM POSSIBLE ADHESIVE TAPE.

For return-to-service, do the return-to-service procedure.

During the storage period, do the periodic checks:


S at 7--day intervals
S at 15--day intervals.

Page: 600

Close Access
Close all the window shades, emergency exit doors, cargo compartment doors
and gear doors.
Put the aircraft in the storage area.
Do the full parking procedure.

NOTE:

Seal the following areas with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002


attached with adhesive tape (record the location):
S inlets and outlets of the air conditioning packs
S battery venturi
S pre-cooler outlets
S anti--ice air outlet and the access panels which are on the engine air
intakes.

Protection of the Oxygen System


S Close the valve of the oxygen cylinder and bleed the oxygen system.

Protection of the Fuel System


S Fill all the fuel tanks to 90% of their total capacity and all the fuel system
lines
S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not
crack). Operate the water drains one hour after you refuel the tanks.

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Storage Procedure (not more than 1 month)


S Clean the aircraft externally and internally
S Drain of the potable water system
S Drain the toilet system
S Open all doors and apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 to all
the seals of the doors
S Make sure that there is no blockage in any structural drain holes
S Flush the total pressure line and the static pressure line of the Air Data
Module
S Lubricate the mechanical control chains of the THS
S Lubricate all rollers and pinions of slat tracks, all spoiler linkage bearings
that have grease nipples and hinge and attachment fittings of horizontal
stabilizer
S Check tyre pressures
S Remove the batteries.

CAUTION:

STORAGE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Aircraft Storage - Inspection Intervals

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Figure 299

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 601

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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May 2004

Drains
Visually inspect the drains.

Hydraulics
S Depressurize the hydraulic systems
-- Put a warning notice in position to tell persons not to operate the systems during the aircraft storage procedure
S Do a check of the hydraulic components for external leakage
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS (Material No.05--005) on:
-- all the hydraulic unions in the wheel wells
-- the bolt heads of the hydraulic reservoirs
-- the pipe clamps
-- the trailing edge of the wing
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS on the solenoids of the hydraulic flap manifold
S Inspect the flight controls
S Check the oil level of the flap PCU and slat PCU gearbox.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Tyre Storage (for a period > 2 months)


It is recommended to install old tyres or wheels with old tyres.

Tyre Storage (for a period < 2 months)


Check the inflation pressure.

Page: 602

Landing Gear
S Apply COMMON GREASE to:
-- the sliding tube of the shock absorber, the actuator rods and the uplock
mechanism.
S Apply talcum to all the rubber parts but not the tyres
S Ensure that there is no corrosion on the brakes and on each half wheel.

Protection
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS to all the seals of the doors
S carry out protection of all the light-alloy areas that are unpainted
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS or COMMON GREASE to the steel parts that
are unpainted and on the mechanical rods in unpressurized areas
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS (Material No.05--027) to:
-- the cases, electrical connectors, solenoids, brackets, screw- and boltheads located in the APU compartment
-- in all the holes, especially in the areas where condensation can occur.

Lubrication
S Lubricate the mechanical control chains of the THS, all the rollers and
pinions of the slat tracks, spoilers, linkage bearings, cargo compartment
doors, passenger/crew doors and emergency exit doors hinges and the
attach fitting of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder bearing and sliding window.

Rain Repellent System


De--activate the rain repellent system.

Water Removal
Remove the water from the pitot/static lines.

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--WHILE THE AIRCRAFT IS IN STORAGE, ENSURE THAT


YOU DO THE MAINTENANCE CHECKS SPECIFIED FOR
STORAGE.
BEFORE YOU PUT THE AIRCRAFT BACK INTO SERVICE,
IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT YOU MAKE SURE THAT ALL
THE CALENDAR TASKS SCHEDULED FOR THE PERIOD
DURING WHICH THE AIRCRAFT WAS IN STORAGE ARE
COMPLETED (REFER TO THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM).
DO NOT CHANGE OR STOP THE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM WITHOUT APPROVAL FROM YOUR LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Clean
Clean the aircraft.

CAUTION:

Storage (for a period as long as 2 years)

STORAGE (CONTD)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Figure 300

A/C Storage - Inspection Intervals

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Page: 603

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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May 2004

Protection of the Fuel System


S Fill
-- all the fuel tanks at 90%of their total capacity
-- all the fuel system lines
S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not
crack)
S Mix MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMIN. PROTECT. MATERIALS with the
fuel as a preventive step
S Operate the water drains one hour after you refuel the tanks
S Check all the fuel tanks for leakage
S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS to the switches on the REFUEL/DEFUEL
panel.

Protection of the APU


Carry out the preservation of the APU.

Protection of the Engines (for a period of > 1 year)


Ref. TASK 72--00--00--600--805.

Protection of the Engines (for a period of 90 days - 1 year))


S Remove the IDG
S Carry out the preservation of the engines.

Protection of the Engines (for a period of 0 to 90 days)


S Carry out the preservation of the engines.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Put blanking caps on the disconnected electrical connectors.

Removal of Components
Remove the following:
S digital flight data recorder
S cockpit voice recorder
S oxygen cylinder/valve assys
S crew portable oxygen--equipment
S cabin emergency lights
S emergency power--supply units
S first aid kits
S emergency locator beacon
S portable and toilet fire--extinguishing bottles
S life vests
S escape slide
S escape slide/raft
S autonomous standby power supply unit
S wiper arm and wiper blade
S engine fire--extinguishing bottles
S cartridges of the engine fire--extinguishing bottles
S cartridge of the APU fire--extinguishing bottle
S APU fire--extinguishing bottles
S cartridge of the cargo fire--extinguishing bottle
S cargo fire--extinguishing bottle
S batteries

Page: 604

Protection and Lubrication of the Landing Gear


S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS on the electrical components (microswitches,
connectors, proximity detectors)
S Apply COMMON GREASE to the towing and debogging fittings
S Put tarpaulins on the bottom sections of the landing gear (this includes the
tyres and brakes).

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S Open the cockpit and cabin window shades


S Cover the cockpit and passenger seat with a STORAGE PRESERVATION
S Apply BONDING AND ADHESIVE COMPOUNDS on the cockpit and cabin
windows.

Protection (for a period of 0 to 2 months)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Page: 605

Visual Inspection:
S Examine all the areas of the aircraft where the birds can access.
S Ensure that there are no birds nests.
/contd

Move the aircraft by a 1/4 turn of the wheels, to prevent damage to the tyres
and brinelling of the bearings.

Inspection Check List: 15 Days Check

Make sure that there is no leakage under:


S the wings
S the lower fuselage
S the engines
S the APU
S the horizontal stabilizer
S the vertical stabilizer
S the landing gears.

Inspection Check List: Weekly Check


Visual Inspection:
S Examine all the areas of the aircraft where birds can access. Ensure that
there are no birds nests
S Make sure that the covers and the plugs are correctly installed.

Remove the batteries.


Disconnect and remove the batteries.

Protection
Seal with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 attached with
adhesive tape (record the location):
S the inlets and outlets of the air conditioning packs
S the battery venturi
S the precooler outlets
S the anti--ice, air outlet and the anti--ice duct access panel (on the engine air
intakes)
S the scoops.
Seal the two spray nozzles with plastic bags or films, fixed on the structure with
adhesive tape.
Seal all the openings that give access to:
S the passenger compartment
S the cockpit
S the cargo compartment
S the APU
S the engines
S the landing gear
with STORAGE PRESERVATION Material No.15--002 attached with adhesive
tape.

Put the aircraft in the parking condition.


Put the aircraft in the mooring condition.

Close the avionics ventilation extract--valve.


Close the overboard extract valve.

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Close Access
Close the passenger/crew doors.
Close all the access doors and panels that you opened during the storage procedure.

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Protection of the Water/Waste System


S Make sure that the water/waste and potable water systems are empty; dry
them with air if necessary
S Drain,clean and deodorize the toilets.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Do the following tests:


S operational test of the avionics equipment ventilation system
S operational test of the bulk cargo ventilation system
S operational test of the ice protection system of the wing
S operational test of the ice protection system of the engine air intake

S
S
S
S

Open the passenger/crew doors


Open cargo compartments
Open all the access doors
Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--043 on all the seals of the
doors
S Make sure that all the doors operate correctly
S Bleed the standby air--data system
S Operate the air conditioning system to remove moisture through the
low--pressure ground connection or through the high--pressure ground
connection or with the APU.

Check the condition of the aircraft during the storage period:

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 606

S Check that at least the minimum level of HYDRAULIC FLUIDS is in


hydraulic reservoirs
S Check for corrosion on hydraulic pipes and unions on the landing gear wells,
wings and the stabilizers.
contd

Inspection of the Hydraulic System:

Inspection of Fuel Tanks:


S Drain water from the fuel tanks
S If necessary,fill all the fuel tanks at 90%of their total capacity and the fuel
system lines
S Make the vents wet (so that the sealants will not become dry and will not
crack).

S Apply COMMON GREASE Material No.04--011 on:


-- the sliding tube of the shock absorber
-- the actuator rods
-- the uplock mechanism.

S Apply SPECIAL MATERIALS Material No.05--027 in all holes, specially in


the areas prone to condensation.

Protection:

S Do a visual inspection of the aircraft for impact by foreign objects, fluid


leakages (hydraulic fluid, fuel), missing parts, blockage and corrosion.

Check the condition of the aircraft during the storage period:

Inspection Check List: 3 Months Check

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Ensure that there is no leakage.


Ensure that the pressure/extension of the shock absorber is correct.
Examine the condition of the wheels of the landing gear.
Do a tyre pressure check (the correct pressure is the pressure specified for
the aircraft storage weight).

Inspection Check List: 1 Month Check

S
S
S
S

Inspection Check List: 15 Days Check (Contd)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Remove the tool installed during the mooring procedure and the tarpaulins
Put the aircraft on jacks
Turn the wheels by hand to make sure that there are no defect on bearings
Put the aircraft on its wheels.

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operational test of the operation of the engine LP--fuel shut--off valves


operational test of the operation of the ailerons and their hydraulic system
operational test of the operation of the elevators and their hydraulic system
operational test of the operation of the rudder and its hydraulic system
operational test of the operation of the flap system
operational test of the operation of the spoiler hydraulic system
operational test of the slat system
operational test of the landing gear doors.

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Put the aircraft back to its Initial Configuration.

Close--up:

S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S

Put the aircraft in the mooring condition. Carry out the following:

S
S
S
S

Inspection Check List: 3 Months Check (Contd)


Inspection of the Landing Gear:

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 607

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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26--21--41--200--801
26--21--41--200--802

24--21--51--400--801
24--38--51--400--801
24--41--00--861--801
24--41--00--862--801
25--62--41--400--801
26--21--00--720--803

23--71--35--400--801
24--21--00--210--818

(SYSTEM TEST)
23--61--00--200--801

21--26--00--710--803

12--12--29--611--801
12--13--24--612--801
12--13--49--612--801
12--13--80--610--801
12--14--32--614--801
12--21--11--615--801
12--22--32--600--801
12--22--32--600--802
12--32--28--281--801
12--32--28--281--802
21--21--41--000--801
21--21--41--400--801
21--26--00--440--801

May 2004

Check the Resistance from Static Discharger


to the base and from the base to the Aircraft
Structure
Installation of the Cockpit Voice Recorder
Check of the Oil Level and Oil--Filter
Differential--Pressure Indicator (DPI)
Installation of the -- IDG
Installation of the Batteries
Energize the Aircraft Electrical Circuits
De--energize the Aircraft Electrical Circuits
Escape Facilities --Installation
Check of Engine Fire Extinguishing Distribution
Piping for Leakage and Obstruction
Weight Check of Fire Extinguisher Bottle
Hydrostatic Test of Engine Fire Extinguisher
Bottle incl. Check of Pressure Switch Setting

Fill Hydraulic Reservoir


IDG Servicing
Servicing of the APU Oil Reservoir
Drain and Replenish Oil of Starter
Replenishment of the Tires
External Cleaning
Lubrication of Main Gear and Doors
Lubrication of the NLG and Doors
Drain Water from Tanks
Fuel sample. for microbiological contamination
Removal of the Forward Filter Element
Installation of the Forward Filter Element
Reactivation of Avionics Ventilation Overboard
Extract Valve (13HQ)
Operational Test of the Avionics--Equipment
Ventilation System

27--84--00--710--801
28--11--00--600--805

27--54--00--710--801
27--64--00--710--801
27--84--00--210--801

27--54--00--200--801

27--34--00--710--801

27--24--00--710--801

27--14--00--710--801

26--25--00--280--801

26--23--41--400--803
26--23--42--400--801
26--24--00--280--801

26--23--41--280--802

26--23--41--280--801

26--22--41--400--801
26--22--42--400--801
26--23--00--200--803

26--22--41--280--801
26--22--41--280--802

26--22--00--200--801

26--21--41--400--801
26--21--41--400--803

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Return to Service (Storage Period not more than 1 Month)


Return to Service (Storage Period Up to 2 Years)
To operate an aircraft again after a storage period of as long as 2 years.

RETURN TO SERVICE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 608

Installation of Engine Fire--Extinguisher Bottle


Installation of the Engine Fire--Extinguisher
Bottle Cartridge
Detailed Visual Inspection of the APU
Fire--Extinguishing Distribution--Piping
Weight Check of APU Fire--Extinguisher Bottle
Hydrostatic Test of APU Fire--Extinguisher
Bottle and Check of Pressure Switch Setting
Installation of the APU Fire Extinguisher Bottle
Installation of APU Fire--Extinguisher Cartridge
Detailed Visual Inspection of the Halon Filters,
Check Valves and Restrictors of Cargo-Compartment Fire--Extinguishing System
Weight Check of the Cargo--Compartment
Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
Hydrostatic Test of the Cargo--Compartment
Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
Installation of the Fire--Extinguisher Bottle
Installation of the Fire--Extinguisher Cartridges
Weight Check of Portable Fire--Extinguisher
Bottles and a Visual Check
Check of the Extinguishing Agent Pressure by
Reading Pressure Gauges of All the Lavatory
Waste--Bin Fire--Extinguisher Bottles
Operational Test of the Aileron and Hydraulic
Actuation
Operational Test of the Rudder Servo Control
with each Hydraulic System
Operational Test of the Elevator and Hydraulic
Actuation
Visual Inspection of the Flap Transmission
Assy
Operational Test of the Flap System
Operational Test of the Spoilers
Visual Inspection of the Slat Transmission
Assy, Slat Tracks and Rollers, Pinions and
Curved Rack Gears
Operational Test of the Slat System
Removal of The Microbiological Particles

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

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38--31--00--720--802
49--00--00--710--801
49--11--11--400--801
51--74--11--300--801
52--10--00--010--801
52--30--00--010--802

35--11--41--400--801
35--30--00--210--801
38--10--00--720--801

32--41--11--400--801
32--41--12--400--801
33--51--11--400--801
33--51--38--400--801
34--11--00--170--801
34--11--00--170--802
34--11--00--170--803

32--41--00--210--802

32--40--00--200--801
32--40--00--210--804

30--45--00--440--801
30--45--52--400--801
31--33--55--400--801
32--11--00--220--801
32--12--00--010--801
32--12--00--410--801
32--21--00--220--801
32--31--00--710--801

28--24--00--710--801
29--00--00--863--801
29--00--00--864--801
29--31--00--200--801
30--11--00--710--801
30--21--00--710--801

May 2004

71--00--00--400--801
71--00--00--720--806
71--00--00--860--802
71--00--00--860--804
72--00--00--600--806

54--50--00--200--801

53--39--00--200--801

53--00--00--200--801

52--30--00--410--802

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Operational Test of LP Fuel Valve


Pressurize the Hydraulic Systems
Depressurize the Hydraulic Systems
Check of the Reservoir Fluid Level
Operational Test of Wing Ice--Protection System
Operational Test of Engine Air Intake Ice
Protection
Reactivation of the Rain Repellent System
Installation of the Wiper Arm
Installation of the Digital Flight Data Recorder
Detailed Inspection of Main Gear Structure
Open the gear doors for Maintenance
Close the gear doors after Maintenance
Detailed Inspection of Nose Gear Structure
Operational Test of the Normal Extension and
Retraction System
Inspection/Check of the Brakes
Check of Normal and Alternate Brake Manifold
Accumulators Nitrogen Charge
General Visual Inspection of Tires, Wheels and
Brakes (for Hydraulic Leaks)
Installation of the MLG Wheel
Installation of the NLG Wheel
Installation of the Cabin Emergency Light
Installation of Emergency Power--Supply Unit
Flushing of the Principal Total Pressure Lines
Flushing of the Principal Static Pressure Lines
Draining and Flushing of the Standby Static
and Standby Total Pressure Lines
Installation of the Oxygen Cylinder/Valve Assy
Check Pressure of Portable Oxygen Cylinder
Functional Test of Potable--Water Preselect
System
Functional Test of the Toilet Assemblies
Operational Test of the APU
Installation of the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Repair of Corroded Areas
Opening of the Passenger/Crew Door
Opening of the Cargo--Compartment Doors
with the Hand Pump

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 609

Closing of the Cargo--Compartment Doors


with the Hand Pump
Visual Check of the Drain Holes in the Lower
Part of the Fuselage at FR1 and FR80
Operational Test of the Drain at the Upper Aft
End of the Wing Centre Box
Operational Test and General Visual Inspection
of the Pylon Drain System
Installation of the Engine
Power Assurance Check
Engine Manual Start
Engine Shut--down
Depreservation

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Spillage
Actions to be taken should there be a spillage of fuel will depend on the size
and location, the type of fuel and prevailing weather conditions.
S Spillage onto the aircraft structure must be cleared prior to the engines
being started.
S Minor spillage onto the ground must be cleared and the area allowed to dry
prior to any engines being started in the vicinity.
S If there is a major spillage, fuel-flow must stop, all personnel evacuated from
the area and the Fire Services alerted.
S Every attempt must be made to prevent contamination of drains and culverts by damming the area with specialist equipment and using absorbing/
mopping agents designed for the job, which are subsequently disposed of in
suitable containers in accordance with local regulations.

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No Smoking signs should be displayed at a minimum distance of 15m (50)


from fuelling equipment and aircraft tank vents.
A Fuelling Zone at least 6m (20) from filling/venting points on both aircraft
and fuelling equipment should be established prior to fuelling/defuelling operations. Within this zone
S no electrical system should be switched on or off, and only those circuits
necessary for the operation should be on.
S Strobe lighting must not be on.
S There must be no use of naked lights. This includes the engines of equipment/vehicles unless they have been designed for that purpose.
S If necessary for the refuelling/defuelling operation, an APU (Auxiliary Power
Unit) must be started prior to filler caps being removed or connections
made.
S GPUs (Ground Power Units) should be as far as practicable from aircraft
fuelling points and vents.
S Fire extinguishers should be at hand.
S The aircraft should be earthed and bonded to fuelling equipment.
S After the fuelling operation, bonding should not be removed until hoses have
been disconnected and filler caps refitted.
S Ground equipment must be moved away from the aircraft to prevent damage as the aircraft settles due to its increased weight.
S Fuel bowsers will normally position themselves facing away from the aircraft
being refuelled, for rapid emergency evacuation. A clear exit must be maintained.
S Aircraft engines must not be operated.
S People and vehicles within the fuelling zone must be kept to a minimum.
S Fuelling is suspended during electrical storms in the vicinity.

