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Governing Equations
The governing equations include the following conservation laws of physics:
Conservation of mass.
Newtons second law: the change of momentum equals the sum of forces on a
fluid particle.
First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy): rate of change of energy
equals the sum of rate of heat addition to and work done on fluid particle.
The fluid is treated as a continuum. For length scales of, say, 1m and larger,
the molecular structure and motions may be ignored.
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(x,y,z)
y
z
x
Faces are labeled North, East,
West, South, Top and Bottom
Mass Balance
Rate of increase of mass in fluid element equals the net rate of flow of mass into element.
x y z
Rate of increase is: ( x y z ) =
t
1
( v)
.
v +
y
2
y x z
( w) 1
. z x y
w +
z
2
(u) 1
. x y z
u +
x
2
( u ) 1
. x y z
u
x
2
( v) 1
. y x z
v
y
2
z
x
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( w) 1
. z x y
w
z
2
Continuity Equation
Summing all terms in the previous slide and dividing by the volume xyz results in:
+ ( u ) + ( v ) + ( w) = 0
t
x
y
z
In vector notation:
+ div ( u ) = 0
t
Change in density
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u + v + w = 0 and ui = 0
xi
x y z
dV + U dS = 0
t V
S
Integral form
Conservati on form
D
dV = 0
Dt V
Integral form
Non conservati on form
U
Infinitesimally small
element fixed in space
+ ( U ) = 0
t
Differenti al form
Conservati on form
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D
+ U = 0
Dt
Differenti al form
Non conservati on form
7
Terminology: fluid element is a volume stationary in space, and a fluid particle is a volume of
fluid moving with the flow.
A moving fluid particle experiences two rates of changes:
Change due to changes in the fluid as a function of time.
Change due to the fact that it moves to a different location in the fluid with different
conditions.
The sum of these two rates of changes for a property per unit mass is called the total or
substantive derivative D /Dt:
D dx dy dz
=
+
+
+
Dt
t
x dt
y dt
z dt
+ u. grad
=
Dt
t
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In most cases we are interested in the changes of a flow property for a fluid element, or fluid
volume, that is stationary in space.
However, some equations are easier derived for fluid particles. For a moving fluid particle, the
total derivative per unit volume of this property is given by:
(for moving fluid particle)
=
+ u. grad
Dt
t
( )
+ div ( u ) = 0
t
+ div ( u) = 0
t
Continuity equation
Arbitrary property
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We can derive the relationship between the equations for a fluid particle (Lagrangian) and a
fluid element (Eulerian) as follows:
( )
D
+ div ( u ) =
+ u . grad +
+ div ( u ) =
Dt
t
t
( )
D
+ div ( u ) =
t
Dt
Rate of increase of
of fluid element
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Rate of increase of
for a fluid particle
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To Remember So Far
We need to derive conservation equations that we can solve to calculate fluid velocities and
other properties.
These equations can be derived either for a fluid particle that is moving with the flow
(Lagrangian) or for a fluid element that is stationary in space (Eulerian).
For CFD purposes we need them in Eulerian form, but (according to the book) they are
somewhat easier to derive in Lagrangian form.
Luckily, when we derive equations for a property in one form, we can convert them to the
other form using the relationship shown on the bottom in the previous slide.
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Du
Dt
( u )
+ div( uu)
t
y-momentum
Dv
Dt
( v)
+ div( vu)
t
z-momentum
Dw
Dt
( w)
+ div( wu)
t
Energy
DE
Dt
( E )
+ div( Eu)
t
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Du
Dt
Dv
Dt
Dw
Dt
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Viscous stresses
Stresses are forces per area. Unit is N/m2
or Pa.
Viscous stresses denoted by t.
Suffix notation tij is used to indicate
direction.
Nine stress components.
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yx 1
. y ) x z
y 2
(p
( xx
( zx +
zx 1
. z ) y z
1
z 2
( yx yx . y ) x z
y 2
p 1
. x ) y z
x 2
xx 1
. x ) y z
x 2
(p+
p 1
. x ) y z
x 2
( xx +
xx 1
. x ) y z
x 2
z
y
x
( zx
zx 1
. z ) x y
z 2
Net force in the xx-direction is the sum of all the force components in that direction.
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Momentum Equation
Set the rate of change of x-momentum for a fluid particle Du/Dt equal to:
the sum of the forces due to surface stresses shown in the previous slide, plus
the body forces. These are usually lumped together into a source term SM:
zx
Du ( p + xx ) yx
=
+
+
+ S Mx
Dt
x
y
z
=
+
+
Dt
x
y
z
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Dw xz yz ( p + zz )
=
+
+
+ S Mz
Dt
x
y
z
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Energy Equation
First law of thermodynamics: rate of change of energy of a fluid particle is
equal to the rate of heat addition plus the rate of work done.
Rate of increase of energy is DE/Dt.
Energy E = i + (u2+v2+w2).
Here, i is the internal (thermal energy).
(u2+v2+w2) is the kinetic energy.
Potential energy (gravitation) is usually treated separately and included as a
source term.
We will derive the energy equation by setting the total derivative equal to
the change in energy as a result of work done by viscous stresses and the net
heat conduction.
Next we will subtract the kinetic energy equation to arrive at a conservation
equation for the internal energy.
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(u xx
(u yx ) 1
. y ) x z
y
2
(u zx +
(u zx ) 1
. z ) y z
z
2
(u yx ) 1
(u yx
. y ) x z
y
2
(up ) 1
. x ) y z
x 2
(up +
(u xx ) 1
. x ) y z
x
2
(u xx +
(up ) 1
. x ) y z
x 2
(u xx ) 1
. x ) y z
x
2
z
y
x
(u zx
(u zx ) 1
. z ) x y
z
2
18
Add all and divide by xyz to get the work done per unit volume by the
surface stresses:
(u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) ( v xy )
div ( p u ) +
+
+
+
x
y
z
x
( v yy ) ( v zy ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) (u zz )
+
+
+
+
+
y
z
x
y
z
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(q x
q y 1
. y ) x z
y 2
q x 1
. x ) y z
x 2
(q z +
q z 1
. z ) x y
z 2
(q x +
q x 1
. x ) y z
x 2
z
y
x
(q z
q z 1
. z ) x y
z 2
q y 1
(q y
. y ) x z
y 2
The heat flux vector q has three components, qx, qy, and qz.
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q x q y q z
= div q
x
y
z
Fouriers law of heat conduction relates the heat flux to the local temperature gradient:
qx = k
T
x
qy = k
T
y
qz = k
T
z
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Energy Equation
Setting the total derivative for the energy in a fluid particle equal to the previously derived
work and energy flux terms, results in the following energy equation:
(u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) ( v xy )
DE
= div ( p u ) +
+
+
+
Dt
z
x
( v yy ) ( v zy ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) (u zz )
+
+
+
+
+
y
z
x
y
z
+ div ( k grad T ) + S E
Note that we also added a source term SE that includes sources (potential energy, sources due
to heat production from chemical reactions, etc.).
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D[ 12 (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 )]
xx yx zx
= u
u.. grad p + u
+
+
Dt
y
z
x
xy yy zy
xz yz zz
+ v
+
+
+
+
+w
+ u. S M
y
z
y
z
x
x
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u
u
v
u
+
+
+
yx
zx
xy
xx x
y
z
v
v
w
w
u
+ zy
+ xz
+ yz
+ zz
y
z
x
y
z
Di
= p div u +
Dt
+ yy
+ div ( k grad T ) + S i
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Enthalpy Equation
An often used alternative form of the energy equation is the total enthalpy
equation.
Specific enthalpy h = i + p/.
Total enthalpy h0 = h + (u2+v2+w2) = E + p/.
( h0 )
+ div ( h0 u ) = div ( k grad T )
t
(u yx )
( v xy )
(u xx )
(u zx )
+
+
+
+
z
x
( v yy )
y
( v zy )
z
( w yz )
( w xz )
(u zz )
+
+
+
x
y
z
+ Sh
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Equations of State
Fluid motion is described by five partial differential equations for mass, momentum, and
energy.
Amongst the unknowns are four thermodynamic variables: , p, i, and T.
We will assume thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. that the time it takes for a fluid particle to
adjust to new conditions is short relative to the timescale of the flow.
We add two equations of state using the two state variables and T: p=p(,T) and i=i(,T).
For a perfect gas, these become: p= RT and i=CvT.
At low speeds (e.g. Ma < 0.2), the fluids can be considered incompressible. There is no linkage
between the energy equation, and the mass and momentum equation. We then only need to
solve for energy if the problem involves heat transfer.
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Viscous Stresses
A model for the viscous stresses ij is required.
We will express the viscous stresses as functions of the local deformation rate (strain rate)
tensor.
There are two types of deformation:
Linear deformation rates due to velocity gradients.
Elongating stress components (stretching).
Shearing stress components.
Volumetric deformation rates due to expansion or compression.
All gases and most fluids are isotropic: viscosity is a scalar.
Some fluids have anisotropic viscous stress properties, such as certain polymers and dough.
We will not discuss those here.