AIRCRAFT REFUELLING/DEFUELLING

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Figure 301

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AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone

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Park or picket aircraft -- leave brakes off.

Drain oil and water traps on pneumatic systems.

Clean, drain and remove any foodstuffs from galleys.

Drain and clean all toilet systems.

Drain drinking (potable) water systems.

Drain oil whilst hot (from piston engines in extreme cold), and drain water traps in
Pitot/ static systems.

Allow any ice in intakes, water drains, etc, to melt, drain water then fit covers and
plugs.

If aircraft is wet apply anti--freeze liquid to the underside of covers before fitting.

Fit all airframe and engine covers, Pitot/ static plugs, and landing gear locks.

Typical After Flight Checks (See AMM)

Clear the working areas of snow and ice.Keep sand and salt away from working
areas and aircraft as much as possible.Ideally keep aircraft in heated hangers as
much as possible.

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This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough deposit.
At ground level it forms in freezing fog conditions and consists of a deposit of ice
on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime ice is light and porous and results
from the small water drops freezing as individual particles, with little or no
spreading. A large amount of air is trapped between the particles.

Rime Ice

Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the freezing point
of the adjacent air and, of course, below freezing point itself. It is formed in clear
air when water vapour is converted directly to ice and builds up into a white
semi--crystalline coating. Hoar frost is feathery.When hoar frost occurs on aircraft
on the ground, the weight of the deposit is unlikely to be serious, but the deposit,
if not removed from the airframe, may interfere with the airflow and attainment of
flying speed during take--off, the windscreen may be obscured, and the free
working of moving parts such as flying control surfaces may be affected.

Hoar frost

Icing on aircraft is caused by a combination of freezing conditions and moisture


in the atmosphere. It may also be caused by freezing rain or drizzle. The actual
amount depends on surface temperature, surface condition, duration of icing
conditions, and the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere.

Ice and Snow Formation on Aircraft

If aircraft does not fly within a certain time (depending on ambient temperature)
re--do items 2 and 3 above.

Carry out normal before flight inspection.

Check all heaters -- windscreen -- Pitot -- TAT -- drain masts -- ice detectors -- heater
mats etc.

Fill systems and check for leaks. Piston engines are usually filled with pre--heated
oil.

Pre--heat engines using blower heaters.

Remove ice and snow from airframe and engines using blower heaters or fluid
spray systems (see later chapters in this book).

Remove covers, blanks and locks.

Typical Before Flight Checks (see AMM)

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General
Safe operation of aircraft in cold weather conditions raises specific problems.
Aircraft downtime and delays in flight schedules caused by cold weather problems can be minimized by a program of preventive cold weather servicing.
Procedures for cold weather servicing must be developed by the operator.
This servicing must meet their specific requirements based on:
S their cold weather experience
S available equipment and materials
S the climatic conditions existing at their bases
This topic contains information defining, developing and implementing cold
weather preventative maintenance procedures that will minimize aircraft
downtime and improve the safe operating level of aircraft in adverse climatic
conditions .
The aircraft is in cold-soak configuration when it is parked in cold weather
(Outside Air Temperature (OAT) lower than 0oC/32oF) and there is no supply of
power to the aircraft (no air-conditioning).

DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING

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It is evident that if ice is deposited on the aircraft, one or more of the following
effects may occur:
S Decrease in Lift. This may occur due to change in wing section, resulting in
loss of streamlined flow.

Conclusions

Normally, snow falling on an aircraft does not adhere, but will settle on the top
surfaces only. If the temperature of the airframe is below freezing point however,
glaze ice may form from the moisture in the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such
conditions, however, is primarily due to water drops, though snow may
subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.

Pack Snow

This is caused by slush/snow/moisture being throne/blown onto the aircraft by the


wind, or passing vehicular traffic or blown by propeller/jet efflux from other aircraft.

Debris Ice

Ice formed in this way is dense, tough and sticks closely to the surface. It cannot
easily be shaken off and, if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps of an
appreciable and sometimes dangerous size. The main danger of glaze ice is still
aerodynamic, but to this must be added, that due to the weight of ice, unequal wing
loading and propeller blade vibration may occur. Also there is the possibility of ice
debris damage in flight. Glaze ice is the most severe and the most dangerous form
of ice formation on aircraft.

Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond after a frosty night.
On aircraft, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters freezing rain with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. It consists
of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and results from
the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing; glaze ice may be mixed
with sleet or snow.

Glaze Ice

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Page: 613

S Increase in Drag. Drag will increase due to the rough surface, especially if
the formation is rime ice -- This condition results in a greatly increased skin
friction.
S Decrease in propeller efficiency. With turbo--prop and piston engines, the
efficiency of the propeller will decrease due to alterations of the blade profile
and increased blade thickness,
S Propeller vibration due to uneven weight of ice.
S Loss of Control. Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing movement
of control surfaces.
S Increased risk of control surface flutter due to control surface C of G change
because of the ice.
S Increased Load and Wing Loading. The weight of the ice may prevent the
aircraft from taking--off.
S Reduced stalling speed.
S Loss of Inherent Stability. Loss of the inherent stability may occur due to
displacement of the centre of gravity caused by the weight of the ice.
S Loss of Vision. This will happen if the windscreen becomes iced over.
S Ice debris damage.
S Malfunction of Flight/ Engine Instruments. This would occur if Pitot/static
and EPR probes/vents became blocked.

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Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through clouds with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. The icing
extends along the leading edge but does not extend back along the chord. Ice of
this type usually has no great weight, but the danger of rime is that it will interfere
with the airflow over wings, etc, and may choke the orifices of the carburettor, air
intake and flying instruments.

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AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Figure 302

Anti-Icing 1

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Holdover time is the estimated time during which anti--icing fluids will prevent
the formation of frost or ice and snow accumulation on the protected surfaces
of the aircraft. The holdover time starts at the beginning of the anti--icing treatment.

Anti-icing
Anti--icing is a precautionary procedure which provides protection against the
formation of frost or ice and snow accumulation on the treated surfaces of the
aircraft for a limited period of time (the holdover time).
Anti--icing fluids are normally applied cold directly onto clean aircraft surfaces.
Typical anti--icing fluids are :
S Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA- Type I). Newtonian Fluids (Type I)
have a low viscosity that only changes with temperature.
S Mixtures of water and Type I fluid
S Non--Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type II or Type IV).
Non--Newtonian Fluids (Type II or Type IV) have a viscosity that reduces
with increased air flow over the fluid.
S Mixtures of water and Type II or Type IV fluid.

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Two step De--/Anti--Icing, as inferred, comprises two completely separate


steps:
1. De--ice the aircraft (remove frost, ice, slush and snow accumulations).
2. Follow this immediately with an anti--icing procedure.

One step De--/Anti--icing is carried out with an anti--icing fluid, normally heated.
The aircraft is de--iced and the fluid that remains on the aircraft gives limited
anti--ice protection.

De-icing and Anti-icing


De--/Anti--icing is a combination of de--icing and anti--icing procedures and is
performed in one or two steps.

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De-icing
De--icing is a procedure to remove frost, ice, snow and slush from the aircraft
surfaces. De--icing fluids are normally applied heated.
Typical de--icing fluids are :
S Heated water
S Newtonian fluids (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type I)
S Mixtures of water and Type I fluid
S Non--Newtonian fluid (ISO- SAE- or AEA-Type II or Type IV fluid)
S Mixtures of water and Type II or Type IV fluid.

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Figure 303

Anti Icing 2

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A FROST LAYER LESS THAN 3MM (1/8 IN) ON THE UNDERSIDE


OF THE WING (DEPENDING ON THE AIRCRAFT TYPE) IN THE
FUEL TANK AREA IS PERMITTED WITHOUT EFFECT ON TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE IF IT IS CAUSED BY COLD FUEL (LOW
FUEL TEMPERATURE, OAT HIGHER THAN FREEZING AND HIGH
HUMIDITY).

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Fluid Dilution
Type I, Type II and Type IV de-/anti-icing fluids can be diluted with water. This
may be done if, due to weather conditions, there is no requirement for a long
conservation time, or the higher freezing points are sufficient for the present
climatic conditions.

A pre--flight inspection of the aircraft must cover all parts of the aircraft. This
visual inspection must be done from a position which gives a clear view of all
surfaces. Because accumulations of clear ice are sometimes not easily visible,
it is recommended that critical surfaces (wings, vertical and horizontal stabilizers and rudder) are inspected by hand.
Weather conditions determine when the aircraft de--/anti--icing must be carried
out. During checks on the ground, electrical or mechanical ice detectors must
not replace physical checks.
If the aircraft arrives at the gate with the flaps/slats in a position other than fully
retracted, they must be inspected and, if necessary, de--iced before retraction.

NOTE:

M7.17 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

NOTE:

Page: 617

TYPE II OR TYPE IV FLUIDS HAVE A LONGER HOLDOVER TIME


THAN TYPE I FLUID.

De-/Anti-icing Fluid Type I, II and IV


Type I fluids are normally used for aircraft de--icing and have only a limited
effect when used for anti--icing purposes. Type I fluids are normally used for
aircraft de--icing.
These fluids contain at least 80% by volume of either :
S Monoethylene--glycol
S Diethylene--glycol
S Monopropylene--glycol
S or a mixture of the above.
The other 20% comprise inhibitors to restrict corrosion and increase the
flash--point, together with water and wetting agents. These fluids show a low
viscosity which only changes with temperature.
The freezing point of a water/glycol mixture will vary with the amount of water
contained in the fluid.
It should be noted that the lowest freezing point of concentrated TYPE I fluid is
approximately --10oC (14oF), whereas the lowest temperature protection will be
found with a 60/40 mixture of TYPE I fluid and water, whose freezing point will
be below --50oC (-58oF). However, due to the lower viscosity, it flows off the
wing more easily. Therefore, a 50/50 mixture of TYPE I fluids and water is
normally used.
Type II or Type IV fluids contain a least 50% by volume of either:
S Monoethylene--glycol
S Diethylene--glycol
S Monopropylene--glycol
S or a mixture of the above.
The other 50% comprises:
S inhibitors to restrict corrosion and increase the flash--point, water and
wetting agents to allow the fluid to form a uniform film over the aircraft
surfaces
S thickening agents to enable the fluid to adhere to the aircraft surfaces for
longer periods.

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De-/Anti-icing Recommendations
Aircraft performance certification is based upon that aircraft having an uncontaminated or clean structure. Ice, snow and frost (or combinations of them) will
disturb the airflow, affecting lift and drag. They also increase the aircraft weight.
The aircraft, and especially its surfaces that provide lift and stability, must be
aerodynamically clean. If they are not, safe operation is not possible.
If the fuel temperature is below freezing point and the aircraft is subject to
precipitation, clear ice may form on the wings (wing tank area), even if the
outside temperature is as high as 15oC (59oF). An aircraft that is ready for flight
must not have ice, snow, slush or frost adhering to its critical flight surfaces
(wings, vertical and horizontal stabilizers and rudder).

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Figure 304

Anti Icing 3

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TWO EXAMPLES OF ANTI--ICING CODES ARE GIVEN IN THE


FIGURE OPPOSITE.

THE TIME REFERRED TO IN THE ANTI--ICING CODES MUST BE


THE STARTING TIME OF THE ANTI--ICING PROCEDURE.

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The Anti--Icing Code


It is important that the flight crew get clear and precise information from persons who have carried out any de--/anti--icing procedures. In order to improve
the quality of communication between the de--/anti--icing team and the flight
crew, it is recommended that an anti--icing code be used.
This will enable the flight crew to assess the Holdover Time.
This code must contain the following information :
S Type of fluid
S Percentage of fluid to water (for Type II and Type IV fluids only)
S Time de--/anti--icing application began (preferably local time).

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Time of Protection
The time of protection will be shorter in very bad weather conditions. High wind
speeds and jet blast can cause damage to the protective film.
If these conditions occur, the time of protection will be much shorter.
The time of protection can also be much shorter if the wing temperature is
lower than the OAT.
Because conditions are not always the same, a pre--take--off inspection is
necessary when you use the times given in the tables.
These procedures prevent the formation of ice in some zones (wings, vertical
and horizontal stabilizers, rudder) and make easier for the removal of snow
from the the aircraft.

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Holdover Times
Holdover times are the estimated times that the applied anti--icing fluid will
prevent the formation of frost, ice and the accumulation of snow on the protected surfaces of an aircraft.
When applying first-step de/anti--icing process, the holdover time is from the
start of the de/anti--icing application.
When applying second-step de/anti--icing process, the holdover time is from
the start of the anti--icing application.
The holdover times given are for general information only. The indicated time of
protection may be shortened :
S In severe weather
S In high winds and jet blasts
S By the age and condition of the fluid
S By the method of application.

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Figure 305

ISO Type I / 16.43 UTC

Anti-Icing Codes

Type of fluid used

Universal coordinated time of start application

Type of fluid used

% of fluid/water by vol: 75% fluid / 25% water

Local time of start of the application

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AEA Type II / 75/ 16.43 local

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AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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Pneumatic Ground Supplies


On some aircraft this would be taken as the supply of compressed gas for the
charging of gas bottles, oleos etc. On other aircraft the term pneumatics
would mean the supply air for cabin air conditioning/ pressurisation -- usually for
the jet engine to the air conditioning packs.
When dealing with compressed gas from pressurised transportation gas bottles
always check the following:
Check transportation bottles are within test date.
Ensure that the correct gas is used -- air -- nitrogen etc (check AMM).
Ensure system is serviceable to charge.
Charge slowly.
When using an adapter gauge always ensure that the pressure readings from
the various gauges -- charging bottles, adapter, aircraft -- all read the correct
reading. Stop the charging if readings do no correlate, and investigate the
reasons why.
Ensure that adapter gauge is within test date.
Allow pressure to stabilise after charging.
Check any pressure/temperature graphs.
Fit all blanks.
Supplies for cabin pressurisation air usually come from an engine driven
ground supply trolley/ cart. The duct connection must be clean and the system
must be checked that it is not pressurised before connection is made. The
system must also be checked that it is serviceable before air supply
commences.

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IR PART 66

Page: 621

Electrical Ground Supplies


For dc supplies a set of batteries mounted on a trolley or an engine driven dc
generator may be used. The master switch on the trolley is off before
connection is made. The aircraft services switches are either off or their
position corresponds with the service selection -- ie flaps up, selector switch up.
The AMM is consulted before power is applied.
The power supply plug (and the aircraft socket) may vary in design. The plug
consists of three pins, handed so it cannot be fitted to the aircraft the wrong
way round. The centre large pin is the main supply pin, the other large pin is an
earth/ground pin. The small pin is a relay control pin. When plugged in and the
master switch on, it supplies a small current to operate a relay on the aircraft
which switches out the aircraft battery supply and switches in the external
supply (centre pin) to the dc bus bars. It also causes a cockpit indicator to
show that external power is on.
When the external master switch is switched off the relay resets, external
power is switched off and internal power (batteries) are switched onto the
busbars.
For ac supplies an engine driven ground cart is used. The power supply socket
usually contains 6 pins, handed, so fitment to the aircraft can only be made in
the correct orientation.
Three large pins are for the supply of the 3 phases, with the forth large pin
being a ground/earth connection. The two small pins are dc control pins which
operate relays on the aircraft to switch in/out the external power supply. There
are two power supply connections -- the primary and the secondary. The

The air supply cart should have a certificate of serviceability both in relation to
its motive power, exhaust emission, and quality and rate of air supply.
When operating the unit ensure:
A fire extinguisher is available.
It is placed as far away from the aircraft as possible consistent with the ability
to connect the supply hose.
Its air supply rate is within the parameters laid down in the AMM (pressure and
supply rate).
When disconnecting ensure that the pressure is released.
The aircraft is configured to accept the supply and the pneumatic system is
serviceable.

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Introduction
From time to time, most large aircraft require some form of auxiliary power to
start the engines, provide electricity while the aircraft is on the ground, or
provide cabin heating or cooling. For this reason, various types of ground
power units (GPUs) are available for supplying power when the engines are not
running.
Some GPUs are mobile units that are driven to the aircraft while others are
pulled behind a tug. Some newer airports have power and air outlets built into
the tarmac.

GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT

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primary is to be used first with the secondary being connected if more power is
required. On many aircraft there is only one external power connection.The
panel shows the connection status of the supplies together with support
strapping for the (heavy) power supply cable. In general, power supply panels
have the following equipment/ indications:
S 3 external ac power circuit breakers.
S dc control circuit breakers.
S Power connected/power ON lights.
S Panel illumination lights.
S Interphone socket.
S Pilots call button.
S
To connect power:
S Check the AMM.
S Ensure all switches are off or set to the position of the service to which they
relate.
S Check that supply cart engine is running correctly and voltage and
frequencies are correct. The same precautions apply here as for any
internal combustion engine powered equipment running in the vicinity of
aircraft.
S Insert ground power plug and support using restraining straps.
S Turn power on at the supply.
S Check power available lights come on, on the aircraft panel. If they do not
then supply voltage or frequency may be a problem.
S If power available lights are on, press ground service power switch on
panel to apply power to the aircraft ground service busbar. Note indications.
S Press the primary power switch to apply power to the aircraft power supply
bus bars. Note indications.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 622

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AC Supply Socket

DC and 3 Phase Connectors

Connect together

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Electrical Servicing/Starting Trolley


Figure 306
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Power On
Indicators

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Control Panel

Obstruction
Warning Lamps

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Page: 623

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M7.17 (Cat A)

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Page: 624

Operate clutch to engage pump -- note that no services move. If they do, either
dis--engage the pump or check whether they are supposed to move and are
prepared for it (AMM).
Check pressure gauges, low pressure warning lamps etc in the flight deck.
After all testing is completed and the landing gear is locked down with 3
greens the clutch can be dis--engaged and the rig shut down.
Using a C spanner or special tool undo the self--seal couplings.
No fluid should leak, but if it does then ensure the self seal coupling seals
correctly and the leak stops, fit the blank and check the level of the reservoir.