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= yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xz
yz
zz
u 2
2
div u
x 3
u v
=
+
x
y
u w
+
z
x
u v
+
y x
v 2
2
div u
y 3
v w
+
z y
u w
+
z x
v w
+
z
y
w 2
2
div u
z 3
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NavierNavier-Stokes Equations
Including the viscous stress terms in the momentum balance and
rearranging, results in the Navier-Stokes equations:
x momentum :
( u )
p
+ div ( u u ) =
+ div ( grad u ) + S Mx
t
x
y momentum :
( v )
p
+ div ( v u ) =
+ div ( grad v ) + S My
t
y
z momentum :
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( w)
p
+ div ( w u ) =
+ div ( grad w ) + S Mz
t
z
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Viscous Dissipation
Similarly, substituting the stresses in the internal energy equation and rearranging results in:
Internal energy :
( i )
+ div ( iu ) = p div u + div ( k grad T ) + + S i
t
Here is the viscous dissipation term. This term is always positive and describes the
conversion of mechanical energy to heat.
u 2 v 2 w 2
= 2 + +
z
x
y
u v 2
+
+
y x
2
2
2
w
v
w
+
+
+
( div u ) 2
+
z x
z y 3
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+ div ( u ) = 0
t
( u )
p
+ div ( u u ) =
+ div ( grad u ) + S Mx
t
x
Mass :
x momentum :
y momentum :
z momentum :
Internal energy :
( v )
p
+ div ( v u ) =
+ div ( grad v ) + S My
t
y
( w)
p
+ div ( w u ) =
+ div ( grad w ) + S Mz
t
z
( i )
+ div ( iu ) = p div u + div ( k grad T ) + + S i
t
Equations of state :
p = p ( , T ) and
i = i( ,T )
31
( )
+ div ( u ) = div ( grad ) + S
t
Or, in words:
Rate of increase
of of fluid
element
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Rate of increase
of due to
diffusion
Rate of increase
of due to
sources
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Integral Form
The key step of the finite volume method is to integrate the differential equation shown in the
previous slide, and then to apply Gauss divergence theorem, which for a vector a states:
div a dV = n a dA
CV
This then leads to the following general conservation equation in integral form:
dV + n ( u ) dA = n ( grad ) dA + S dV
t CV
A
A
CV
Rate of
increase
of
Net rate of
decrease of due
+ to convection
across boundaries
Net rate of
increase of due
to diffusion
across boundaries
Net rate of
creation
of
This is the actual form of the conservation equations solved by finite volume based CFD
programs to calculate the flow pattern and associated scalar fields.
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Turbulensi
Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics
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Turbulensi
Apakah Turbulensi?
Teori Umum
Pengaruh turbulensi pada persamaan NavierStokes.
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Ketidakstabilan
Untuk aliran turbulen, usaha perhitungan pada semua waktu dan panjang skala dihindari.
Pendekatan engineering untuk menghitung medan aliran rata-rata waktu aliran turbulen
dikembangkan.
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Apakah Turbulensi?
Turbulensi?
Keadaan tidak teratur, tidak dapat diduga, kekacauan
Mekanika Fluida: gangguan pada aliran. Lawannya adalah laminar.
Gangguan mempengaruhi aliran, elemen-elemen dalam fluida, proses-proses yang terjadi di
fluida.
Gerakan tidak mantap (Unsteady), tidak periodik dimana ketiga komponen kecepatan
berfluktuasi, percampuran bahan, momentum, dan energi
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Apakah Turbulensi?
Turbulensi?
Time
Hal yang sama terjadi pada tekanan, temperatur, dan nilai konsentrasi unsur
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Jet memasuki fuida stagnan, lapisan campuran, gelombang dibelakang objek seperti silinder.
Aliran-aliran ini sering digunakan sebagai studi kasus untuk menguji kemampuan software
CFD dalam memprediksi aliran fluida.
jet
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mixing layer
wake
39
Transisi
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T-S waves
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Turbulent spots
42
Side view
43
44
45
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Small Structure
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Large Structure
47
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20 km
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Cincin Asap
A smoke ring (green) impinges on a plate where it interacts with the slow moving
smoke in the boundary layer (pink). The vortex ring stretches and new rings form.
The size of the vortex structures decreases over time.
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53
Turbulensi timbul pada grid karena tegangan tinggi di sekitar grid. Turbulensi terlihat dengan
menginjeksikan asap ke aliran pada grid. Eddi terlihat sebab ia mengandung asap. Pada titik ini, tidak ada
sumber turbulen karena aliran seragam. Aliran didominasi oleh konveksi dan disipasi. Pada turbulensi
karena berkurangnya homogenitas, energi kinetik turbulen menurun pada jarak dari grid x-1 dan the
turbulen eddie tumbuh dengan ukuran x1/2.
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Pada aliran di sekitar silinder, aliran mulai terpisah (separasi) pada Re = 5. Pada Re dibawah
30, aliran stabil. Osilasi muncul pada Re yang lebih tinggi.
Titik separasi bergerak ke atas, menaikkan drag up hingga Re = 2000.
Re = 9.6
Re = 30.2
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Re = 13.1
Re = 2000
Re = 26
Re = 10,000
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Turbulensi:
Turbulensi: Bilangan Reynolds tinggi
Aliran turbulen selalu terjadi pada bilangan Reynolds tinggi.
tinggi. Hal ini terjadi karena
interaksi kompleks antara bagian viskos dan bagian inersia pada persamaan
momentum.
56
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Turbulensi:
Turbulensi: Diffusivitas
58
Turbulensi:
Turbulensi: Dissipasi
59
Turbulensi:
Turbulensi: Rotasi dan Vortisitas
Aliran turbulen adalah rotational; yaitu,
yaitu, vortisitasnya tidak nol. Mekanisme seperti
stretching vorteks 3 dimensi memainkan peran penting pada turbulensi.
turbulensi.
Vorteks
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Apakah Turbulensi?
Turbulensi?
Karakteristik aliran turbulen:
turbulen:
Irregularity (ketidakteraturan) atau randomness. Pendekatan deterministik penuh sangat
sulit. Aliran turbulen biasanya dijelaskan dengan statistik. Aliran turbulen selalu kaotik.
Tetapi tidak semua aliran yang kaotik adalah turbulen. Contoh: gelombang laut, bisa kaotik
tetapi belum tentu turbulen.
Diffusivitas dari turbulensi akan menyebabkan pencampuran yang cepat dan menaikkan
laju momentum, kalor, dan perpindahan massa. Aliran yang terlihat acak tetapi tidak
memperlihatkan penyebaran fluktuasi kecepatan melalui fluida sekelilingnya bukanlah
turbulen. Jika aliran kaotik, tetapi tidak difusiv, bukanlah turbulen. Jejak yang ditinggalkan
pesawat jet kelihatannya kaotik, namun tidak berdifusi sejauh berkilo-kilo meter bukanlah
turbulen.
Aliran turbulen selalu terjadi pada bilangan Reynolds tinggi.
tinggi Hal ini terjadi karena interaksi
kompleks antara bagian viskos dan bagian inersia pada persamaan momentum.
Aliran turbulen adalah rotational;
rotational yaitu, vortisitasnya tidak nol. Mekanisme seperti
stretching vorteks 3 dimensi memainkan peran penting pada turbulensi.
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Apakah Turbulensi?
Turbulensi? lanj.
lanj.
Aliran turbulen adalah dissipasi.
dissipasi Energi kinetik berubah menjadi energi kalor karena
tegangan geser viskos. Aliran turbulen akan hilang secara cepat jika tidak ada energi yang
diberikan. Gerak acak yang mempunyai kerugian viskos yang tidak signifikan, seperti pada
gelombang suara, bukanlah turbulen
Aliran turbulen adalah fenomena continuum (satu kesatuan). Bahkan eddi terkecil jauh
lebih besar dari skala molekul. Turbulensi diatur oleh persamaan mekanika fluida.
Aliran turbulen adalah aliran. Turbulensi adalah bentuk aliran fluida,
fluida bukan fluida. Jika
bilangan Reynolds cukup tinggi, sebagian besar dinamika turbulensi adalah sama, apakah
fluidanya cair atau gas. Sebagian besar dinamika tidak bergantung pada sifat-sifat fluida.
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Pendekatan Euler
Perlakuan Turbulensi:
Pendekatan deterministik: solusi pers. Navier-Stokes
Pendekatan statistik: Kolmogorov
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Persamaan Navier-Stokes:
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Re<2000 : aliran laminar; persamaan Euler dan Bernoulli akurat untuk konisi ini
2000<Re<4000 : aliran transisi; fungsi yang tepat digunakan adalah Euler dan Navier-Stokes
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Log E
Integra
l scale
Taylor scale
Panjang scale:
Eddie paling besar. Integral length
scale (k3/2/e).
Scale panjang dimana turbulensi
isotropik. Taylor microscale
(15nu2/e)1/2.
Eddie paling kecil. Panjang scale
Kolmogorov (n3/e)1/4. Eddie ini
mempunyai scale kecepatan (n.e)1/4
dan scale waktu (n/e)1/2.
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Kolmogoro
v scale
Wavenumber
68
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Vortex Stretching
t2
t1
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t4
t5
t3
t6
70
UL
Re L
L = x, D, Dh, etc.