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Hydraulic Ground Supplies


The term hydraulic ground supplies could include refill connections, system
selector valves etc, but these paragraphs will concentrate on the supply of
external hydraulic power.
The hydraulic system may require the use of more that one external power test
rig/cart -- check the AMM.
The test rig/ cart is usually powered by an internal combustion engine and
should meet the safety requirements applicable to all these type of engines
when operating in the vicinity of aircraft.
The test rig must be fitted with the same type of pump that is fitted to the
aircraft -- or as specified in the AMM. The rig must be run at the rpm as
specified on the rig instruction panel to meet the pressure and volume flow rate
requirements as required by the aircraft.
The test rig should be checked to see if it contains the correct hydraulic fluid -normally marked on a plate fixed to the rig -- if it doesnt, get a rig that does. It
is connected to the aircraft using hoses with self--seal quick release
connections. They are sized so that the hoses cannot be cross--connected:
For 2 hose connections. Large = suction line. Small = pressure line.
For 3 hose connections. Large = suction line. Medium = pressure line Small =
idling line.
Check the following when connecting/ disconnecting hydraulic power:
Check the AMM.
Carry out the normal safety precautions in relation to the running
of an internal combustion engine in the vicinity of aircraft.
Check that the hydraulic system and all associated systems are serviceable
and ready to be tested (fluid levels, accumulator gas pressures, completeness
etc).
If the landing gear is to be tested the aircraft should be on jacks
and suitably trestled/ shored.
Check flight deck selectors correspond with actual position of systems.
Have electrical power on.
Connect hydraulic hoses.
Start hydraulic test rig -- adjust to correct rpm -- allow to warm--up.

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AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

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M7.18A TYPES OF DEFECT AND VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES/ CORROSION REMOVAL


ASSESMENT AND REPROTECTION

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
INSPECTION, DISASSEMBLY, REPAIR
AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

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IF A COMPONENT IS SUSPECTED OF SUFFERING FROM INTERGRANNULAR CORROSION, THEN IT MUST BE REPLACED.

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Metal Fatigue
Metal fatigue can be briefly described as a weakening of a metal part under
repeated applications of a cycle of stress. The weakening effect can be seriously accelerated by corrosion of the metal. In the early stages, fatigue damage is difficult to detect by visual inspection and the method of non--destructive
examination is usually specified (the method used depending on the type of
structure and material concerned).

NOTE:

Corrosion
Corrosion comprises many types such as crevice, intergrannular and filliform.
Corrosion can generally be said to be the process whereby a material, through
Electro-Chemical action, oxidises to form salts or powders.
The presence of corrosion in aircraft structures is liable to result in conditions
which may lead to catastrophic failures. It is therefore essential that any corrosive attack is detected and rectified in the earliest stages of its development.
By the nature of their operation, aircraft are exposed to frequent changes of
atmospheric temperature and pressure and to varying conditions of relative
humidity; therefore, all parts of the structure are subject to some form of condensation. The resultant water takes into solution a number of corrosive agents
from the atmosphere or from spillages (which convert the water into a weak
acid) and will corrode most metal surfaces where the protective treatment has
been damaged or is inadequate. Cases of serious corrosion have been found
in both closed and exposed parts of structures of aircraft operated under a
wide variety of conditions.

Introduction
This section gives general guidance on the inspection of those parts of a metal
aircraft structure which, because of their remoteness, complexity or boxed--in
design, are not readily accessible for routine maintenance or require special
attention in the light of operational experience.
Deterioration may arise from various causes and can affect various parts of the
structure according to the design of the aircraft and the uses to which it is put.
Essentially, the main types of defects being inspected for are corrosion and
metal fatigue.

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Cleanliness
It is important that aircraft should be thoroughly cleaned periodically. Care
should be taken not to damage protective treatments when using scrubbing
brushes or scrapers. Any cleaning fluids used should have been approved by
the aircraft constructor. For final cleaning of a boxed--in type of structure an
efficient vacuum cleaner, provided with rubber--protected adaptors to prevent
damage, should be used. The use of air jets should be avoided as this may
lead to dirt, the products of corrosion, or loose articles, being blown from one
part of the structure to another.

In the majority of cases the presence of fatigue damage is revealed by the


formation of a small hairline crack or cracks. Those parts of a structure where
fatigue damage may occur are determined by design calculations and tests
based on the expected operational use of the aircraft and substantiated by operational experience.
At the periods specified in the appropriate publications, examination or renewal
of the parts will be required. These periods are usually in terms of flying time or
the number of landings, or from readings logged by load recording instruments.
With certain materials and structures, renewal or sampling checks may be required on a calendar basis.
It is important to note that some parts of a structure may be liable to fatigue
damage resulting from unforeseen causes, e.g. parts damaged or strained on
assembly, invisible damage to the structure during assembly or maintenance
work, or fretting. When carrying out inspections it is important to check carefully for any signs of cracks emanating from points of stress concentration such
as bolt--holes, rivets, sharp changes in section, notches, dents, sharp comers,
etc.
Fatigue damage can also be caused by pits and notches created by corrosion,
although the corrosion may no longer be active. During the application of repeated stress cycles, crevices can be opened up and may eventually result in a
fatigue failure.
NOTE: Poor fitting or malassembly can reduce fatigue life considerably. A spar
has been known to fail under tests at a fraction of its normal life as a result of
the stress concentration caused by a tool mark in a bolt--hole. Defects such as
a burr on a bolt can cause a scratch inside the bolt--hole, which can seriously
accelerate fatigue damage in a stressed member.

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INSPECTION OF METAL AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

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Crack emanating
from lightning strike

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Figure 307

Crevice corrosion

Defect Examples

Exfoliation or layer corrosion

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Stress cracking

Intergranular corrosion

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General
The structure should be examined for any signs of distortion or movement between its different parts at their attachment points, for loose or sheared fasteners (which may sometimes remain in position) and for signs of rubbing or
wear in the vicinity of moving parts, flexible pipes, etc.
NOTES
1. A wing structure has been known to have had a rib sheared at its spar attachments due to the accidental application of an excessive load, without
any external evidence of damage, because the skin returned to its original
contour after removal of the load.
2. (For the inspection of bolted joints) The protective treatment should be
examined for condition. On light alloys a check should be made for any
traces of corrosion, marked discolouration or a scaly, blistered or cracked
appearance. If any of these conditions is apparent the protective treatment
in the area concerned should be carefully removed and the bare metal
examined for any traces of corrosion or cracks. If the metal is found satisfactory, the protective treatment should be restored.
NOTE: To assist in the protection of structures against corrosion some constructors may attach calcium chromate and/or strontium chromate sachets
to the vulnerable parts of the structure. The presence of chromate in the
sachets can be checked by feel during inspection. After handling these materials, the special precautions, e.g. hand washing, given in the constructors manual, should be followed.
3. In most cases where corrosion is detected in its early stages, corrective
treatment will permit the continued use of the part concerned. However,
where the strength of the part may have been reduced beyond the design
value, repair or replacement may be necessary. Where doubt exists regard-

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Visual Examination
Nearly all the inspection operations on aircraft structures are carried out visually and, because of the complexity of many structures, special visual aids are
necessary to enable such inspections to be made. Visual aids vary from the
familiar torch and mirrors to complex instruments based on optical principles
and, provided the correct instrument is used, it is possible to examine almost
any part of the structure.
NOTE: Airworthiness Requirements normally prescribe that adequate means
shall be provided to permit the examination and maintenance of such parts of
the aeroplane as require periodic inspection.
In order that the necessary repair procedures can be determined, the type and
extent of damage must be properly and thoroughly investigated.
To determine the damage category, the suspected or affected area must be
prepared by removing any foreign matter deposits from the component surface,
cutting out any broken, bent, heated, burnt or otherwise obviously damaged
areas of the component and removing loose rivets where apparent.
S In addition to the damaged or affected area itself, any adjacent attachment
points and/ or connections, through which abnormal loads may have been
transmitted, must be fully investigated.
S If misalignment or twisting of the airplane structure is suspected, alignment
and/ or levelling checks must be carried out.

ing the permissible extent of corrosion, the manufacturer should be consulted.


4. The edges of faying surfaces should receive special attention; careful probing of the joint edge with a pointed instrument may reveal the products of
corrosion which are concealed by paint. In some instances slight undulations or bumps between the rivets or spot welds, or quilting in areas of
double skins due to pressure from the products of corrosion, will indicate an
advanced state of deterioration. In some cases this condition can be seen
by an examination of the external surface, but dismantling of parts of the
structure to verify the condition of the joints may be required.
NOTE: To avoid damage to the structure, the probing of a joint with a
pointed instrument should be carried out with discretion by an experienced
person. Any damage done to the protective paint coating, however small,
should be made good.

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Inspection Techniques
The structure should be maintained in a clean condition and a careful check
should be made for any signs of dust, dirt or any extraneous matter, especially
in the more remote or blind parts of the structure. Loose articles such as
rivets, metal particles, etc., trapped during construction or repair, may be found
after the aircraft has been in operation for some considerable time. It is important to examine these loose articles to ensure that they did not result from damaged structure. It is generally easy to determine if a loose article has formed
part of the structure by its condition, e.g. an unformed rivet could be considered
as a loose article, but a rivet which had been formed would be indicative of a
failure.

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Figure 308

Visual Examination

Mk 1 Eyeball

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Endoscopes
An endoscope (also known as an introscope, boroscope or fibrescope, depending on the type and the manufacturer) is an optical instrument used for the inspection of the interior of structure or components. Turbine engines, in particular, are often designed with plugs at suitable locations in the casings, which can
be removed to permit insertion of an endoscope and examination of the interior
parts of the engine.
In addition, some endoscopes are so designed that photographs can be taken
of the area under inspection, by attaching a camera to the eyepiece; this is
useful for comparison and record purposes.
One type of endoscope comprises an optical system in the form of lenses and
prisms, fitted in a rigid metal tube. At one end of the tube is an eyepiece,
usually with a focal adjustment, and at the other end is the objective head containing a lamp and a prism. Depending on the design and purpose of the instrument a variety of objective heads can be used to permit viewing in different
directions.
The electrical supply for the lamp is connected near the eyepiece and is normally supplied from a battery or mains transformer.
These instruments are available in a variety of diameters from approximately
6mm and are often made in sections which can be joined to make any length
required.
Right--angled instruments based on the periscope principle are also available
for use where the observer cannot be in direct line with the part to be examined.
A second type of endoscope uses cold light; that is, light provided by a remote
light source box and transmitted through a flexible fibre light guide cable to the
eyepiece and thence through a fibre bundle surrounding the optical system to
the objective head. This type provides bright illumination to the inspection area,
without the danger of heat or electrical sparking and is particularly useful in
sensitive or hazardous areas.
A third type of endoscope uses a flexible fibre optical system, thus enabling
inspection of areas which are not in line with the access point.

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Dioptre ring

May 2004

Focusing ring

Eyepiece lens

Light
guide
Protective
sheath

Control handles for


4--way tip articulation

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Typical Endoscope
Application

Flame
Tube

Igniter plug
hole

Fibre optic cable


from light box

Focus control

Light guide exit

Burner

Endoscope

Projection lamp

Objective lens

Interchangeable tips

Figure 309

Image guide

Operating
handle

Eyepiece

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Combustion
chamber

Nozzle guide vanes

By-Pass
Duct

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Magnifying Glass
The magnifying glass is a most useful instrument for removing uncertainty regarding a suspected defect revealed by eye, for example, where there is doubt
regarding the presence of a crack or corrosion. Instruments vary in design from
the small simple pocket type to the stereoscopic type with a magnification of
20x. For viewing inside structures, a hand instrument with 8x magnification and
its own light source is often used.
Magnification of more than 8x should not be used unless specified. A toopowerful magnification will result in concentrated viewing of a particular spot
and will not reveal the surrounding area. Magnification of more than 8x may be
used, however, to re--examine a suspected defect which has been revealed by
a lower magnification.

Inspection Mirrors
Probably the most familiar aid to the inspection of aircraft structures is a small
mirror mounted at one end of a rod or stem, the other end forming a handle.
Such a mirror should be mounted by means of a universal joint so that it can be
positioned at various angles, thus enabling a full view to be obtained behind
flanges, brackets, etc.
A useful refinement of this type of mirror is where the angle can be adjusted by
remote means, e.g. control of the mirror angle by a rack and pinion mechanism
inside the stem, with the operating knob by the side of the handle, thus permitting a range of angles to be obtained after insertion of the instrument into the
structure.
Mirrors are also made with their own source of light mounted in a shroud on the
stem and are designed so as to avoid dazzle. These instruments are often of
the magnifying type, the magnification most commonly used being 2x.

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When using any form of magnifier it is most important to ensure that the surface to be examined is sufficiently illuminated.

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Light Probes
It is obvious that good lighting is essential for all visual examinations and
special light probes are often used. For small boxed--in structures or the interior
of hollow parts such as the bores of tubes, special light probes (fitted with
miniature lamps) are needed. Current is supplied to the lamp through the stem
of the probe from a battery housed in the handle of the probe.
These small probes are made in a large variety of dimensions, from 5mm diameter with stem lengths from 50mm upwards.
Probes are often fitted with a magnifying lens and attachments for fitting an
angled mirror. Such accessories as a recovery hook and a recovery magnet
may also form part of the equipment.

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Lamp

Typical Light Probe

Light probe

Sleeve with elliptical mirror

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Figure 310

Battery handle

Magnifying lens

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ALLOWABLE DOES NOT MEAN THAT REPAIR IS UNNECESSARY.


FOR EXAMPLE, SCRATCHES AND BURRING ARE INCLUDED IN
THIS CATEGORY, AND IT IS NECESSARY TO REMOVE ROUGH
AND SHARP EDGES AND SMOOTH OUT THE DAMAGE.
ADDITIONALLY, ANY DAMAGE TO SURFACE COATINGS AND/
OR PROTECTIVE TREATMENT MUST BE REPAIRED USING AM

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Allowable Damage
Allowable damage is defined as damage which is slight or of little significance,
and is unlikely to be of sufficient severity to propagate further damage in the
immediate vicinity.

The damage must be classified either as Allowable Damage or Non-Allowable Damage (requiring a repair).

REPAIRABLE DAMAGE

Examination of damage
In order to facilitate the correct repair, once damage has been found, the full
extent and category of the damage must be determined. After cleaning and
investigating the damage and surrounding area, it can be classified into one of
the following categories (taking into account the location of the damage).
It is also important to consider what secondary damage may have occured to
the structure when carrying out an inspection of the damaged area. This is particularly important when the damage has been caused by shock to the structure, and the load path from the point of impact may be some distance away
from the observed damage.

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Non-repairable Damage
Non-repairable damage is defined as damage to structural components which
cannot be repaired and where replacement of the complete component is recommended as a repair is not practical or economical.

Non-Allowable Damage
Damage which exceeds the Allowable Damage limits must be repaired by
removing the damaged area of a structural component and inserting or attaching a reinforcing piece. These specific repairs are to be found in each chapter
of the SRM.

APPROVED PROCEDURE DEALT WITH UNDER SRM CHAPTER


51.

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General
The term damage refers to any permanent deformation or alteration of the
cross section of a structural component. Their are four general groups of action
that may cause damage, they are:
S Mechanical action
S Chemical action
S Thermal action
S Inherent metallic properties

DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION

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Distortion
S Any twisting, bending or permanent strain which results in misalignment or
change of shape. May be caused by impact from a foreign object, but
usually results from vibration or movement of adjacent attached components. This group includes bending, buckling, deformation, imbalance, misalignment, pinching and twisting.

Dent
S A dent is normally a damage area which is depressed with respect to its
normal contour. There is no cross sectional area change in the material;
area boundaries are smooth.

Crack
S A crack is a partial fracture or complete break in the material with the most
significant cross-sectional area change.

Gouge
S A gouge is a damage area of any size which results in a cross--sectional
area change. It is usually caused by contact with a relatively sharp object
which produces a continuous, sharp or smooth channel-like groove in the
material.

Scratch
S A scratch is a line of damage of any depth and length in the material and
results in a cross-sectional area change. It is usually caused by contact with
a very sharp object.

Mark
S A mark is to be understood as a damage area of any size where an accumulation of scratches, nicks, chips, burrs or gouges etc is present in such a
way that the damage must be treated as an area and not as a series of individual scratches, gouges etc.

General
In order to facilitate the classification of different repair procedures, the various
types of damage are grouped as follows:

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

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Dent

Scratch

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Figure 311

Types of Structural Damage 1

Distortion

Gouge

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Crease

Crack

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Burn Marks (Lightning Strikes)


S Burn marks/ lightning strikes are usually spot formed welded damages with
discoloration of the material.

Hole
S A hole constitutes a complete penetration of the surface. It is usually
caused by impact of a sharp object.

Delamination/ Debonding
S Delamination or debonding is the separation of a laminate into its constituent layers.

Crazing
S A mesh of minute hairline surface cracks.

Nick
S A small loss of material, due to a knock etc at the edge of a member or
skin.

Abrasion
S An abrasion is a damage area of any size which results in a cross-sectional
area change due to scuffing, rubbing, scraping or other surface erosion; it is
usually rough and irregular.

Crease
S A damage area which is depressed or folded back upon itself in such a
manner that its boundaries are sharp or well defined lines or ridges.

Corrosion
S The destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action.

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE (CONTINUED)

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Debonding (Stringer)

Delamination

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Figure 312

Types of Structural Damage 2

Hole

Abrasion

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Burn Marks

Nick

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Visual Inspection
The following list details some of the equipment to help do a visual inspection
for corrosion:
S magnifying glass,
S mirrors,
S borescope, fiber optics,
S other equivalent equipment.

Inspection
Corrosion can be found by the following methods:
S visual inspection,
S dye penetrant inspection,
S ultrasonic inspection,
S eddy current inspection,
S X--ray inspection.
The applicable procedures are given in the Nondestructive Testing Manual
(NTM).

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Appearance
When inspecting a painted surface, corrosion is usally seen as:
S a scaly or blistered surface,
S a change of colour,
S blisters in the paint.
When there is corrosion on a metallic surface you will usually see a dulled or
darkened area and a pitted surface. White, grey or red dust or particles may
also be observed.

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Introduction
The early identification and removal of corrosion will help to maintain the serviceability, safety and function of the aircraft. This is only possible if the inspection for corrosion is done regularly and precisely.
All corrosion found must be immediately and completely removed. This is essential because corrosion which remains will cause new corrosion and further
decrease the strength of the structure.
After the corrosion is completely removed the extent of the damage must be
examined and compared with the allowable damage limits (Chapter 51--11--00
of the AMM).
Ensure that the repair area is given the correct surface protection to prevent
further corrosion (Chapter 51--21--00).

CORROSION REMOVAL

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Preparation
1. Before starting to remove corrosion, protect all adjacent areas/equipment
against the effect of chemical strippers, cleaning agents and surface treatment materials. Use suitable masking paper and tape.
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS ARE DANGEROUS.
2. Remove all dirt, grease and other foreign matter from the affected area with
cleaning agent.
NOTE: Do not use cleaning agent (Material No. 11--004) on titanium parts located within high temperature areas (above 150oC (300oF)).
3. Two methods of paint removal are possible; mechanical and chemical.
4. Where the corrosion is light and contained within a small area, use the
mechanical method. Where the corrosion is heavy and covers a large area,
the use of paint strippers is recommended.
5. Any fasteners located within the area of corrosion and affected by the corrosion must be removed to prevent cross contamination between dissimilar
metals whilst the corrosion is being removed. Removal of the fasteners will
also permit a check for corrosion in the bore of the fastener holes.