Re Dh
2,200
Natural convection:
Ra
gTL3
Ra 10 8 1010
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Experimental Snapshot
Effective Viscosity
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Decomposition
Flow property . The mean is defined as :
1 t
=
(t ) dt
t 0
t should be larger than the time scale of the slowest turbulent
fluctuatio ns.
Time dependence : (t ) = + ' (t )
Write shorthand as : = + '
1 t
'=
' (t ) dt = 0 by definition
t 0
Informatio n regarding the fluctuatin g part of the flow can be obtained
from the root mean - square (rms) of the fluctuatio ns :
rms =
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1 t
2
2
( ' ) =
(
'
)
dt
t
0
1/ 2
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Velocity Decomposition
Velocity and pressure decomposition: Velocity : u = U + u '
Pressure : p = P + p '
Turbulent kinetic energy k (per unit mass) is defined as:
k=
1 2
u ' + v '2 + w'2
2
( 23 k )1 / 2
Turbulence intensity : Ti =
U ref
Continuity equation:
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x momentum :
y momentum :
( V )
P
+ div ( V U ) =
+ div ( grad V ) + S My
t
y
( W )
P
+ div ( grad W ) + S Mz
+ div ( W U ) =
z
t
( u ' w ') ( v ' w ') ( w ' 2 )
+
x
y
z
z momentum :
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Reynolds Stresses
These equations contain an additional stress tensor. These are called the Reynolds stresses.
xx
= yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
u '2
u 'v ' u ' w '
xz
2
zz
u 'w ' v 'w ' w '
In turbulent flow, the Reynolds stresses are usually large compared to the viscous stresses.
The normal stresses are always non-zero because they contain squared velocity fluctuations.
The shear stresses would be zero if the fluctuations were statistically independent. However,
they are correlated (amongst other reasons because of continuity) and the shear stresses are
therefore usually also non-zero.
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+ div ( U ) = 0
t
t
( u ' ') ( v ' ') ( w ' ')
+
y
z
Notes on density:
Here r is the mean density.
This form of the equations is suitable for flows where changes in the mean density are
important, but the effect of density fluctuations on the mean flow is negligible.
For flows with Ti<5% this is up to Mach 5 and with Ti<20% this is valid up to around
Mach 1.
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Closure Modeling
The time averaged equations now contain six additional unknowns in the momentum
equations.
Additional unknowns have also been introduced in the scalar equation.
Turbulent flows are usually quite complex, and there are no simple formulae for these
additional terms.
The main task of turbulence modeling is to develop computational procedures of sufficient
accuracy and generality for engineers to be able to accurately predict the Reynolds stresses
and the scalar transport terms.
This will then allow for the computation of the time averaged flow and scalar fields without
having to calculate the actual flow fields over long time periods.
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Sumber
Carlos G. Moreno, Turbulence, Vibrations, Noise and Fluid Instabilities. Practical Approach.
Andre Bakker, Lecture 8 Turbulence, Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics
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Turbulence Models
A turbulence model is a computational procedure to close the system of mean flow equations.
For most engineering applications it is unnecessary to resolve the details of the turbulent
fluctuations.
Turbulence models allow the calculation of the mean flow without first calculating the full
time-dependent flow field.
We only need to know how turbulence affected the mean flow.
In particular we need expressions for the Reynolds stresses.
For a turbulence model to be useful it:
must have wide applicability,
be accurate,
simple,
and economical to run.
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Prediction Methods
= l/ReL3/4
l
Direct numerical simulation (DNS)
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Boussinesq Hypothesis
Many turbulence models are based upon the Boussinesq hypothesis.
It was experimentally observed that turbulence decays unless there is shear in isothermal
incompressible flows.
Turbulence was found to increase as the mean rate of deformation increases.
Boussinesq proposed in 1877 that the Reynolds stresses could be linked to the mean rate
of deformation.
Using the suffix notation where i, j, and k denote the x-, y-, and z-directions respectively,
viscous stresses are given by:
ij = eij = i + j
x j xi
Similarly, link Reynolds stresses to the mean rate of deformation:
U i U j
+
ij = u i ' u j ' = t
xi
x j
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85
Turbulent Viscosity
U i U j
ij = u i ' u j ' = t
+
x
xi
j
We can also define a kinematic turbulent viscosity: t = t/. Its unit is m2/s.
It is, however, assumed to be isotropic. It is the same in all directions. This assumption is valid
for many flows, but not for all (e.g. flows with strong separation or swirl).
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86
u i ' ' = t
xi
t =
t
t
Experiments have shown that the turbulent Schmidt number is nearly constant with typical
values between 0.7 and 1.