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1. All areas of structural items or parts that are affected by corrosion are to be
treated immediately.
NOTE: It is advisable to make an initial assessment of the extent of the corrosion. It may be less costly (Man--hours and/or materials), to make a repair
than proceeding with the steps that follow.
2. In order to determine the extent of the damaged area, all corrosion must
first be removed. Removal of corrosion should be done by trained personel.
Refer to the applicable Chapter 52 - 57 to determine the type of repair if
required.
3. Ensure that all corrosion is completeiy removed before starting a repair.
Minor residues of corrosion can act as a starting point for further corrosion.
4. The following are a series of steps as a guide to corrosion removal. Depending on the situation not all steps will be applicable:
S clean the corroded area,
S remove paint from the corroded area,
S further cleaning of the area,
S removal of corrosion,
Check for complete removal of corrosion. If corrosion is still present, proceed
with the above work step removal of corrosion,
S blending out of affected area,
S check of allowable damage and repair if required,
S final cleaning,
S surface treatment.
NOTE: In case of installed fasteners in the area of corrosion, it is necessary to
remove all fasteners before starting with the removal procedure (refer to
Chapter 51--42--00).
5. Refer to Chapter 51--22--00 for information on the various types of corrosion and methods available for preventing corrosion.
6. Peening the surface after corrosion removal.
S For areas up to 10000 mm2 (15.50 in2) peening is recommended but not
required.
S For areas > than 10000 mm2 (15.50 in2) but < than 19000 mm2 (29.45 in2),
flap peen (Refer to Chapter 51--29--11) or shot peen with steel balls.
S For areas > 19000 mm2 (29.45 in2) shot peen with steel balls.

CORROSION REMOVAL (CONTD)

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Commercial mushroom sanding pad with aluminium


oxide abrasive discs of various grades.
Diameters approx 25mm, 50mm or 75mm.

Commercial Spirapoint cones with adaptor cone.

Corrosion Removal Tools

Commercial flexible sanding wheel,


aluminium oxide abrasive Grade 80.

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Figure 313

Commercial rotary files of


ball and conical shape.

Commercial drum sander with aluminium oxide abrasive


sleeves of various grades, lengths and diameters.

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Rotary Files
The use of a rotary file or hand scraper is necessary when the corrosion is
heavy. Rotary files are suitable for use on aluninium and steel alloys.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MANDATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN ROTARY FILES.
2. Remove corrosion as necessary using a rotary file.
3. Using fine abrasive paper, polish the surface to a standard suitable for final
treatment.
Abrasive Blasting
NOTE: Abrasive blasting is not recommended for use internally.
Abrasive blasting is a widely used method of cleaning or finishing metal surfaces. In this procedure the metal surface is bombarded with a stream of abrasive particles. It is also a quick method of removing filiform corrosion and
scale from metal surfaces. Suitable portable abrasive blasters are available.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MANDATORY WHEN USING ABRASIVE BLASTING.
WARNING: AVOID INHALATION OF ABRASIVE DUST. GOOD VENTILATION
IS NECESSARY.
2. Remove the corrosion by blasting with glass beads.
NOTE: To obtain the best results, the gun nozzle should be positioned so that
the glass beads remove the corrosion in a path approximately 25mm wide.

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Corrosion Removal Techniques


Abrasion by Hand
Abrasion by hand is only suitable for areas of light corrosion. Emery cloth and
abrasive pads are the most common methods used.
Wire Brushing
S Wire brushing is a mechanical abrasive operation that can be done with
either a hand brush or motor driven brush.
S Wire brushing, as described below, is a typical procedure used to remove
heavy corrosion and embedded paint or dirt.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
2. Remove any loose corrosion with a hand scraper.
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE -SHIELD IS MANDATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN WIRE BRUSHES.
CAUTION: ONLY USE STAINLESS STEEL OR ALUMINUM OXIDE-COATED
BRUSHES.
3. Using a wire brush , remove all traces of corrosion.
Grinding
S Grinding is a procedure used to remove corrosion using motorised grinding
wheels.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous page).
WARNING: THE USE OF SAFETY GOGGLES OR A FACE SHIELD IS MANDATORY WHEN USING MOTOR-DRIVEN GRINDING WHEELS.
CAUTION: AVOID GENERATING HIGH TEMPERATURES WHEN GRINDING. THIS MAY CHANGE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL.
CAUTION: GRINDING IS NOT SUITABLE FOR USE ON ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
2. Remove corrosion by grinding until a firm corrosion free surface is
achieved. Continue grinding to remove any coarse irregularities.
3. Using fine abrasive paper, polish the surface to the desired finish.

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Figure 314

Abrasive Bead-Blasting

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Page: 645

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Neutralization
CAUTION: THIS PROCEDURE IS NOT SUITABLE FOR USE WHERE THE
NEUTRALIZING AGENT CAN GET INTO AREAS WHERE IT CANNOT BE
WASHED OFF.
CAUTION: ONLY USE NEUTRALIZING AGENT WHEN WASH PRIMER IS
TO FOLLOW.
Neutralization can be used to complete the corrosion removal where deep corrosion was found on aluminium alloys. The following is a typical neutralizing
procedure.
WARNING: NEUTRALIZING ACID Cr03 IS DANGEROUS.
1. Prepare a solution, 90g of Cr03 to 1 litre (O.198 lb to 0.2642 US gaL) of
water. Apply the solution to the area with a brush.
2. Allow the neutralizing agent to work for approximately 5 to 20 minutes.
3. Rinse off the neutralizing agent with running water, remove any brown or
yellow discolouration with a brush.
4. Dry the area with clean, lint-free cloths.

Checks for Corrosion Removal


Ensure that the corrosion has been completely removed. A x10 magnifying
glass is recommended for this check.
When a check for cracks is required, refer to the Non Destructive Testing Manual (NTM) Chapter 51--10--02, Page Block 101, and Chapter 51--60--00, Page
Block 601.
Blending of the area after corrosion removal is recommended in order to obtain
a smooth surface for the application of the final surface treatment. Blending
can be done with emery cloth or an abrasive pad.

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Corrosion Removal
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
CAUTION: DO NOT USE CARBON STEEL BRUSHES OR STEEL WOOL ON
ALUMINIUM ALLOY SURFACES. TINY DISSIMILAR METAL PARTICLES
WILL BECOME EMBEDDED IN THE ALUMINIUM ALLOY AND CAUSE
FURTHER CORROSION WITH RESULTING DAMAGE TO THE PART.
2. Remove light corrosion with the use of emery cloth (Grade 240 to 400).
CAUTION: AVOID GENERATING HIGH TEMPERATURES WHEN USING
SCRAPERS, ROTARY FILES OR STAINLESS STEEL BRUSHES. THIS MAY
CHANGE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL.
3. Remove heavy corrosion using scrapers, rotary files or stainless steel
brushes.
4. Do the Checks for Corrosion Removal and Neutralization work steps
as applicable.
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS ARE DANGEROUS.
5. Clean the area with cleaning agent.
6. Refer to the NTM, Chapter 51--10--04, Page Block 101, and establish the
remaining material thickness.
7. Refer to Chapters 52 - 57 (Page Block 101) as applicable, and establish if
further action is necessary.
8. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12.
9. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (refer to Chapter
51--23--12).

Page: 648

Corrosion Removal
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
CAUTION: HAND-HELD POWER TOOLS MUST NOT BE USED ON HIGH
STRENGTH STEEL. TO AVOID OVERHEATING, EXERCISE EXTREME
CARE WHEN REMOVING CORROSION WITH TOOLS.
2. Remove the corrosion using abrasion by hand, stainless steel brushes or
abrasive blasting.
3. Clean the area with cleaning agent.
4. Do the Checks for Corrosion Removal and Neutralization work steps
as applicable.
5. Refer to the NTM, Chapter 51--10--04, Page Block 101, and establish the
remaining material thickness.
6. Refer to Chapters 52 - 57 (Page Block 101) as applicable and establish if
further action is necessary.
7. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12.
8. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (Chapter 51--23--12).

Carbon steel in its heat-treated form is used in those areas where high structural or aerodynamic loads occur on the aircraft.
Red iron rust is one of the more familiar types of corrosion found on carbon
steel. This type of corrosion is generally caused by the formation of ferrous oxides due to atmospheric exposure. Red iron rust attracts moisture from the atmosphere which promotes additional corrosion. Red rust first shows on unprotected aircraft hardware such as bolts, nuts and exposed fittings.
Slight corrosion on highly stressed steel parts is potentially dangerous and the
rust must be removed and controlled. Corroded steel parts should be removed
from the aircraft where possible, for treatment.

Aluminum alloys are the most widely-used materials in the construction of aircraft. The most obvious sign of corrosion is a whitish deposit on the surface of
the metal, caused by chemical action. General etching, pitting or roughness of
the surface gives an indication of the early stages of corrosion. Procedures for
the removal of corrosion are as follows.

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IR PART 66

REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CARBON STEEL

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CORROSION ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

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Titanium alloys are used in various areas in the aircraft structure, especially in
high temperature areas and areas where high strength members are exposed
to a corrosive environment. Exposure of the surface of titanium to fire resistant
hydraulic fluids (Skydrol) causes hydrogen embrittlement with subsequent pitting of the surface.
Titanium alloy is generally resistant to corrosion. Corrosion however, when it
does occur is recognized as a black or white coloured oxide.
Corrosion Removal
WARNING: SMALL CHIPS OR SLIVERS OF TITANIUM THAT RESULT
FROM MACHINING CAN EASILY IGNITE, AND ARE TO BE CONSIDERED
AS AN EXTREME FIRE HAZARD. IN THE CASE OF A FIRE DEVELOPING,
EXTINGUISH WITH DRY TALCUM POWDER, CALCIUM CARBONATE,
SAND OR GRAPHITE. DO NOT USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, CARBON
TETRACHLORIDE OR ORDINARY DRY CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
2. Remove the corrosion or surface deposits by hand polishing. Use a soft
clean cloth together with aluminum polish.
3. Clean the area with cleaning agent (Material No. II--003 or 11--004).

CORROSION REMOVAL FROM TITANIUM ALLOYS

Page: 650

The following process is suitable for removing and repairing corrosion damage
to cadmium plated parts in situ.
1. Do the necessary preparation steps (previous pages).
WARNING: PARTICLES OF CADMIUM ARE DANGEROUS. WEAR CORRECT PROTECTIVE CLOTHING TO PREVENT THE INHALATION OF CADMIUM PARTICLES.
2. Remove corrosion with a dampened abrasive pad.
NOTE: All contaminated cloths and abrasive pads must be collected and
placed in polythene bags for disposal in accordance with local instructions.
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS (MATERIAL No. 11--003 AND 11--004) ARE
DANGEROUS.
3. CLean the area with cleaning agent (Material No. 11--003 or 11--004).
4. Renew the cadmium plating using the DALIC process (refer to Chapter
51--21--11, paragraph 3. A.. Alternatively, use the phosphating procedure
given in Chapter 51--21--11, paragraph 3.B..
5. Apply the appropriate surface protection as given in Chapter 51--75--12.
6. If applicable, renew any special coatings in the area (Chapter 51--23--12).

REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CADMIUM-PLATED PARTS

Stainless steel and nickel chromium alloys are used where corrosion resistance
is one of the major considerations in the design of structural parts and components. In most applications these steels will have no other surface protection
except for matching colour schemes of the surrounding structure, dissimilar
metal protection or organic coatings. Stainless steels however, are not to be
considered free from the possibility of corrosion occurring.
Corrosion on these steels usually appears as pitting, usually black in colour.
The existence of corrosion prevents a passivated environment on the surface
of the steels, and creates an active--passive corrosion cell. It is necessary
therefore, that the corrosion is removed completely.
Corrosion Removal
Use the same procedures as those given for carbon steel (refer to previous
pages).

M7.18 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

NOTE: Do not use cleaning agent (Material No. 11--004) on titanium parts located within high temperature areas (above 150 OC (300 OF).

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CORROSION REMOVAL FROM STAINLESS STEEL AND


NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOYS

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Pretreatments
Pretreatment is the initial treatment of the metal and has the following functions:
S To increase the corrosion resistant properties of the metal by chemical or
electrolytical procedures,
S To give a good surface for the adhesion of the subsequent paint coats.
One procedure that is used to prevent corrosion is to apply a thin layer of different metal. This layer has a lower electrolytical potential than the main metal. If
corrosion occurs it will remove the thin layer first. This is referred to as sacrificial corrosion prevention.
The table gives you the pretreatments which are usually used to give the maximum resistance to corrosion. For details of each treatment and its use refer to
Chapter 51--21--11.

The maximum possible corrosion protection is given to the aircraft before it is


delivered. The good corrosion resistance of the aircraft structure is the result of
the interaction of different types of corrosion protection.

TYPES OF CORROSION PROTECTION PROCEDURES

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Anodizing

Chromating

May 2004

Magnesium

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Zinc Spraying

Cadmium Plating

Silver Plating

Hard Chromium or
Nickel Plating

Phosphatisation

Cadmium
Plating

Wash-Primer

Chemical conversion
coating

Chromic or sulphuric
anodizing

Pretreatment

Titanium

CorrosionResistant
Steels

Steel
Alloys

Aluminium
Alloys

Material

Remarks

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Immerse in a bath of chromate solution

Electrolytical treatment. Decreases galvanic effects.

IR PART 66

Page: 653

M7.18 (Cat A)

Thin layer of pure zinc. Used when in contact with aluminium alloy. Decreases galvanic effects. Sacrificial
protection.

Used when in contact with aluminium alloys. Decreases galvanic effects. Sacrificial protection.

Electrolytical treatment, good resistance against fretting corrosion under hot conditions.

Electrolytical treatment to prevent contact of moisture and oxygen with the steel alloy. Highly resistant to
wear, low coefficient of friction.

Chemical treatment, application of zinc or manganese phosphates (sacrificial protection)

Electrolytic application of cadmium sacrificial protection

Usually used in field repairs

Chemical treatment (same function as anodizing)

Electrolytical treatment (surface gets an oxide coating)

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Aluminium

Oxidize

Electric

May 2004

EL OX AL

Eloxadizing
This process is comparable to anodizing but is done with sulphuric acid.

Anodizing

Acid

Chromic

CAA

M7.18 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

2/3 Diffusion into the material

Page: 654

Disadvantage
S Eloxation layers have ceramic properties - that means they are not elastic.
Parts that are subject to bending or other distortions can crack more easily
because of their eloxation layer.
Anodizing is used with all integrally milled structural components of Airbus airplanes. In addition it is used on all bonded surfaces and on the outer skin of the
fuselage. On the A300--600 and A310 airplanes almost all surface sheet metals
(as shown in the illustration) are anodized in addition to the plated coat.

When eloxadizing the natural oxide skin is thickened by chemical means.

Al - Alloy

CAA--Layer

1/3 outside of the Al-Alloy

In this case a hard and brittle layer is created, which is very resistant to wear
but cracks easily.

Anodizing

Acid

Sulphuric

SAA

Sulphuric Acid Anodizing


Since about 1987 Airbus Industries have used sulphuric acid anodization.

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Anodizing
Is an electrolytic process that physically alters the surface of the metal to produce a tough oxide layer on the surface. Anodizing is particularly suited to use
on aluminium alloys. The process uses either chromic or sulphuric acid as the
electrolyte
This treatment is called CAA by the manufacturers.

PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SURFACES

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THE FOLLOWING SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS HAVE TO BE OBSERVED WHEN USING SOLUTIONS, CLEANERS, CORROSIVES,
ADHESIVES, CHROMIUM TREATMENT AND PAINTS:
S Do not inhale the fumes for a long time. Do not use the above-mentioned
materials in small rooms without sufficient ventilation.
S Avoid contact of these materials with your skin. Rubber or plastic gloves
must be worn when working with solutions, cleaning agents, corrosives,
etching mediums, and CCC material (Alodine and Iridite).
Chemical treatment of the surface is used when anodic oxidation (eloxation) is
not possible or not advisable.
The protective covers that are created present a good contact area for paint
and improve chemical continuity.
A number of methods exist for chemical treatment. In recent years, acidic surface treatments without electrical current have been introduced for aluminium
and aluminium alloys. These are procedures for chromium or phosphate plating. the corrosion protection is not quite as high as with the eloxation process,
but much more economical.
Chromium and phosphate plating procedures differ in the kind and strength of
the created layers.

NOTE:

M7.18 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 655

When chromium plating the thickness of the layers is not more than 0.001mm.
Phosphate plating layers can reach a thickness of up to 0.003mm.
In the maintenance manuals, standard processes manuals and structural repair
manuals you will find notes for the application of these surface protection procedures.

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Chemical Conversion Coating (CCC)


Alodine 1000 is used by the airplane manufacturer for coating plated aluminium. Lufthansa has replaced Alodine 1000 by Iridite 14E or Alodine 1200, because the protection provided by Alodine 1000 is insufficient.
By chemical conversion coating the surface is roughened which provides a
good contact for paint coatings. Also, an aluminium-chromium-oxide cover is
formed which is up to 0.001mm thick and provides for a certain corrosion
protection even without paint coating. This coating is insoluble by water and
organic solutions and can endure minor deformation without cracking. Cutting
edges, bores and worked out scratches are chemical conversion coated with
Iridite 14E or Alodine 1200.
Components that are subjected to operating temperatures of more than
70oC should not be treated with CCC because the adhering property of
the coating will decrease.
In case of larger areas the paint is applied at Lufthansa without CCC, but the
first layer of paint (washprimer) also effects a chemical surface treatment and
provides, together with the following layers, a good corrosion protection.

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IR PART 66

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M7.18 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Page: 657

Boeing
Boeing use a two-layer system.
These layers are applied to the completely pretreated sheet metal surfaces.
The first layer is applied to the chromium-treated or anodized sheet metal surface.

Airbus
The following three layers comprise the paint system for the Airbus outer fuselage skin:
S Wash Primer (for cohesion): a passivating cohesion primer on a Polyvinylacetate base (PVA).
S Paint Primer (Intermediate Primer): a Polyurethane lacquer with corrosion
inhibitors like zinc-chromate or strontium-chromate, fully cured, and
S Coating Lacquer: a Polyurethane topcoat.

Technical paint finishes in airplane construction are usually multi-layer paint


systems.

PAINT FINISHES IN THE AREA OF THE CABIN/FUSELAGE


OUTER SKIN

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All coatings that are manually painted or sprayed on components are called
paint finishes.
We talk about a paint finish when the applied substance builds a layer whose
thickness can be measured after drying.
Another property of a paint finish is that the paint can be removed with corrosives or by any other means in case of repair. A paint system is the complete
build up of all layers of a paint finish.
The build-up of consecutive individual layers is carried out by following precise
working instructions which are established in close cooperation with the paint
manufacturers and the paint shops.
In the course of the production of a certain aircraft type over many years,
modifications to the surface preparatory treatment, the composition of primers
and coating lacquer are common.
A paint system that has been specified by the respective authorities is principally applicable to all aircraft types. The layers consist of type-approved specified products.

PAINT FINISHES

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2024 or 2024 CLAD


7075 or 7075 CLAD

May 2004

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Figure 315

2024 or 2024 CLAD


7075 or 7075 CLAD

Airbus Three-Layer System

M7.18 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

Pretreatment: CCC (Chemical Conversion Coating)

Different Paint Systems


Page: 658

Primer: Polyurethane-based or Epoxy Primer (BMS 10--11 or BMS 10--79)

Topcoat: Polyurethane lacquer or Desmophen-Desmodur (DD) (BMS 10--72)

Boeing Two-Layer System

Pretreatment: CAA (Chromic Acid Anodized) or


CCC (Chemical Conversion Coating)

Wash Primer: FCR (Filiform Corrosion Resistant)

Primer: Polyurethane-based or Epoxy Primer

Topcoat: Polyurethane lacquer or Desmophen-Desmodur (DD)

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Types of Surface Protection Repairs


1. Fixing. Fixing means the cleaning and maintenance of the existing paint
finish. It includes the repair of small imperfections as long as they can be
carried out with a paintbrush and appear to be optically justifiable.
2. Partial or Total Renewal. This requires that the existing paint finish is solid
in structure and has a satisfactory adhesion. Partial or total renewal means
a paint finish that is aged or damaged is partially or totally sanded and repainted (depending on analysis test).
3. Basic Renewal. Heavily-aged paint finishes with cracks, poor cohesion, dissolved by Skydrol or visible corrosion of the metal have to be completely
removed. A basic renewal includes paint removal, corrosion inhibition if required and the build up of the complete paint system.

Purpose
There are two main reasons for paint finishes on airplanes and airplane parts:
S a pleasant finish to the outside airplane surface, and
S The protection of the cabin, the structure and parts against corrosion, erosion, mechanical damage etc.
Only approved paint finishes can satisfy these requirements.
The wear of paint finishes in operation varies strongly from aircraft to aircraft. It
depends on the area of operation, long or short haul distances etc.
Apart from the normal ageing process, mechanical and chemical stresses and
maintenance occurrences affect paint deterioration. Because of this, it is not
laid down how and when the overhaul and renewal of the paint finish should
take place. Usually the person responsible for the analysis test will determine
the extent of the repair, taking into account whether there are any special requests (such as paint removal for crack testing or colour change etc).
Paint finish has to be checked for general condition; that means surface polish,
brittleness, cracks, colour change, satisfactory adhesion, separation due to
chemicals, etc. It has to be checked very carefully to make sure there is no corrosion below the finish. If in doubt, small test areas have to be removed.
When checking paint finish, the type of future stresses and duration till the next
overhaul have to be taken into consideration.

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Page: 659

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Figure 316

Paint Build-Up

Aluminium Alloy

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Wash Primer
FCR

Intermediate Primer

Polyurethane
Topcoat

Page: 660

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IF THE MINIMUM CURE TIME IS NOT OBSERVED BEFORE


THE NEXT COAT, CORROSION PROTECTION AND ADHESION WILL BE IMPAIRED.
In cases of humidity higher than 75% or temperatures below 15oC, the use of
FCR primer is not recommended.
If its use cannot be avoided, a decrease in adhesion and corrosion protection
will result and the curing time will be increased.
Coating lacquer must not be applied directly to the FCR primer. It must also not
be used as the only corrosion protection.
It is always necessary to subsequently apply Aerodur S15/90 or CF Primer
37047.
Wash Primer FCR must not be applied to steels with a breaking strength of
more than 180 KSI (1240 N/mm2 ). In these cases Epoxy Primer is used.
When using alternative products it is important to ensure that the primer is
compatible with the component to be coated (if in doubt consult the manufacturer or refer to the current specification sheets). Not observing this can lead to
loss of airworthiness.

CAUTION:

Wash-Primer FCR (Filiform Corrosion Resistant)


The FCR primer consists of phosphoric acid parts (which chemically react with
aluminium) and zinc-chromate pigments (which act as moisture inhibitors).
The primer is not to be used as a one-layer primer but must be covered with a
paint or intermediate primer layer.
In the interior structure the FCR primer acts as corrosion protection for the
sheet metal parts.
On the outer surface the FCR primer acts primarily as adhesion contact.
The FCR primer improves the adhesion of the three-layer paint system on the
prepared, corrosion-protected sheet metals, which have been plated, chromeplated, or anodized with chromatic acid.
The pot time is 8 hours at 20oC.
Depending on the humidity and temperature the curing time is between 2 and 8
hours.
The thickness of the layers should be between 0.08 and 0.012mm (equivalent
to one cross-coat).

PRIMER

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2.5

1.5

1.75

2.25

Figure 317

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Time

Temperature

20

25

Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer I

15

Curing at 45 - 75 %
Humidity

Curing at 30 - 35 %
Humidity

Curing Time

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Cure Times
S Dry so that dust will not cling after 30 minutes.
S Can be sprayed over after a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 72 hours. After that it has to be sanded.
Depth hardening after about 4 hours (can be shortened by heating up to
125oC).
Thickness of layer of one cross-coat 0.012 up to 0.015mm (dry film).

The following products are widely used:


S Aerodur S 15/90 (contains strontium (SrCrO4) with intensive green/yellow
colour)
S Aerodur CF 37047 (chromate free, light grey-white and dull)
The intermediate primer is applied to the Wash Primer or to Alodine-treated
aluminium surfaces.
The paint primer used by the Airbus manufacturers contains zinc-chromate and
has a similar function as the above mentioned.
Pot life time after preparation is 6 hours at temperatures of 18--22oC.

INTERMEDIATE PRIMER

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IR PART 66

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Figure 318

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TIME

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15

TEMPERATURE

20

Curing at 45 - 75 %
Humidity

Curing at 30 - 35 %
Humidity

25

Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer II

2.25

2.5

2.75

to the Time to Overcoat

Influence of Temperature and Humidity

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After chemical reaction has taken place (thermo--setting), the primer is relatively resistant to chemical attack.
Resistance to hydraulic oils is not guaranteed at curing times less than 72
hours.
Epoxy Primers can contain zinc-chromates but no phosphoric acid. This makes
them very suitable for coating steel parts with a breaking strength of more than
180 KSI / 1240 N/mm2.
Phosphoric acid would cause hydrogen embrittlement.
Pot life time: 4 hours
Cure time: 24 hours at 18oC
Resistant to hydraulic oil (short contact) after 36 hours.
Resistant to hydraulic oil for 5 hours at 80oC (before oven-drying a vapourizing
time of one hour is needed).
If you do not observe the minimum cure times before the application of new
paint, decreased adhesion and corrosion protection can result.

EPOXY PRIMER

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Nose Landing Gear

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Figure 319

Epoxy-Primer Application

Flaptracks

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Coating lacquers can be protected against general aging and decay by an additional clear varnish. The life--span of a multi-layer paint finish system can thus
be increased by 25 - 50%.
For aviation use, a special Clear Coat UVR (Ultra violet Resistant) is available. Several manufacturers have already integrated this protection into their
respective coating lacquers.

Desmodur
(Hardener)

Desmophen
(Base Lacquer)

DD-Coating

The coating lacquer is applied as the last layer on previously-applied wash


primers and intermediate primers. The application of coating lacquer is performed on all outer cabin parts which are subject to weather conditions and to
such components of the interior structure as have contact with hydraulic oils or
other aggressive fluids.
The coating lacquer is not part of the decorative paint finish. This is applied
onto the coating lacquer, but is not a technical part of the three-layer finish system.
At present, airplane manufacturers and operators use identical coating lacquers.
These are Polyurethane products (PU or PUR coating lacquers).
Products from the following manufacturers are currently being used:
S Sikkens (C21/100 or HF-High Flexible)
S Cellomer
S Finsh
S De Soto
S ICI
The Sikkens Aerodur Finish HF is identical to the widely-used DD Finish.

COATING LACQUERS

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Time h

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15

Top Coat

Temperature

20

Figure 320

60 - 75 % Humidity

30 - 50 % Humidity

25

Pot Life Time for Sikkens Aerodur C 21 / 100 white/grey

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Direct Current Measuring - Ohmmeter


S Measuring range 1 - 20 MOhm
S Resistance smaller 10 MOhm
S Distance between feelers 305mm
S Minimum curing time 1 - 2 hours
To achieve sufficient conductivity a minimum of 75% of all countersinks in composite components must be covered with electrically-conductive paint.
If pore fillers are used, the antistatic primer must be applied first.
In the areas of antennae covers where the antistatic primer must not be applied, the paint finish is to be applied as if it were a normal outer skin.

These products are identical to antistatic paints and antistatic primers.


Antistatic primers are electrically-conductive primers for plastic components. All
plastic components of the outer skin (basically in the secondary structure) must
have this priming.
The exception is antennae covers. Since the antistatic primer is not exposed
any more after application of the coating lacquer, it is not possible to localize it
optically. This means that before application of the coating lacquer and after
complete hardening has been achieved, a resistance test or conductivity test
must be performed by trained personnel.

ELECTRICALLY-CONDUCTIVE PAINTS

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Figure 321

Electrostatic Coating

Black areas = antennae covers

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Water-displacing inhibitors are applied:


S to stop corrosion that has already started for a certain time (until the repair
can be carried out)
S in areas that do not permit corrosion removal or permit corrosion removal
only to a certain extent and where the build-up of correct paint finish systems is also impossible.
S to make the surface in susceptible areas water-repellent in addition to the
paint finish systems and other surface protection treatments, to enhance
corrosion protection.
Water repellents have wax-like characteristics after they have dried. Their effectiveness is based on a good wetting ability and penetrating properties.
They penetrate existing corrosion products to the metal surface and build a
constant film. This prevents moisture and oxygen from contact with the metal
and prevent the spread of corrosion.
The following products are currently available in the aviation world:
S LPS 3
S Boeshield T9 H5 *
S Tectyl *
S Adrox
S Dinitrol
* carcinogenic
When using these materials it is imperative to cover the following components
before starting work:
S Electrical plug connections
S Oxygen system components
S Silicon parts (door seals, bearing seals, pipe fixtures)
S Piston rods of hydraulic cylinders
S Control cables, pulleys, cable covers

WATER-REPELLENT FLUID AND CORROSION INHIBITORS

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WHEN USING MATERIALS SUCH AS DINITROL, IT IS ESSENTIAL TO PROTECT CABLES, WIRES, SEALS AND

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CAUTION:

DINITROL AV 100 (Type D) is a strong, wax-like film. Applied as a thixotropic


fluid, AV 100 builds up a resistant, even mechanically abrasion-proof film.
Under special conditions the penetration of AV 100 into narrow capillary tubes
can be improved by pretreating with AV 8.
Under these circumstances an intermediate cure time of the AV 8 is required.
This cure time must last at least 1 hour (refer to specification sheet).
Cure time of AV 100 D about 6 hours.
AV 100 can be rinsed off with tri- or per- chlorethylene or Varsol.
DINITROL AV 100 D replaces AV 100 and AV 100 B.

Dinitrol AV 30 is a thixotropic, special, yellowish-brown, transparent wax that


doesnt melt or bond at temperatures below 70oC.
Thixotropic means thickened. The compound can only be processed with
some difficulty.
The product builds up an elastic film which does not crack when being deformed. The product is used in airplane overhaul for long term protection of the
entire cell structure.
DINITROl AV 30 replaces AV 25, AV 25B, AV 50.

Dinitrol AV 8 is a highly viscous water-displacing compound with strong surface-wetting and gap-penetrating (capillary action) characteristics.
After drying, this compound builds up a dry film of about 8 thickness.
DINITROL AV 8 is used as a precautionary corrosion protection in the landing
gear areas, pylon areas and on fittings.
Existing corrosion can be stopped or inhibited by AV 8 if it cannot be removed
by maintenance immediately.
AV 8 can be removed with naphtha (Varsol) or with tri- or per- chlorethylene.
Alkaline degreasing agents are also applicable to a certain extent.
DINITROL AV 8 replaces AV 5, AV 5--2, AV 5B, AV 5 B-2.

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PARTS OF THE OXYGEN SYSTEM FROM INGRESS OF DINITROL, WHICH ATTACK SEALS AND CAN CAUSE AN EXPLOSION WHEN IT CONTACTS OXYGEN.

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The most commonly-encountered water-displacing inhibitors are manufactured


by Dinitrol.

DINITROL

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Pressurised systems/components. Pressure must be released from any system


where work is to be carried out. This includes pneumatic and hydraulic systems.
The manual will indicate how the pressure is to be released. The same applies to

Batteries/battery circuits. The battery should be disconnected.------Capacitive type


equipment. Components that contain capacitors such as high energy ignition units
fitted to jet engines should be allowed to stand without power supply for the
recommended period as stated on the unit/in the manual before any work is
attempted. Remember, these can store enough charge to be lethal if access is
gained before the time stated.

Electrical equipment. Any electrical circuits that are to be worked onshould have
their fuses taken out or the circuit breakers tripped. This should be indicated by
a secure tag at the fuse or C/B position to say that the circuit is made safe and the
fuse or C/B should not be refitted.

All systems/components should be made safe before work commences. This will
include:

Safety

The correct equipment should be available. It may include slings; hoists; special
tools; special test sets/test rigs; a standard tool kit.

The correct hangarage/workshop/bench facilities should be available.

The appropriate manuals/instruction sheets/work sheets should be available.

The person doing the job should have the appropriate skills/ training/
qualifications. And, for some tasks, the correct number of qualified people should
be available.

Preparation

The following is a general approach which gives an overview to the procedures to


be followed.
Whether working on a system or a component the job may be split into 3 areas:
*
Preparation
*
Safety
*
The task in hand

To dismantle and/or reassemble a specific component/system/aircraft will require


a dedicated procedure which would normally be specified in the component
manual or the AMM.

DIS-- ASSEMBLY AND RE-- ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

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AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

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Heavy items. The movement of heavy items needs pre--planning -- the correct
number of personnel, correct lifting equipment, access for equipment, etc.

Items containing liquids, which may be harmful chemicals etc. This category
includes hydraulic fluids, battery electrolytes, engine oils, toilet system fluids,
engine fuels, coolants etc. These fluids can be harmful if in contact with the skin,
eyes or ingested by mouth. They should be drained carefully into correctly labelled
containers and protective clothing warn. Disposal or re--use will depend on local
regulations. If in doubt do not re--use.

components such as oleos (shock absorbers), hydraulic accumulators, gas


bottles (air, nitrogen etc), wheel and tyre assemblies.

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COMPONENT DISMANTLING AND RE--ASSEMBLING


In general re--assembly is the reverse of dismantling. To dismantle a
component proceed as follows:

If the component is to be replaced, in general:


4. Check the new component for serviceability, correct part number, serial
number etc and check it against its documentation (JAA form 1 etc). Check
the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).
5. Remove the old component, make safe, label, and return to stores.
6. Fit the new component and test the system iaw the AMM.
7. Check if there is any avoidable reason that caused the event -- to see if it
can be prevented happening again.
8. Record all the work done and sign. Details should be in the appropriate log
book, eg:
S Airframe log book -- airframe parts, components, engine change, propeller
change, etc.
S Engine log book -- any work done on the engine, propeller change, engine
change.
S Propeller log book -- VPpropeller change, any work carried out on the
propeller, engine change.
S Any item to be removed and replaced on the aircraft for a period of time
should be correctly labelled and placed on its support trolley (like an engine)
or placed in a storage rack. The label should have on it the aircraft
registration and date of removal.
9. Any small parts removed (nuts, bolts, washers etc) should be placed in a
bag and attached to the main component.
10.Any small parts removed which are not part of a larger assembly, should be
placed in a labelled bag and put on the storage rack. In some hangars
there is a separate spares storage rack for each aircraft.
11. All blanks should be fitted to system connections both on the aircraft and
on the component. Blanks should have warning tags attached.

For some components the aircraft may have to be jacked (some stress panels,
landing gear, wheels and the retraction mechanism, for example). For system
components the system must be made safe (see above).

COMPONENT REMOVAL FROM THE AIRCRAFT

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AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Page: 675

1. Carry out the preparation checks as outlined above. Observe the


appropriate safety precautions -- see above.
S Dismantle as follows:
S For riveted up items the rivets are removed by the use of a drill the same
size as the hole. The rivet head is drilled off and the shank is punched out.
Blind rivets might need a modified procedure.
S For welded items the only way is to use welding equipment to re--melt the
weld to separate the parts.
S For adhesive bonded items the only technique is to destroy the bond, which
will damage the two joined parts.
S For clamped together parts -- flanged pipe couplings etc -- unscrew the
clamp securing nuts ti loosen the clamp -- then remove.
S For items secured with taper pins, remove the taper pin securing device and
tap the pin out by tapping the small end lightly with a hammer. Securing
devices: nuts -- unscrew; bent over legs -- straighten with pliers; peened -remove peening carefully with a file or spot miller.
S Screws, bolts into captive nuts. Remove using the correct size and type of
screwdriver or correct spanner/ socket. Most have a right--hand thread
which means undoing by turning anti--clockwise. Remember to remove any
locking devises first -- such as locking wire, split pins, cotter pins, locking
plates, tab washers etc--.
S Nuts. Similar to above.
S Studs. Use a stud insertion and removal tool.
S Quick release fasteners. These vary in design and are released in different
ways -- check the AMM/component manual.
S Circlips. Use special circlip pliers. Internal circlips are removed by reducing
their diameter, external circlips are removed by expanding outwards.Push fit
items -- such as PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards). These are removed by
gently applying hand pressure to pull the board from its case. (Remember to
switch off power, wear a body bonding band and ensure all other items are
disconnected). Push fit items such as bearings will need a bearing press.
S Any removed fasteners that can be reused, place in a secure bag and label.
If the main component is a rotating balanced component then removed
items must be numbered and re--fitted back to the same location they came
out of.
S Parts that cannot be reused or are unserviceable should be replaced. Once
all securing items are removed the first dismantled part from the component

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Assembly
As stated above it is usually in the reverse order of dismantling, but in general
the following applies (the item numbers are related to those above):
1. New rivets are used after the joint is cleaned and jointing compound is used
(check the SRM -- Structure Repair Manual). They may have to be oversize
rivets due to hole enlargement -- check that this is possible.
2. There is usually not enough material left to re--weld the joint, so additional
material will be required in the form of an insertion or the fitting of a new
panel or panels by welding or some other approved means.
3. New material will have to be found in the form of an insert or new panels.
These may be fitted by adhesive bonding, bolting, riveting etc -- depending
on the manual.
4. Clamps can be re--fitted provided they are serviceable and clamping nuts
torque loaded whilst gently tapping the assembly lightly with a hammer to
help the clamp settle. The clamping nuts will need locking (split pins, lock
wire etc).
5. Taper pins are usually replaced. The hole might need re--reaming with a
taper reamer and the next larger taper pin fitted -- check the manual. Lock
into position by: opening the legs if a spilt taper pin; fitting a nut (which is
usually peened afterwards); peening the small end of the taper pin.
6. Screws, nuts, bolts, captive nuts, etc are replaced if necessary.Threads are
lubricated, left dry, or coated with a locking compound, then tightened as
per the manual. Then torque loaded if required and locked using locking
wire, split pins (cotter pins) etc. Screwdrivers, spanners, sockets etc are
used. Star washers are replaced. Spring washers are replaced if they have
lost their springiness and/or lost their sharp edge top or bottom.
7. As 6.
8. Similar to 6. above but fitment is maybe by the use of two nuts locked to
each other on the protruding end (turning down on the top nut), or the use
of a stud box, or using a stud insertion and removal tool.
9. Quick release fasteners are connected in reverse to their disconnection
procedure. Replace if damaged.

can be eased away. Place all parts in order, bag and label if necessary.
Protect from dust and the possibility of corrosion/deterioration. Carry out
any inspection/modification/tests as necessary. Replace any items that fail
any inspections/tests and any that might deteriorate in the foreseeable
future such as seals, locking devices etc.