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97
On dimensional grounds one can express the kinematic turbulent viscosity as the product of a
velocity scale and a length scale:
t (m 2 / s) (m / s) l(m)
If we then assume that the velocity scale is proportional to the length scale and the gradients
in the velocity (shear rate, which has dimension 1/s):
l
U
y
t = l 2m
U
y
Algebraic expressions exist for the mixing length for simple 2-D flows, such as pipe and
channel flow.
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98
Advantages:
Easy to implement.
Fast calculation times.
Good predictions for simple flows where experimental correlations for the mixing length
exist.
Disadvantages:
Completely incapable of describing flows where the turbulent length scale varies:
anything with separation or circulation.
Only calculates mean flow properties and turbulent shear stress.
Use:
Sometimes used for simple external aero flows.
Pretty much completely ignored in commercial CFD programs today.
99
100
The k- model
The k- model focuses on the mechanisms that affect the turbulent kinetic energy (per unit
mass) k.
The instantaneous kinetic energy k(t) of a turbulent flow is the sum of mean kinetic energy K
and turbulent kinetic energy k:
K = 12 U 2 + V 2 + W 2
k=
k (t ) = K + k
t l k
1/ 2
k 3/2
k2
101
(K )
+ div ( K U ) = div ( P U + 2 U E ij U u i ' u j ') 2 E ij .E ij ( u i ' u j '.E ij )
t
(II )
(I )
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )
Here Eij is the mean rate of deformation tensor.
This equation can be read as:
(I) the rate of change of K, plus
(II) transport of K by convection, equals
(III) transport of K by pressure, plus
(IV) transport of K by viscous stresses, plus
(V) transport of K by Reynolds stresses, minus
(VI) rate of dissipation of K, minus
(VII) turbulence production.
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(k )
+ div ( kU ) = div ( p ' u ' + 2 u ' eij ' 12 u i '.u i ' u j ') 2 eij '.eij ' + ( u i ' u j '.E ij )
t
(II )
(I )
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )
Here eij is fluctuating component of rate of deformation tensor.
This equation can be read as:
(I) the rate of change of k, plus
(II) transport of k by convection, equals
(III) transport of k by pressure, plus
(IV) transport of k by viscous stresses, plus
(V) transport of k by Reynolds stresses, minus
(VI) rate of dissipation of k, plus
(VII) turbulence production.
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( k )
+ div ( kU ) = div t grad k + 2 t E ij .E ij
t
k
Rate of
increase
Convective
transport
Diffusive
transport
Rate of
production
Rate of
destruction
The Prandtl number k connects the diffusivity of k to the eddy viscosity. Typically a value of
1.0 is used.
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Turbulent Dissipation
The equations look quite similar.
However, the k equation mainly contains primed quantities, indicating that changes in k are
mainly governed by turbulent interactions.
Furthermore, term (VII) is equal in both equations. But it is actually negative in the K equation
(destruction) and positive in the k equation: energy transfers from the mean flow to the
turbulence.
The viscous dissipation term (VI) in the k equation 2 eij '.eij '
describes the dissipation of k because of the work done by the smallest eddies against the
viscous stresses.
We can now define the rate of dissipation per unit mass as: = 2 eij '.eij '
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A model equation for is derived by multiplying the k equation by (/k) and introducing
model constants.
( )
2
+ div ( U ) = div grad + C1 2 t E ij .E ij C 2
t
k
k
Rate of
increase
Convective
transport
Diffusive
transport
Rate of
production
Rate of
destruction
The Prandtl number connects the diffusivity of to the eddy viscosity. Typically a value of
1.30 is used.
Typically values for the model constants C1 and C2 of 1.44 and 1.92 are used.
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t = C
k2
C = 0 .09
U i U j 2
k ij = 2 t E ij 2 k ij
u i ' u j ' = t
+
3
x
3
j
i
ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if i j
The (2/3)kij term ensures that the normal stresses sum to k.
Note that the k- model leads to all normal stresses being equal, which is usually inaccurate.
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k- Model Discussion
Advantages:
Relatively simple to implement.
Leads to stable calculations that converge relatively easily.
Reasonable predictions for many flows.
Disadvantages:
Poor predictions for:
swirling and rotating flows,
flows with strong separation,
axisymmetric jets,
certain unconfined flows, and
fully developed flows in non-circular ducts.
Valid only for fully turbulent flows.
Simplistic equation.
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110
Improvement: RNG k-
k- equations are derived from the application of a rigorous statistical technique
(Renormalization Group Method) to the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations.
Similar in form to the standard k- equations but includes:
Additional term in equation for interaction between turbulence dissipation and mean
shear.
The effect of swirl on turbulence.
Analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl number.
Differential formula for effective viscosity.
Improved predictions for:
High streamline curvature and strain rate.
Transitional flows.
Wall heat and mass transfer.
But still does not predict the spreading of a round jet correctly.