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
INSPECTION, DISASSEMBLY, REPAIR
AND ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Page: 676

Testing
After assembly the component is always tested. This can include any one, or
more, of the following depending on the component.and the manual.
S Bonding, continuity, equipment.
S BIT tests -- various components
S Capacity test -- batteries.
S Leakage tests -- hydraulic components, pneumatic components, batteries.
S Functional tests to include correct displays, correct inputs and outputs,
movement (range, sense, speed -- rpm, cm/min -- etc), sound, vision
(speakers/CRT screens).
S Balance -- for balanced rotating components etc.

Bonding, continuity, equipment.


BIT tests -- various c
Capacity test -- batteries.
Leakage tests -- hydraulic components, pneumatic components,
batteries.
Functional tests to include correct displays, correct inputs and
outputs, movement (range, sense, speed -- rpm cm/min -- etc), sound,
vision (speakers/CRT screens).
* Balance -- for balanced rotating components etc.
For more information regarding nuts, locking devices, torqu~loading etc you
should read the book/ s in this series on Tools and Locking Devices.

10.Wire circlips should be replaced, others can be reused provided they are
undamaged and retain their springiness.
11. Push fit items are fitted in reverse order to removal.
12. esting after assembly the component is more, of the following
dependingmanual.
always tested. This can include any one, or
on the component and, of course, the

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M7.19 ABNORMAL EVENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
ABNORMAL EVENTS

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Lightning strikes usually travel rearward from the initial lightning strike touch
point on the fuselage and the engine nacelle surfaces aft of the engine inlets.
Cases have occurred where airplane components have become strongly
magnetized due to a lightning strike. It is possible that a lightning strike discharge could send a heavy electrical current through the metal airframe structure. This electric current creates a magnetic field and magnetizes components.
Possible internal damage to the airplane due to lightning strike could be to
electrical power systems and external light wire. While the electrical system is
designed to be resistant to lightning strikes, a high intensity lightning strike
could damage these components:
S Fuel Valves
S Generators
S Power Feeders
S Electrical Distribution Systems

The most likely areas for lightning strikes are the fuselage nose section and
trailing-edge tips. The external components most likely to be hit are listed
below:
S Nose Radome
S Nacelles
S Wing Tips
S HorizontaL Stabilizer Tips
S Elevators
S Vertical Fin Tips
S Ends of the Leading Edge Flaps
S Trailing Edge Flap Track Fairings
S Landing Gear
S Water Waste Masts
S Pitot Probes
S External Lights.

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Aircraft use all necessary and known types of lightning strike protection. The
basic protection is the almost all-metal external structure. The external structure acts as a shield which protects the internal areas from lightning strike.
Also, the external structure protects the electrical systems and wiring from
electromagnetic interference.
If the airplane is hit by lightning, the following actions must be carried out:
1. A general walk-round inspection of the airplane to find the areas of the
strike and discharge.
2. If signs of damage are found, carry out a detailed inspection of the damaged area to establish the amount of damage.
Lightning strikes usually result in two types of damage:
S Direct Damage - Surface is burned, melted or shows signs of metallic distortion at two or more attachment points.
S Indirect Damage - Large electrical transients on the wiring which might
cause damage to electrical systems equipment.
If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, a full inspection of that
defective system must be carried out.
A lightning strike will usually cause small circular melt marks approximately 1/8
inch in diameter. The melt marks may be confined to one area or may be randomly placed over a large area. Holes with a 1/4 inch diameter or greater are
possible if a high intensity lightning strike occurs. Other signs of lightning strike
might be burnt or discoloured skins and rivets.
The lightning strike conditional inspection covers these areas:
S External Surfaces
S Static Dischargers
S Fuel System Valves
S Integrated Drive Generator (IDG) and Related Wires
S Hydraulic Fittings in the Tail Section
S Radio Systems
S Navigation Systems
S Bonding Jumpers

LIGHTNING STRIKE

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

Figure 322

Typical Lightning Strike Areas

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HIRF Protection
Aircraft have been required to comply with HIRF requirements since early
1992. They have therefore been certificated to various HIRF standards, which
range from no requirement through to the current policies and standards.
The basic concern for better identification and protection from HIRF has arisen
for the following reasons:
A. Operation of modern aeroplanes is increasingly dependent upon electrical/electronic systems, which can be susceptible to electromagnetic interference.
B. The increasing use of non--metallic materials like carbon or glass fibre in
the construction of the aeroplane reduces their basic shielding capability
against the effects of radiation from external emitters.
C. Emitters are increasing in number and in power. They include ground-based systems (military systems, communication, television, radio, radars and satellite uplink transmitters), as well as emitters on ships or
other aircraft.
Modifications to aircraft should be assessed by the manufacturer for the effects
that could be caused by exposure to HIRF, irrespective of the original
certification basis.
New aircraft designs must be tested, before being certified, against electromagnetic penetration. If a problem is identified, the aircraft must be redesigned
to effectively reduce the intensity level of the penetrating fields.

Introduction
Modern aircraft use digital control systems to perform critical functions. Such
control units installed on aircraft are vulnerable to external phenomena such as
high intensity electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetic interference from external sources can cause an upset of the digital systems control unit and major
damage to the aircraft.

HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
ABNORMAL EVENTS

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

Figure 323

Radiation Source

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High Drag/Side-Load Landing


A high drag/side-load landing occurs if the airplane makes a landing with one or
more of the following conditions:
S The airplane skidded or overran the prepared surface
S The airplane made a landing short of the prepared surface
S The airplane made a landing and two or more tyres were blown
S The airplane skidded on the runway sufficiently to make you think damage
occurred.

Hard Landing
The hard landing procedure is for hard landings at or below the maximum design landing weight limits.
The pilot is responsible for making the decision whether a structural inspection
is necessary.
If the landing is also overweight, the Overweight Landing Inspection, not the
Hard Landing Inspection, must be done.

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When the conditional inspection tells you to examine a component, check for
the following faults and replace or repair components (if necessary):
S Cracks
S Pulled-apart structure
S Loose paint (paint flakes)
S Twisted parts (distortion)
S Bent components
S Fastener holes that become enlarged or elongated
S Loose fasteners
S Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
S Delaminations
S Misalignment
S Interference
S Other signs of damage.

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The inspection is divided into two phases.
The Phase I inspection is applicable when a Hard Landing or a High Drag/Side
Load Landing occurs.
If the inspection during Phase I does not indicate that damage has occurred,
no further inspections are necessary.
If, however, the Phase I inspection indicates that damage has occurred, the
Phase II inspection is necessary.

HARD LANDING

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

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Figure 324

Hard Nose Gear Contact

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NOTE:

Page: 684

SEVERE TURBULENCE IS IDENTIFIED AS TURBULENCE WHICH


CAUSES LARGE, ABRUPT CHANGES IN ALTITUDE AND/OR
ATTITUDE. THE AIRPLANE COULD BE OUT CF CONTROL FOR
SHORT PERIODS. IT USUALLY CAUSES LARGE VARIATIONS IN
AIRSPEED. PASSENGERS AND CREW ARE MOVED VIOLENTLY
AGAINST THEIR SEAT BELTS AND LOOSE OBJECTS ARE
MOVED AROUND THE AIRPLANE.

General
The data that follows applies to a severe or unusual turbulence condition.

Severe or Unusual Turbulence. Stall. Buffet. or Speeds in Excess of the Design


Limits Conditional Inspection

OVERLIMIT INSPECTION

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General
The structural inspection in this task is applicable after a severe turbulence or
buffet condition.
It also applies to stalls (after the initial buffet or stick shaker condition) or airplane speeds above the design speed.
When the conditional inspection tells you to examine a component, look for
these conditions (replace or repair components, if it is necessary).
S Cracks
S Pulled apart structure
S Loose paint (paint flakes)
S Twisted parts (distortion)
S Bent components
S Wrinkles or buckles in the structure
S Fastener holes that became larger or longer
S Loose fasteners
S Fasteners that have pulled out or are missing
S Delaminations (a component with one or more Layers pulled apart)
S Parts that are not aligned correctly
S Fibre breakouts
S Misalignment
S Interference (clearance that is not sufficient between the parts)
S Discoloration (heat damage)
S Nicks or gouges
S Other signs of damage.

SEVERE OR UNUSUAL TURBULENCE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
ABNORMAL EVENTS

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

Figure 325

Example of Designed-In Safety Factors

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ABNORMAL EVENTS

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M 7.20 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Non-Customized Manuals but Type-Effective


Other manuals are non--customized, but type effective. This means that the
content belongs to the whole fleet of that type.
SRM
Structural Repair Manual
TSM
Trouble Shooting Manual
EIPC
Engine Illustrated Parts Catalogue
PBM
Power Plant Build--Up Manual
EM
Engine Manual
ARM
Aircraft Recovery Manual
SSM
System Schematics Manual
FIM
Fault Isolation Manual
FRM
Fault Reporting Manual

Customized Manuals
The following manuals are supplied to the customer, they are type-effective
and reflect the customers configuration.
AMM
Aircraft Maintenance Manual
MM
Maintenance Manual
IPC
Illustrated Parts Catalogue
AIPC
Aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalogue
WDM
Wiring Diagram Manual

TYPES OF MANUALS

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Non-Customized Manuals but not Type-Effective


These manuals are non--customized and not type-effective.
They contain cross-references, typical procedures and standard information.
CMM
Component Maintenance Manual
NDT
Non--Destructive Testing Manual
SM
Standards Manual
SPM
Standard Practice Manual
TEM
Illustrated Tool and Equipment Manual
WBM
Weight and Balance Manual
SOPM
Standard Overhaul Practice

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General
Aircraft Manuals are prepared by the manufacturers, eg Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company or Airbus Industries, in accordance with the Air Transport
Association of America Specification Number 100:
S ATA 100 - Specifications for Manufacturers Technical Data.
This specification is the industrys recommended format and contains standards
for technical manuals written by aviation manufacturers and used by airlines and
others within the aviation industry.

AIRCRAFT MANUALS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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The subject matter in each manual is divided into chapters and groups of
chapters to facilitate the location of information by the user.
This chapterisation provides a functional breakdown of the entire airplane.
Information on all units comprising a system will be found in the chapter identified by the name of that system, or by a general name indicative of the several
systems which may be covered in that chapter.
Thus, all units relating to the generation and distribution of electrical power are
covered in Chapter 24 ELECTRICAL POWER, while electrically-driven pumps
and valves serving the fuel system are covered in Chapter 28 FUEL.
All units in the elevator control system, which includes hydraulic, mechanical
and electrical units are included in Chapter 27 FLIGHT CONTROLS.

MANUAL ARRANGEMENT

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Time Limits
Dimensions and Areas
Lifting and Shoring
Levelling and Weighing
Towing and Taxing
Parking and Mooring
Required Placards
Servicing
Processes And Procedures

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AIRFRAME SYSTEMS
20
General
21
Air Conditioning
22
Autopilot
23
Communications
24
Electrical Power
25
Equipment and Furnishings
26
Fire Protection
27
Flight Controls
28
Fuel
29
Hydraulic Power
30
Ice And Rain Protection
31
Instruments
32
Landing Gear
33
Lights
34
Navigation
35
Oxygen
36
Pneumatic
37
Vacuum
38
Water and Waste

AIRCRAFT
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

ATA 100 (CHAPTER AND TITLE)

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
Electronic Panels And Multi-Purpose
Airborne Auxiliary Power

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For detailed usage of each manual, refer to the INTRODUCTION section in the
appropriate manual.

POWER PLANT
70
Engine Standard Practices
71
Power Plant General
72
Engines
73
Engine and Fuel Control
74
Ignition
75
Air
76
Engine Controls
77
Engine Indicating
78
Exhaust
79
Oil
80
Starting
81
Turbines
82
Water Injection
83
Accessory Gear Boxes

PROPELLERS / ROTOR
60
Propellers and Rotors Standard Practice
61
Propellers
65
Rotors

STRUCTURES
51
Structure General
52
Doors
53
Fuselage
54
Nacelles and Pylons
55
Stabilizers
56
Windows
57
Wings

39
49

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Temporary Revisions
Temporary revisions, printed on yellow paper, will be issued as necessary
to alert the customer of configuration differences and to provide temporary
instructions prior to the next scheduled revision.

Revisions
Revision service to these manuals will be issued frequently. Pages that are
revised will be so indicated on the list of effective pages by an asterisk (*) and
identified by both a date and a page code.
On each individual page, the revised area is indicated by a revision bar on the
left margin.

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES


A list of effective pages is provided in each printed manual.
The list is in numerical order and is located at the beginning of the chapter.
The pages are identified at the lower outside corner by the words:
List of Effective Pages and are numbered separately, starting with page 1

REVISION SERVICE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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SUBJECT NUMBERING
The chapters of the Maintenance Manual are broken down into sections and
subjects. They are numbered in a three--part subject--numbering system.
S The first number in the subject number is the CHAPTER number and
serves to identify the major functional system.
S The middle part of the number is the SECTION number and serves to
identify all of the coverage pertaining to a particular system, subsystem or
group of related assemblies, including all items that are functionally a part of
the system or related assemblies.
S The last part of the number is the SUBJECT number and serves to identify
all information relative to a specific unit, minor assemblies, simple system or
simple circuit.
Complete system information is included in subjects, identified by the third part
of the subject number being a <--0> number.
The descriptions of items which comprise the system or sub-system are also
included with complete system information to the extent necessary for understanding how they work in performing their function within the system.
In those cases where the items are sufficiently complex, additional description
and operation type information is given at item level.

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TOPIC OR SUB--TOPIC
Description and Operation
Troubleshooting
Maintenance Practices
Servicing
Removal and Installation
Adjustment / Test

PAGE BLOCK
1 to 100
101 to 200
201 to 300
301 to 400
401 to 500
501 to 600

The page blocks for these topics and sub--topics are as follows:

The sub--topics are:


S Servicing
S Removal and Installation
S Adjustment Test
S Inspection Check
S Cleaning and Painting
S Approved Repairs.

The topics are:


S Description and Operation
S Troubleshooting and Maintenance Practices.

Page: 694

PAGE IDENTIFICATION
The four elements of page identification are (located at the lower page margin):
S Chapter--Section--Subject Number
S Page Number
S Page Data
S Page Code Number
The subjects are divided into reasonably small topics and sub--topics to enable
the user to locate the desired information more rapidly.

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General
The Maintenance Manual contains the information necessary to enable the
mechanics to service, troubleshoot, functionally check and repair all systems
and equipment installed in the aircraft.
It includes information necessary for the mechanic to perform maintenance
procedures or make minor repairs to any item on the aircraft either on the line
or in a maintenance hangar. It also covers the configuration of the aircraft as
delivered to the customer.
The Maintenance Manual does not contain information relative to work
normally performed on items or assemblies removed from the aircraft.

MM MAINTENANCE MANUAL

AMM AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MANUAL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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INDEX SYSTEM
The Numerical Index is a complete alpha--numerical listing of all part numbers
contained in the Detailed Parts List of the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
The index is divided into two sections :
S Numerical Index -- Alpha
S Numerical Index -- Numeric.
The Numerical Index also displays substitution information on interchangeable
standard part numbers.
The Specification Cross Reference Index is divided into two sections and is
common to all customers.
S The first section is titled Specification Number Sequence, cross-referencing the Manufacturer Specifications to the vendor part number and
vendor code.
S The second section is titled Vendor Part Number Sequence,
cross--referencing the vendor part number and code to the Manufacturer
specification.
The Aircraft Customer Manufacturing and Registry Number Index relates
the effectivity code shown in the Detailed Parts List to the corresponding:
S aircraft effectivity number
S manufacturing number
S and registry number.
The Vendors Name and Address Index, with supply codes, is a list of
vendors referenced in the Detailed Parts List and is common to all customers.
The list is arranged in vendor code number sequence.
The Major Drawing Number Index is an indentured breakdown denoting only
the major aircraft sections and system installation drawing numbers.

SUBJECT NUMBERING
The subject numbering is the same as for the Maintenance Manual.

The Illustrated Parts Catalogue contains information for use in provisioning,


requisitioning, storing and issuing replaceable aircraft parts and in identifying
parts.

AIPC AIRCRAFT ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE

IPC ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Component Maintenance Manuals For Specific Items


A revision service is provided in accordance with the purchase agreement
between the manufacturer and the customer.
Each Component Maintenance Manual for a specific item comprises :
S A title page
S A record of revisions
S A record of temporary revisions
S A list of effective pages
S A list of temporary revisions
S A service bulletin list
S A list of approved repairers
S A list of materials
S A table of contents.

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Component Maintenance Sheet (CMS)


This document is applicable to small items for which no CMM is required. The
component maintenance sheet will include the following :
S Description
S Characteristics of the item
S Diagram
S Fits and clearances
S Testing
S Storage instructions
S Illustrated parts list.

The Component Maintenance Manual contains all necessary information for


the description and operation, disassembly, cleaning, inspection/check, repair,
assembly, fits and clearances, testing and fault isolation, storage instructions
and the illustrated parts list of the component.
This information allows overhaul of the units, after their removal from the aircraft, in specialized workshops.

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General
The Manual describes maintenance of a component in the workshop. It does
not describe maintenance of the component when it is installed in the aircraft.
This manual contains technical data, maintenance and repair procedures for
components. The data and figures of component parts are given a separate
IPC.
The Aircraft Manufacturers Component Maintenance Manual is comprised of:
S A record of revisions
S A letter of transmittal
S A list of effective pages not exclusive to topics corresponding to
overhaulable units
S An introduction
S A list of chapters
S An alpha--numerical index
S A tab divider per chapter
S A table of contents per chapter
S A Component Maintenance Manual for specific items and a Component
Maintenance Sheet for specific items.

COMPONENT MAINTENANCE MANUAL (CMM )

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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The Table Of Contents


The table of contents gives a list of Component Maintenance Manual and CMS
for specific items, classified in ascending numerical order according to their
ATA 100 reference.

The Alpha--Numerical Index


This is the alpha--numerical index of items having a specific Component
Maintenance Manual or CMS within the document.
It comprises two columns :
S The first column gives the part number of the item classified
alpha--numerically,
S and the second, the references of the corresponding manuals.

How to use the CMM and CMS


Using the ATA reference, the manuals are classified inside the chapters in
ascending numerical order. Using the unit reference, identify the ATA manual
reference in the alpha--numerical index.

23
25
27
28
30
32
33
34
36
49
52
53
55
56
57
76

Communications
Equipment and furnishings
Flight controls
Fuel
Ice and rain protection
Landing gear
Lights
Navigation
Pneumatic
Airborne aux. power
Doors
Fuselage
Stabilizers
Windows
Wings
Engine control

List Of ATA Chapters

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General
The CMM and CMS are classified into systems (Chapters) and sub--systems
(Sections), each item being identified by a part number (P/N) and assigned an
ATA 100 reference.
Information concerning all items of a system are identified by the reference of
that system, eg
System (Chapter), 27 -- Flight Controls.
In each system, the information concerning all items of a sub--system are
identified by the reference of that sub--system. Thus, all components relating to
the ailerons and tabs of system (Chapter) 27 --Flight Controls are included in
sub--system (Section) 10 -- Aileron and Tab.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE CMM/CMS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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301 and on

401 and on

501 and on

DISASSEMBLY
General
Equipment and Materials
List of Procedures
Procedure

CLEANING
Equipment and Materials
Procedure

CHECK
General
Procedure

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601 and on

101 and on

TESTING AND FAULT ISOLATION


General
Equipment and Materials
Procedure

REPAIR
General
Equipment and Materials
Normal Repair
Special Repair

1 and on

701 and on

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SPECIAL TOOLS, FIXTURES and EQUIPMENT 901 and on


Special Tools, Fixtures and Equipment List

ASSEMBLY
General
Equipment and Materials
List of Procedures
Procedure
Storage after Assembly

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INTRO 1 and on

DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION


General
Description and Operation

INTRODUCTION
General
Revision Service
List of Abbreviations

SECTION PAGE BLOCK NUMBERING

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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JAA/FAA Maintenance Review Board (MRB)


Service Bulletins (SB)*
Service Letters (SL)*
JAA/FAA Airworthiness Directives (ADs)*.

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The scheduled maintenance tasks in this document should not be considered


as all--inclusive. Each individual airline has final responsibility to decide what to
do and when to do it, except for those maintenance requirements identified as
Airworthiness Limitations (AWLs) or Certification Maintenance
Requirements (CMRs).

S AIRCRAFT -- i.e. A340 / B747 etc


S ENGINES -- i.e. P&W PW4000 / RR Trent 500 etc.

The manufactures recommended scheduled maintenance tasks outlined in this


document are applicable to current production and existing aircraft as follows:

* NOTE:IF MANDATORY ACTION TERMINATES THE PERIODIC


MAINTENANCE TASK WITHIN APPROXIMATELY 18 MONTHS,
THEN THE TASK IDENTIFIED IN THE SB, AD OR SL IS NOT
INCLUDED IN THE MPD.

S
S
S
S

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Temporary requirements in the form of Service Letters, Service Bulletins and


Airworthiness Directives are the responsibility of the individual airline to
incorporate.
Maintenance tasks recommended in engine, APU and vendor manuals should
also be considered.

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MPD General
The Maintenance Planning Data (MPD) document provides maintenance
planning information necessary for each aircraft operator to develop a
customized scheduled maintenance program.
This document lists all manufacturer-recommended scheduled maintenance
tasks and satisfies (in part) the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and Joint
Aviation Authorities (JAA) requirement that a manufacturer provide instructions
for continued airworthiness as specified in FAR 25.
Periodic (scheduled) maintenance tasks outlined in this document may include,
but are not limited to, the following sources:

MAINTENANCE PLANNING DATA

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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AIRWORTHINESS
DIRECTIVES

Aug 2004

VENDOR
MANUALS

MAINTENANCE
MANUAL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Figure 326

SERVICE
BULLETINS

SERVICE
LETTERS

CARDS

JOB

VOL 1

MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
REVIEW &
PROPOSAL
DOCUMENT

Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)

AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE
PROGRAMME

(MPD)

INDEXES

&

MAINTENANCE
PLANNING
DOCUMENT

AIRLINES

MANUFACTURER

TASK CARDS

MSG-3
AIRLINE/
MANUFACTURER
MAINTENANCE
PROGRAM
PLANNING
DOCUMENT
ATA

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VOL 4

VOL 3
JAA/FAA

MAINTENANCE
REVIEW BOARD
REPORT

VOL 7
VOL 6

JAA / FAA

Page: 705

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Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMRs)


A few maintenance requirements in the Systems Section were developed as a
result of the safety analysis for certification of the aircraft. These tasks, called
Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMRs), are identified with a hash
sign (#) placed under the frequency of the specific task.
Airworthiness Limitations and Certification Maintenance Requirements is the
approved document that lists all CMRs for the aircraft type. This section of the
document is controlled separately from the rest of the MPD and is approved by
the relevant authorities and is released as a separate document.
Prior to MSG--3, scheduled maintenance programs were developed from
analysis which began at the component level. The effect of failures in these
components was considered and, where appropriate, scheduled maintenance
tasks were assigned.
Using such an approach, an inclusive list of component level Maintenance
Significant Items (MSIs) was generated from the initial list of items subjected
to analysis.
Components which had no scheduled maintenance were assigned the
Condition Monitoring maintenance process category and were considered
candidates for a reliability program.

Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)


Most of the scheduled maintenance tasks outlined in this planning document
were developed using the process guidelines of the ATA Airline/Manufacturer
Maintenance Program Development Document:- MSG--3.
In addition, this document includes all scheduled maintenance tasks recommended by the manufacturer (with the exception of temporary requirements as
described in Section A) based on world-wide fleet service experience.
There are no additional sources of the manufacturer-recommended scheduled
maintenance tasks.
Some structural inspection requirements arise from aircraft type certification
activities with the FAA and JAA. These are identified as Airworthiness
Limitations and are specified in the MPD.
The inspection requirements for these Airworthiness Limitations are covered
in the Structural Inspection Program. Also included in the MPD of an aircraft
type are a list of the Structural Safe--Life Parts.

SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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AIRWORTHINESS
DIRECTIVES

Aug 2004

VENDOR
MANUALS

MAINTENANCE
MANUAL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Figure 327

SERVICE
BULLETINS

SERVICE
LETTERS

CARDS

JOB

VOL 1

MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
REVIEW &
PROPOSAL
DOCUMENT

Maintenance Steering Group (MSG-3)

AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE
PROGRAMME

(MPD)

INDEXES

&

MAINTENANCE
PLANNING
DOCUMENT

AIRLINES

MANUFACTURER

TASK CARDS

MSG-3
AIRLINE/
MANUFACTURER
MAINTENANCE
PROGRAM
PLANNING
DOCUMENT
ATA

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VOL 4

VOL 3
JAA/FAA

MAINTENANCE
REVIEW BOARD
REPORT

VOL 7
VOL 6

Page: 707

JAA / FAA

VOL 8

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VOL 2

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C-Check
There are also two different C--Check intervals specified for Boeing 757
maintenance. These are identified in the interval column of the Systems,
Structural and Zonal programs.
S The Systems (including lubrication) and Zonal C--Check interval is 6,000
flight hours or 18 months, whichever comes first. The Systems/Zonal
C--Check is designated 1C. No multiple C--Check intervals should be
escalated until at least one aircraft inspection has been accomplished at
12,000 flight hours for 2C items, 18,000 flight hours for 3C items and 24,000
flight hours for 4C items.
S The Structures C--Check interval is 3,000 flight cycles or 18 months, whichever comes first. The Structures C--Check is designated S 1C. Some
structures tasks have a calendar limit interval instead of the normal letter
check interval described above. The following provides an explanation for
the interval difference.

A-Check
There are two different A--Check intervals specified for Boeing 757
maintenance. These are identified in the interval column of the Systems,
Structural,and Zonal programs.
S The Systems (including lubrication) and Zonal A--Check interval is 500 flight
hours. The Systems/Zonal A--Check is designated 1A.
S The Structural A--Check interval is 300 flight cycles and is designated S
1A.

Transit Check
The Transit Check (TC) is intended to assure continuous serviceability of a
transiting aircraft. This check is planned for use at an en-route stop and is
basically a walk--around inspection which requires a check of both the aircraft
interior and exterior for obvious damage, leaks, correctly operating equipment,
security of attachments and required servicings.

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C-Check (cont..)
The original Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR) S 1C interval was
3,000 flight cycles or 15 months (whichever came first) and the S 2C, S 3C and
S 4C intervals were multiples thereof.
A revision of the MRBR (issued 11/90), was based on current accumulated service experience. The MRBR calendar time limit for S 1C, S 2C, and S 3C was
escalated to 18, 36 and 54 months respectively with the S 4C remaining at 60
months.
However, based on fleet--wide corrosion findings, the initial (starting point) interval for a selected number of structural inspection tasks was kept at 15, 30,
and 45 months. Consequently, the MRBR interval for these tasks was changed
from S1C, S 2C and S 3C to 3,000 cycles/15 months, 6,000 cycles/30 months
and 9,000 cycles/45 months, respectively.
The interval for any of these calendar-based tasks (15, 30, 45 or 60 months)
can be adjusted, as with any other structural inspection task, by an operator,
based on their service experience as noted in the Maintenance Program Rules
and Operating Rules of the MRBR.
The Systems Maintenance and Zonal Inspection Programs are flight-hour
sensitive; whereas, the Structural Inspection Program is flight cycle or calendar
time sensitive.
Separation of these A and C check definitions provides an operator with maximum flexibility in scheduling and packaging the systems/structural/zonal tasks
based on aircraft utilization.
The table opposite summarizes the Basic Maintenance Check Intervals applicable to the Boeing 757. The maintenance program utilizing these check intervals is intended for normal aircraft/airline daily utilization.
Task intervals are expressed in hours, cycles, calendar time or a letter check.
Individual operators may convert intervals (based on aircraft utilization) to their
desired units provided such conversion does not result in exceeding the
frequencies identified herein.
An operator may package any or all of the tasks not specified at one of the
basic check intervals into one of the basic checks, provided such packaging
does not exceed the interval shown for the task.

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General
Many of the scheduled maintenance tasks listed in the MPD document are to
identify the frequency of accomplishment in terms of a letter check, eg 1A, 2A,
1C, etc. These letter checks and the other checks are defined as follows.

MAINTENANCE CHECKS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Figure 328

PRIOR TO FLIGHT
500 FLIGHT HOURS
300 FLIGHT CYCLES
6,000 FLIGHT HOURS OR 18 MONTHS *
3,000 FLIGHT CYCLES OR 18 MONTHS *
12,000 FLIGHT CYCLES OR 72 MONTHS *

1 TRANSIT CHECK (TR)


1 A--CHECK (SYSTEMS/ZONAL)
1 A--CHECK (STRUCTURES)
1 C--CHECK (SYSTEMS/ZONAL)
1 C--CHECK (STRUCTURES)
1 4C--CHECK (STRUCTURES)

Maintenance Checks

*whichever comes first

INITIAL INTERVALS

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M7.20 (Cat A)

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Modification
Whenever a UK--registered aircraft (or an engine, or propeller fitted to such an
aircraft) is modified, the Certificate of Airworthiness is invalidated until such
time as the modification is approved by the CAA (either directly or through the
procedures of an organisation approved by the CAA for the purpose).

Type Certificate
Certification of the design of an aircraft is normally declared by the granting of
a Type Certificate, for which a pre--requisite will be Type Certification of any
engines and/or propellers fitted.
Subject to compliance with any additional requirements that may be imposed,
an aircraft that conforms with the type certificated design will be eligible for a
Certificate of Airworthiness.

Certificate of Airworthiness
The internationally-recognised standard for the airworthiness of a civil aircraft is
a Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance with the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (ICAO Chicago Convention). An aircraft which
cannot show compliance with the standards required for the award of a
Certificate of Airworthiness, but nevertheless can be considered airworthy
(subject to specified limitations), may be granted a Permit to Fly.
To qualify for a Certificate of Airworthiness the design of an aircraft must be
shown to comply with appropriate design standards, and the individual aircraft
must be shown to have been constructed in conformity with the approved
design.

Introduction
A modification is any change to the design of a product.

MODIFICATION PROCEDURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Once the stores inspector is satisfied he will issue a Release Voucher and
transfer the part to the Bonded Store. A register is kept detailing all Release
Vouchers that have been issued. This contains details of the component and
the identity of the issuer.
Parts and components are issued from the Bonded Store to be installed onto
the aircraft.
Part of the release voucher is returned to the stores with the removed item.
Information from the returned voucher will have been completed by the mechanic or engineer installing the new part.
This information is used by Technical Records to track the part and serial
number of components installed on a particular aircraft.

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Stores and Supplies Procedures


Systems must be in place to ensure that parts and materials used in the
maintenance of aircraft are approved parts and conform to the required
specifications. It is obvious that there are significant safety implications if parts
are installed that are bogus or have not been correctly repaired.
Parts and materials must come from organizations that are approved by the
National Airworthiness Authority (NAA). These organizations can be aircraft
manufacturers, original equipment manufacturers (OEM), approved repair
organizations and authorized material suppliers.
To make sure that parts and materials are examined before being cleared for
use on aircraft, stores premises and procedures are designed with this
protection in mind. All parts and material enter the engineering organization
stores system through Goods Inwards into a Quarantine Store.
A certificate indicating that the item comes from an approved source must
accompany all components, parts and assemblies. In JAA member states this
certificate is the JAA Form One. Parts originating in the USA may have an
equivalent FAA Form 8130. Other approved forms are the Canadian TCA
Form 24--0078 or specific Authorized Release Tags acceptable to the NAA.
Standard parts, i.e. nuts, bolts, washers, diodes etc, which are manufactured to
a common standard and are designated by the Type Certificate Holder or
Design Authority do not require an Authorized Release Tag and must be
accompanied by a Certificate of Conformity.
All material and parts must be logged in a Register of Quarantined Items.
The stores inspector then examines every item, checking details from the JAA
Form One (Part Number, Serial Number etc) against the component or part.
Parts are also examined for general condition, that they have not been
damaged in transit and that transport blanks are in place etc.
Parts that fail this inspection remain in the quarantine stores and must be
returned to the supplier as soon as possible. Regular checks of the Quarantine
Register are carried out to ensure parts failing to conform to specification do
not remain in the store.

STORES PROCEDURES

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MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Goods Inwards

OIL

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Figure 329

Bonded Store

Store and Supplies Procedures

Quarantine Store

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Aircraft

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M7.20 (Cat A)

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A certificate of release to service is issued by the appropriately authorised


certifying staff on behalf of the JAR--145 approved maintenance organisation
once he is satisfied that all maintenance required by the customer of the
aircraft or aircraft component has been properly carried out.
An aircraft component which has been maintained off the aircraft requires:
S the issue of a certificate of release to service for such maintenance and
S another certificate of release to service in regard to being installed properly
on the aircraft when such action occurs.
A certificate of release to service must contain:
S basic details of the maintenance carried out
S the date such maintenance was completed and
S the identity (including approval reference) of the JAR 145-approved
maintenance organisation and certifying staff issuing such a certificate.

CERTIFICATION/RELEASE PROCEDURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Figure 330

Sample: Release-To-Service Certificate

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M7.20 (Cat A)

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A JAR--145 approved maintenance organisation will have a quality policy for


that organisation.
It will have established procedures to ensure good maintenance practices and
compliance with all relevant requirements in JAR--145 (Approved Maintenance
Organisations).
The organisation will have established a quality system that includes:
S Independent audits in order to monitor compliance with required aircraft/
aircraft component standards and adequacy of the procedures to ensure
that such procedures invoke good maintenance practices and airworthy
aircraft/aircraft components.
S A quality feedback reporting system to the person or group of persons
specified in JAR 145.30(a) and ultimately to the accountable manager that
ensures proper and timely corrective action is taken in response to reports
resulting from the independent audits.

MAINTENANCE INSPECTION/QUALITY CONTROL/QUALITY


ASSURANCE

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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A JAR--145 approved maintenance organisation must record all details of work


carried out in a form acceptable to the JAA full member Authority.
It must provide a copy of each certificate of release to service to the aircraft
operator, together with a copy of any specific approved repair/modification data
used for repairs/modifications carried out.
It must retain a copy of all detailed maintenance records and any associated
maintenance data for two years from the date the aircraft or aircraft component
to which the work relates was released from the organisation.

MAINTENANCE RECORDS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Page: 718

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M7.20 (Cat A)

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Primary Maintenance
There are three types of primary maintenance processes practised today.
1. Hard Time. This is a preventative process in which known deterioration of
an item is limited to an acceptable level by the maintenance actions which are
carried out at periods related to time in service (eg calendar time, number of
cycles, number of landings).
These actions normally include
S servicing
S overhaul
S partial overhaul and
S replacement.
This process is applied to an item when
S the failure of the item has a direct adverse effect on airworthiness and
where evidence indicates that it is subject to wear or deterioration
S there is a hidden function which cannot be checked with the item in-situ
S wear or deterioration exists to such an extent that a time limit is
economically desirable
S component condition or life progression sampling is practised, and
S limitations are prescribed in a Manufacturers Warranty.

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Page: 720

2. On-Condition. This is also a preventative process but one in which the


item is inspected or tested, at specified periods, to determine whether it can
continue in service. On-Condition philosophy is to remove an item before it
fails, not fit until failure or fit and forget it.
3. Condition Monitoring. This process is one in which information on items
gained from operational experience is collected, analysed and interpreted on a
continuing basis as a means of implementing corrective procedures.
It is applied to items whose failure does not have a direct adverse effect on
operating safety and no adverse age reliability relationship has been identified.

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Introduction
This section gives general information on the concepts and practices of aircraft
maintenance control by the use of Condition Monitored Maintenance.
Confidence in continued airworthiness has long been based on the traditional
method of maintaining safety margins by the prescription of fixed component
lives and by aircraft strip-down policies.
However, there has been a need for change to this basic philosophy of aircraft
maintenance, influenced by
S the economic state of the industry
S changes in aircraft design philosophy, and
S progress in engineering technology.