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RNG k- Equations
Turbulent kinetic energy:
k
k
2
U i
= t S +
k eff
where
{
xi
xi
xi {
1
424
3 Generation 1442443 Dissipation
1 U j Ui
S 2Sij Sij , Sij
+
2 xi x j
Diffusion
Convection
Dissipation rate:
2
2
eff
C 2 {
U i
= C1 t S +
R
xi 1 4
k
x
k
i
i
42 44
3 14
1
424
3
142 43
42 4 43
Additional term
Convection Generation
Diffusion
Destruction related to mean strain
& turbulence quantities
k, , C1 , C2
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Improvement: Realizable k-
Shares the same turbulent kinetic energy equation as the standard k- model.
Improved equation for .
Variable C instead of constant.
Improved performance for flows involving:
Planar and round jets (predicts round jet spreading correctly).
Boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients or separation.
Rotation, recirculation.
Strong streamline curvature.
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Realizable k- Equations
Distinctions from standard k- model:
Alternative formulation for turbulent viscosity:
t C
k2
where
C =
1
Ao + A s
is now variable.
U *k
Dt
x j
t
2
+
+
c
S
c
+
c
c 3 G b
1
2
1
x
k
k +
j
Diffusion
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Generation
Destruction
Buoyancy
114
Realizable k- C Equations
t = C
k2
C =
A0 + As
U *k
U*
S ij S ij + ij ij
A0 = 4 .04 , As =
6 cos , =
W =
@CCIT
S ij S ji S ki
~
,
S
=
~
S
1
cos 1
3
6W
S ij S ij
115
u i u j
uiu j = t
+
x
xi
j
Normal component:
2
2
k
- k ij ; t = C
3
2
k 2 U
u = k 2C
3
x
2
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116
k- model
This is another two equation model. In this model is an inverse time scale that is associated
with the turbulence.
This model solves two additional PDEs:
A modified version of the k equation used in the k- model.
A transport equation for .
The turbulent viscosity is then calculated as follows:
t =
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NonNon-Linear Models
The standard k- model is extended by including second and sometimes third order terms in
the equation for the Reynolds stresses.
One example is the Speziale model:
3
2
k2
2 k
ij = u i ' u j ' = k ij + C
2 E ij 4C D C 2 * f ( E , E / t , u , U / x )
3
Here f() is a complex function of the deformation tensor, velocity field and gradients, and
the rate of change of the deformation tensor.
The standard k- model reduces to a special case of this model for flows with low rates of
deformation.
These models are relatively new and not yet used very widely.
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120
= Pij + D ij ij + ij + ij
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122
RSM Equations
U j
U i
ijk
ij
x
k
J
= u ' u ' u ' + p ( u '+ u ' )
ijk
i j k
jk i
ik j
t Rij
=
x m
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Dissipatio n model : ij = 23 ij
u i ' u j '
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1 <
< 10
125
RNG k-
Realizable
k-
Reynolds
Stress
Model
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Strengths
Weaknesses
126
Recommendation
Start calculations by performing 100 iterations or so with standard k- model and first order
upwind differencing. For very simple flows (no swirl or separation) converge with second
order upwind and k- model.
If the flow involves jets, separation, or moderate swirl, converge solution with the realizable k model and second order differencing.
If the flow is dominated by swirl (e.g. a cyclone or unbaffled stirred vessel) converge solution
deeply using RSM and a second order differencing scheme. If the solution will not converge,
use first order differencing instead.
Ignore the existence of mixing length models and the algebraic stress model.
Only use the other models if you know from other sources that somehow these are especially
suitable for your particular problem (e.g. Spalart-Allmaras for certain external flows, k- RNG
for certain transitional flows, or k-).
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F-1
Langkah
1.
Membuka
Program
CFDSOF
Langkah
2.
Memberi Judul
Kasus
Visual Rincian
Rincian Langkah dan Tampilan
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Langkah
3.
Membaca file
grid : bbg
Langkah
4.
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Mengatur
Domain
F-3
Langkah
5.
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Cek grid
F-4
Langkah
6.
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F-5
Langkah
7.
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Mengatur Model
F-6
Langkah
8.
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Mengatur model
lanjutan
F-7
Langkah
9.
Mengatur
Kondisi-kondisi
Sempadan
(Boudary
Conditions)
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F-8
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F-9
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F-10
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F-11
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F-12
Langkah
10.
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Cek daftar
sempadan
F-13
Langkah
11.
Pengaturan sifat
fluida
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F-14
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F-15
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F-16
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F-17
Langkah
12.
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Daftar Konstanta
Fisikal
F-18
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F-19
Langkah
13.
Pengaturan solusi
aliran dingin
@CCIT
F-20
Langkah
14.
Merubah nilai
faktor-faktor
pengendur
perhitungan
@CCIT
F-21
Langkah
15.
Menyimpan file
case
Langkah
16.
Iterasi
@CCIT
F-22
Langkah
17.
Menyimpan file
data aliran dingin
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F-23
Langkah
18.
Solusi Aliran
Reaksi (CP
konstan)
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F-24
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F-25
Langkah
19.
Pengaturan
Multigrid
Langkah
20.
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Ketik : bakar_gas_cpkonstan0
F-26
Langkah
21.
Berikan
temperatur
Langkah
22. Proses iterasi
aliran_reaksi
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F-27
Langkah
23.
Setting
pengenduran
Langkah
24. Iterasi
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F-28
Langkah
Langkah
atau
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F-29
Langkah
27. Membuka
kembali file
model CFD atau
file case (*.cas)
dan file data hasil
perhitungan
(*.dat)
Langkah
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F-30
Langkah
29. Menampilkan
Kontur
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F-31
Langkah
30. Menampilkan
kontur spesies
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F-32
Langkah
31. Menampilkan
kontur
Kontur temperatur
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F-33
Langkah
32. Mencerminkan
kontur
@CCIT
F-34
Langkah
33.
Menampilan data
pada kontur
-
@CCIT
F-35
@CCIT
F-36
@CCIT
G-37
Langkah
1.
Membuka
Program CFDSOF
Langkah
2.
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Baca File
case&data
Bakar_gas_cpkon
stan0
G-38
Langkah
3.
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Aktifkan radiasi
G-39
Langkah
4.
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Mengatur
model
lanjutan
Uraian dan
Catatan
Proses
pembakaran
BBG terdiri
dari setting
parameter
radiasi
G-40
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G-41
Langkah
5.
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Tulis file
case &
data
Uraian dan
Catatan
Ketik :
bakar_gas_c
pkonstan_ra
d0
G-42
Langkah
6.
Ketik :
bakar_gas_c
pkonstan_ra
d
Tulis file
case
radiasi
Langkah
7.
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Uraian dan
Catatan
Uraian dan
Catatan
Catatan
Baca File
Radiasi
G-43
Langkah
8.
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Berikan
temperatur
Langkah
9.
Iterasi
G-44
Langkah
10.
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Setting
pengenduran
Langkah
11.
Iterasi
G-45
Langkah
12.
Langkah
13.
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Menampilkan
Kontur
G-46
Langkah
14.
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Menampilkan
kontur spesies
G-47
Langkah
15.
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Mencerminkan
kontur
G-48
Langkah
16.
Menampilan
data pada kontur
-
@CCIT
G-49
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H-50
Langkah
1.
Membuka
Program
CFDSOF
Langkah
2.
Baca File
case&data
Bakar_gas_cpk
onstan0
Langkah
3.
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H-51
Langkah
4.
@CCIT
Aktifkan cp
berubah
H-52
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H-53
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H-54
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H-55
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H-56
Langkah
5.
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Cek daftar
konstanta
fisikal
H-57
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H-58
Langkah
6.
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H-59
Langkah
7.
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Berikan
temperatur
Langkah
8.
Iterasi
H-60
Langkah
9.
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Setting
pengenduran
Langkah
10.
Iterasi
H-61
Langkah
11.
@CCIT
Langkah
12.
Menampilkan
Kontur
H-62
Langkah
13.
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Menampilkan
kontur spesies
H-63
Langkah
14.
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Mencerminkan
kontur
H-64
Langkah
15.
Menampilan
data pada
kontur
-
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H-65
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I-66
Langkah
1.
Membuka Program
CFDSOF
Langkah
2.
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I-67
Langkah
3.
@CCIT
Aktifkan radiasi
I-68
Langkah
4.
@CCIT
Mengatur
model
lanjutan
Uraian dan
Catatan
Proses
pembakaran BBG
terdiri dari setting
parameter radiasi
I-69
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I-70
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I-71
Langkah
5.
Langkah
6.
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I-72
Langkah
7.
@CCIT
Langkah
8.
Berikan temperatur
I-73
Langkah
9.
Iterasi
Langkah
10.
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Setting pengenduran
I-74
Langkah
11.
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Iterasi
I-75
Langkah
12.
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I-76
Langkah
13.
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Uraian dan
Catatan
Menampil
kan
Kontur
I-77
Langkah
14.
Uraian dan
Catatan
Uraian dan
Catatan
Menampil
kan
kontur
spesies
Langkah
15.
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Mencermi
nkan
kontur
I-78
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I-79
Langkah
16.
Menampilan
data pada
kontur
-
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I-80