CONTROL OF LIFE-LIMITED COMPONENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

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Figure 331

Time to Change

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M7.20 (Cat A)

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M7.20 (Cat A)

IR PART 66

66
67
69
71

M7.3 TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PUNCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SAW BLADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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FILE SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

75

21
21
21
21
23
25
25
29
39
45
55
57

TOOL HUSBANDRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TOOL CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TOOL CALIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIMENSIONS, ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MEASUREMENT UNIT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RULES AND SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SQUARES AND GAUGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BALL GAUGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MARKING OUT AND TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FILING

20

3
5

M 7.2 WORKSHOP PRACTISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PERSONAL SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIRE--GENERAL PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

M7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AIRCRAFT AND


WORKSHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

99
99
105

DRILL GRINDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRILLING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107
111
115
117

GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DEBURRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMMON DRILLING PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WORK CLAMPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page i

119
121
123
127

DRILLING WORK SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

STATIONARY DRILL MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


HAND-HELD DRILL MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HAND DRILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE CHUCK OF A DRILL MACHINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

91
93
95

91

DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRILL TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79
79
81
83
85
87
89

FILE CUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GRADE OF CUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROPER WORKING POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FILE TECHNIQUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FILING OF RADII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRAW FILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CLEANING DIRTY FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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131
141
143

145

163
163
167
169
173
183
195

199
201
211
213

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THREAD FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THREAD PITCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HAND THREADING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HAND TAPPING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPE OF TAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

219
221
223
225
227

T H R E A D C U T T I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COUNTERSINKING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GUIDELINES FOR COUNTERSINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COUNTERSINK CUTTING AGENTS / SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C O U N T E R S I N K I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


THE ISO SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REAMING GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REAMER DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF REAMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REAMING SPEED AND AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REAMING ADVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

R E A M I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DRILL SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


DRILL AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRILLING SIZES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DRILLING AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

TABLE OF CONTENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

ENGINEERING DRAWINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TITLE BLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PARTS LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES AND USE OF LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYMBOLS -- RECESSED HOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYMBOLS -- CONVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYMBOLS -- SURFACE TEXTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SKETCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTIONAL VIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page ii

281
281
281
283
283
283
283
285
291
293
295
297
299
299
299
303
309
311

M 7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

HOLES FOR TAPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229


HOW TO TAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
TORQUE WRENCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
TORQUE WRENCHES (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
MICROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
VERNIER CALLIPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
DIAL INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
ABRASIVE WHEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
GENERAL LUBRICATION INSTRUCTIONS - BOEING . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
EXAMPLE: B737 LUBRICATION FITTINGS REMOVAL/INSTALLATION . . .
269
EXAMPLE: A320 MLG AND DOORS LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
ELECTRICAL TEST EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

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Technical Training

313
315
317
319
321
323
325
327

CWM LRTT CoM

Aug 2004

SYSTEMS OF FITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FASTENERS -- HOLE AND DRILL DATA -- METALLIC STRUCTURE
WEAR LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TWIST LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STANDARD METHODS FOR CHECKING SHAFTS & BEARINGS . .
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331
339
355
357
359
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362
362

M 7.6 FITS AND CLEARANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

BLUEPRINT READING FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


DETAIL DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSTALLATION DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXPLODED--VIEW DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SCHEMATIC DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRAWING STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

367
369
375
381

389
393

401
403
403
Page iii

CRIMPING OF PIDG TERMINALS AND SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


CLOSED END SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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PRE INSULATED DIAMOND GRIP (PIDG) TERMINALS


AND SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

SOLDER SLEEVE PIGTAIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

CRIMPING OF CONTACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

CONTACT INSERT & REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


CONNECTOR CONTACT CRIMPING-TOOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONNECTOR TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

STRIPPING WIRE AND CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

GENERAL NOTES (CONTINUED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


WIRE AND CABLE SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WIRE BUNDLE TIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REPAIR OF WIRE AND CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GENERAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . 363

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403
403
403
403
405
407

411

419

421
423

CWM LRTT CoM

Aug 2004

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RIVETED JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTER-RIVET BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIMPLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TOOLS USED FOR SOLID RIVETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOLE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOLE PREPARATION (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

430
433
439
441
443
445
451
453

M7.8 RIVETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

CONTINUITY TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GROUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

BONDING RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

TERMINAL BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TERMINAL STRIPS, BLOCKS & MODULES . . . . . 409

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SPARE WIRE CAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRIMPING-INSPECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

470

504

508
508
508
508
510
512

Page iv

BEARINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SLIDING BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BEARING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . .

M 7.11 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

M7.10 SPRINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

TUBES AND PIPES / TUBE ASSEMBLIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470


CLAMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
FLARE-TYPE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
BENDING TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS . . . 484
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.) . .
486
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.) . .
488
TUBE BENDING COMING UP TO REQUESTED DIMENSIONS (CONT.) . .
490
HOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
HOSES (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
HOSES (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
HOSES (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

M7.9 PIPES AND HOSES

INSTALLATION PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455


INSPECTION AND PERMITTED LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
SOLID RIVET REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training

515
515
515
517
517
517

521

531

533
535

CWM LRTT CoM

Aug 2004

CABLE LINES (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


CONTROL CABLE HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSPECTION OF CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSPECTION OF PULLEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ROLLING ON TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ROLLING OF SLEEVE TERMINALS (CONT.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSPECTION OF MANUFACTURED CABLE LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CABLE TIGHTENING AND MEASURING TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CABLE TENSIOMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TELEFLEX CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

540
542
544
546
548
550
552
554
556
556
560
562

M 7.13 CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INSPECTION OF SCREWJACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INSPECTION OF BELTS, CHAINS AND CABLES 531

CONTROL CHAINS AND SPROCKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

M7.12 TRANSMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMOVAL OF BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSTALLATION OF BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSTALLATION OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BEARINGS THAT CANNOT BE DISASSEMBLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BEARINGS THAT CAN BE DISASSEMBLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

596
600
602
610
621

572
592
592
...

657
661
663

650
650
650
652
654
657

627
635
635
636
638
640
642
648
648

Page v

INSPECTION OF METAL AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . .


DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REPAIRABLE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE (CONTINUED) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION REMOVAL (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION ON ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CARBON STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION REMOVAL FROM STAINLESS STEEL AND NICKEL
CHROMIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CORROSION REMOVAL FROM TITANIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMOVAL OF CORROSION FROM CADMIUM-PLATED PARTS . .
TYPES OF CORROSION PROTECTION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . .
PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAINT FINISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAINT FINISHES IN THE AREA OF THE CABIN/FUSELAGE OUTER
SKIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTERMEDIATE PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

M7.18A TYPES OF DEFECT AND VISUAL


INSPECTION TECHNIQUES/ CORROSION
REMOVAL ASSESMENT AND REPROTECTION . 626

BOWDEN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A/C STORAGE METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RETURN TO OPERATION (PARKING OF NOT MORE THAN 2 DAYS)
PAGE: 594
PARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STORAGE (CONTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIRCRAFT REFUELLING/DEFUELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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665
667
669
671
673
674

CWM LRTT CoM

Aug 2004

LIGHTNING STRIKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIGH INTENSITY RADIATED FIELDS (HIRF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HARD LANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SEVERE OR UNUSUAL TURBULENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OVERLIMIT INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MANUAL ARRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REVISION SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MODIFICATION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CERTIFICATION/RELEASE PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAINTENANCE INSPECTION/QUALITY CONTROL/QUALITY
ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAINTENANCE RECORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTROL OF LIFE-LIMITED COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
716
718
720

678
680
682
684
684
690
692
710
714

M7.19 ABNORMAL EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

EPOXY PRIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COATING LACQUERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTRICALLY-CONDUCTIVE PAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WATER-REPELLENT FLUID AND CORROSION INHIBITORS . . . . .
DINITROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIS--ASSEMBLY AND RE--ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training

Page vi

Aug 2004

Workshop and Hangar Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working with Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety With Compressed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clean Work Containers (Fume Cabinets) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Individual and Team Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Fire and Relevant Extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fighting Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tool Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Equipment Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement Of Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number Prefix Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
English Length System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decimal And Metric Equivalent Of Inches . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexible Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scale Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexible Steel Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Set Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radius Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feeler Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blend Out Measurement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ball (Hole) Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marking Out Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marking-Out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marking-Out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uses of Combination Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Punches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saw Blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CWM LRTT CoM

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 23
Figure 24
Figure 25
Figure 26
Figure 27
Figure 28
Figure 29
Figure 30
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35

TABLE OF FIGURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

4
6
8
10
12
14
16
19
22
24
26
28
30
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
68
70
72
74
76
78

Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 40
Figure 41
Figure 42
Figure 43
Figure 44
Figure 45
Figure 46
Figure 47
Figure 48
Figure 49
Figure 50
Figure 51
Figure 52
Figure 53
Figure 54
Figure 55
Figure 56
Figure 57
Figure 58
Figure 59
Figure 60
Figure 61
Figure 62
Figure 63
Figure 64
Figure 65
Figure 66
Figure 67
Figure 68
Figure 69
Figure 70

File Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Filing of Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Draw Filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cleaning Dirty Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twist Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twist Drill Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drill Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machine Spindle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grinding Drill Point Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drill Grinding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grinding Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stationary Drill Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pillar Drill Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand-Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Hand Held Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Keyed Chuck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using The Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pillar Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drill Stop and Drill Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nut Plate Drill Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hole Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drill Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drill Size Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RPM Table IV - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Technical Training

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82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
108
110
112
114
116
118
120
122
128
130
134
136
138
140
144
146
147
148
149
150
151
152

Aug 2004

Table IV - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 4 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table IV - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Types Of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ISO Fits (Hole Basis) - British Standard 4500 . . . . . . . .
Table Of Defect Criteria (ATA-Chapter 51--40--05) . . . .
Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Space Of Cutting Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machine Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pilot and Pilot Chuck Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansion Hand Reamer and Taper Reamer . . . . . . . . .
Adjustable Hand Reamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 1 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 2 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V- 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table V - 5 (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reaming Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Table Of Sheet Thickness For Countersinking
Standard Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Microstop Countersink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Microstop Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Back Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spotfacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CWM LRTT CoM

Figure 71
Figure 72
Figure 73
Figure 74
Figure 75
Figure 76
Figure 77
Figure 78
Figure 79
Figure 80
Figure 81
Figure 82
Figure 83
Figure 84
Figure 85
Figure 86
Figure 87
Figure 88
Figure 89
Figure 90
Figure 91
Figure 92
Figure 93
Figure 94
Figure 95
Figure 96
Figure 97
Figure 98
Figure 99
Figure 100
Figure 101
Figure 102
Figure 103
Figure 104
Figure 105

TABLE OF FIGURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

153
154
155
156
157
158
159
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
196
200
202
204
206
208
210
214
215

Figure 106 Thread Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Figure 107 Screw Pitch Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 108 Hand Threading Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 109 Hand Tapping Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 110 Types of Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 111 Holes for Tapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 112 How to Tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 113 Torque Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 114 Torque Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 115 Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 116 Reading Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 117 Reading Examples (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 118 Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 119 Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 120 Vernier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 121 Principle of a Vernier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................
Figure 122 Vernier Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................
Figure 123 Vernier Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 124 Vernier Reading Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 125 Vernier Reading Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 126 Vernier Measuring Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 127 Dial Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 128 Dial Indicator Work Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 129 Off-Hand Grinding Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 130 Lubrication Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 131 Lubrication Symbol Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 132 B737 Main Landing Gear Lubrication Example . . . . . .
Figure 133 Lubrication Fitting Modification and Installation . . . . . .
Figure 134 Greaser Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 135 Greaser Table (Contd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 136 Lubrication Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 137 Electrical Test Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 138 Bond Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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236
238
240
241
244
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250
251
251
252
253
254
256
258
260
262
264
266
268
270
272
273
274
276
278

Aug 2004

SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engineering Drawing -- Standard Layout . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types And Use Of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Break Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repetitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Drawing Symbols -- Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Drawing Symbols -- Recessed Holes . . . . . .
Typical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Texture Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First Angle Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Third Angle Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sectional View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART, HALF AND STAGGERED SECTIONS . . . . . . .
AUXILIARY VIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON DATUM . . . . . .
Dimensional Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detail Drawing 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detail Drawing 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assembly Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exploded - View Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schematic Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawing Storage Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fits and Clearances - Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Types Of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clearance Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types Of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CWM LRTT CoM

Figure 139
Figure 140
Figure 141
Figure 142
Figure 143
Figure 144
Figure 145
Figure 146
Figure 147
Figure 148
Figure 149
Figure 150
Figure 151
Figure 152
Figure 153
Figure 154
Figure 155
Figure 156
Figure 157
Figure 158
Figure 159
Figure 160
Figure 161
Figure 162
Figure 163
Figure 164
Figure 165
Figure 166
Figure 167
Figure 168
Figure 169
Figure 170
Figure 171
Figure 172
Figure 173

TABLE OF FIGURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

282
284
286
288
290
292
294
296
298
300
302
304
306
308
310
312
314
316
318
320
322
324
326
328
332
334
336
338
340
341
342
343
344
345
346

Figure 174
Figure 175
Figure 176
Figure 177
Figure 178
Figure 179
Figure 180
Figure 181
Figure 182
Figure 183
Figure 184
Figure 185
Figure 186
Figure 187
Figure 188
Figure 189
Figure 190
Figure 191
Figure 192
Figure 193
Figure 194
Figure 195
Figure 196
Figure 197
Figure 198
Figure 199
Figure 200
Figure 201
Figure 202
Figure 203
Figure 204
Figure 205
Figure 206
Figure 207
Figure 208

Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extracts From Airbus SRM -- 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outer Airbrakes - Wear Limits (A300) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twist Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Dial Test Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General installation (cont) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clamp Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bundle Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wire bundle tying examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plastic wire ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repair of wire and cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wire stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rear release contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Front release contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solder sleeve pigtails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PIDG Terminals & Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping of Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Closed End Splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping spare wire caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminal strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminal blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crimping terminal block contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminal modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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366
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372
374
376
378
380
382
388
390
392
394
396
398
400
402
404
406
408
410
412
414
416

CWM LRTT CoM

Aug 2004

Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
418
Bonding resistance measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
422
Measurement of insulation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
424
Continuity testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
426
Solid Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
432
Fastener Edge Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
434
Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing) . .
435
Figure 218 Grip Ranges/Recommended Lengths: Standard Aluminium
Alloy Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
436
Figure 219 Dimensions for Driving Non-Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing) . .
437
Figure 220 Dimensions for Driving Fluid-Tight Solid Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . .
438
Figure 221 Standard Drill Sizes & Decimal Equivalents . . . . . . . . .
440
Figure 222 Fuel Tank Fastener Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
442
Figure 223 Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
444
Figure 224 Rivet Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
446
Figure 225 Rivet Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
448
Figure 226 Rivet Squeezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
450
Figure 227 Minimum Part Thickness for 100o Countersinking . . .
452
Figure 228 Underhead Radius/Chamfer Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
454
Figure 229 Bucking Bars - Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
456
Figure 230 Upset Rivet Dimension (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
458
Figure 231 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 1 . . . . . . . .
459
Figure 232 Formed Head Defects and Limits (Airbus) 2 . . . . . . . .
460
Figure 233 Acceptable Limits for Cracks (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
462
Figure 234 Cracks Analysis: Shop Head (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
463
Figure 235 Cracks Analysis: Non-Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing) . . . .
464
Figure 236 Cracks Analysis: Fluid-Tight Rivets (Boeing) . . . . . . . .
465
Figure 237 Gap Analysis: Rivet Heads/Tails (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . .
466
Figure 238 Solid Rivet Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
468
Figure 239 Correct Tube Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
471
Figure 240 Clamp Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
473
Figure 241 Single Flare Fittings and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
475

Figure 209
Figure 210
Figure 211
Figure 212
Figure 213
Figure 215
Figure 216
Figure 217

TABLE OF FIGURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Figure 242
Figure 243
Figure 244
Figure 245
Figure 246
Figure 247
Figure 248
Figure 249
Figure 250
Figure 251
Figure 252
Figure 253
Figure 254
Figure 255
Figure 256
Figure 257
Figure 258
Figure 259
Figure 260
Figure 261
Figure 262
Figure 263
Figure 264
Figure 265
Figure 266
Figure 267
Figure 268
Figure 269
Figure 270
Figure 271
Figure 272
Figure 273
Figure 274
Figure 275
Figure 276

Flared Fitting Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tube Bender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tube Bender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . .
Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . .
Tube Bending to Requested Dimension 3 . . . . . . . . . .
Material/Diameter/Thickness Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexible Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reusable Hose Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airbus A340 Main Landing Gear Lock Springs . . . . . .
Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Defects 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Defects 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Installation Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bearing Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Chain Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chain Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Reversible Chain Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of THS Drive Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B737 Stabilizer Ball Nut and Jackscrew Inspection . .
Types of Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uneven gear wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Build-Up of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tying cable ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable Inspection (A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pulley Inspection (AMM A320) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand-Operated Rolling Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inserting Cable in Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Go No-go gauging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pull Tester AT520CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Aug 2004

Cable Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
557
Locking turnbuckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
559
Typical Remote Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
561
Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings . . . . . . .
563
Teleflex System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
565
Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive . . . . . . . . . .
567
Teleflex Conduit Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
569
Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . .
571
Bowden Control Components 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
573
Bowden Control Components 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
575
...............................................
584
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587
Examples of Protection Devices on Fuselage . . . . . . .
593
Parking Intervals (Not More Than 2 Days) . . . . . . . . . .
595
Protection Devices on Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
597
Parking Intervals (not more than 12 weeks) . . . . . . . . .
599
Aircraft Storage - Inspection Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
601
A/C Storage - Inspection Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603
Typical Fuelling/Defuelling Safety Zone . . . . . . . . . . . .
611
DC and 3 Phase Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
623
Defect Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
628
Visual Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
630
Endoscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
632
Typical Light Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
634
Types of Structural Damage 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
637
Types of Structural Damage 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
639
Corrosion Removal Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
643
Abrasive Bead-Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
645
Different Paint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
658
Paint Build-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
660
Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer I . . . . .
662
Influence of Humidity by Application of Primer II . . . . .
664
Epoxy-Primer Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
666
Top Coat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
668

CWM LRTT CoM

Figure 281
Figure 282
Figure 283
Figure 284
Figure 285
Figure 286
Figure 290
Figure 292
Figure 295
Figure 296
Figure 297
Figure 298
Figure 299
Figure 300
Figure 301
Figure 306
Figure 307
Figure 308
Figure 309
Figure 310
Figure 311
Figure 312
Figure 313
Figure 314
Figure 315
Figure 316
Figure 317
Figure 318
Figure 319
Figure 320

Figure 277
Figure 278
Figure 279
Figure 280

TABLE OF FIGURES

M7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Figure 321
Figure 322
Figure 323
Figure 324
Figure 325
Figure 330
Figure 331

Electrostatic Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Lightning Strike Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hard Nose Gear Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Designed-In Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample: Release-To-Service Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time to Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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