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Key Laboratory of Regional Sustainable Development Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
China Communications and Transportation Association, Beijing 100053, China
c
Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
d
School of Urban and Environmental Studies, Yunnan University of Finance and Economics, Kunming, Yunnan 650221, China
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords:
Air transport network
Transportation development model
Complex network
Hub
K-core
China
a b s t r a c t
This paper analyzes the evolution process of the air transport network of China (ATNC) since 1930. Based
on the network analysis results, the ATNC has signicantly improved in connectivity based on (1) rising
alpha, beta and gamma indices, (2) declining diameter and centre index and (3) decreasing average path
length and increasing clustering coefcient. The network centralization index reveals a uctuation phase
before 1952, a pre-1980 centralization phase before the economic reform era, a centralization phase after
the mid-1990s deregulation, and a decentralization phase between. The k-core decomposition method
helps identify the evolution of core network and hierarchy of the ATNC over time. The spatial development model characterizes its structure change in six stages: (1) scattered development, (2) trunk line
connection, (3) circular linkage, (4) hub formation, (5) a complex network structure, and (6) emerging
multi-airport systems.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The advancement of complex network theory has generated an
increasing body of literature on its applications in transport
systems (Barthlemy, 2011). The largest amount of work is on air
transport networks: the global network (Barrat et al., 2004;
Guimer et al., 2005), the national level such as India (Bagler,
2008), Italy (Guida and Maria, 2007), US (Xu and Harriss, 2008)
and China (Li and Cai, 2004; Wang et al., 2011), and specic airlines
(Reggiani et al., 2009). These studies are primarily interested in the
statistical properties of network structure, and most examine the
static state of a network in one year.
Several studies focus on the historical evolution of air transport
networks. An early study by Holsman and Crawford (1975)
developed a four-phase model of air network growth in northwest
Australia. The study area was regional, and no modern network
analysis methods were used. OConnor (1995) used the indices of
centrality, intermediacy and proximity to analyze the air transport
development in Southeast Asia and summarized a four-stage model for the region, but the analysis emphasized the location of hubs.
Bonnefoy and Hansman (2007) examined the evolution of the air
transport networks in the US from 1976 to 2005, with the primary
interest in the network scalability and efciency. Hua et al. (2010)
Corresponding author at: Department of Geography and Anthropology,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. Tel.: +1 225 578 6629.
E-mail address: fwang@lsu.edu (F. Wang).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
0966-6923/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
relationship between Chinas airport distribution and tourist development; and Wang and Jin (2007) found that the ATNC was mainly
composed by city-pair connections with some primitive features of
a hub-and-spoke system. More recently, Ma and Timberlake (2008)
used longitudinal air passenger ow data to analyze the leading
cities of China at both the national and global levels during
19902005; and Xiao et al. (2013) used the reversed gravity model
to estimate the attractions of major cities from the air passenger
ow data in China. Other studies (Le, 1997; Zhang, 1998; Liu,
2000; Zhang and Chen, 2003; Zhang and Round, 2008, 2009; Yang
et al., 2008; Shaw et al., 2009) emphasized the regulation and management of Chinas airline industry and air transport system. Several studies used the complex network theory to analyze the
network structure of ATNC in a particular year (Li and Cai, 2004;
He et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2011) or over a short period such as
20022009 (Zhang et al., 2010).
After over two decades of arduous data collection, this research
team has compiled historical records of ATNC back to its infancy
stage in the 1920s, and the data of network routes since 1930. It
enables us to analyze various development stages of ATNC and
the evolution process of its network structure and examine the
effects of major political events and policy initiatives. This study
advances the existing network analysis literature on the ATNC in
at least three aspects:
(i) covering the most complete time span from 1930 to 2012,
(ii) employing the network centralization index and the k-core
network method that have been less utilized in the aforementioned literature on network analysis of ATNC, and
(iii) proposing a six-stage development model for the ATNC with
ties to the geographic, political and economic forces.
180
1200
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Number
Number
edges
1000
cities
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Year
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2012
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1937
20
Year
(b)
Fig. 1. Network growth of the ATNC 19302012: (a) nodes (cities), (b) edges (city pairs).
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
400
8000
7000
y = 0.006x + 2.236
R = 0.993
300
cargo (kiloton)
passenger (million)
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0
y = 0.126x + 122.9
R = 0.966
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30000
40000
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GDP (billion)
10000
20000
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60000
GDP (billion)
Fig. 2. Growth of economy and air transport in China 19522012: (a) cargo vs. GDP, (b) passengers vs. GDP.
thus 0 6 a 6 1.
(ii) The gamma index is the ratio of actual to maximal number of
edges, i.e., c 2e=mm 1, and also 0 6 c 6 1.
(iii) The beta index is the average number of edges (e) per node
(m), i.e., b = e/v.
(iv) Denoting the topological distance (i.e., number of edges by
the shortest path)from node i to j as dij, the diameter r is
the maximum dij, i.e., D max dij . In other words, the diami;j
eter is the topological distance between the two most
remote nodes of a network.
(v) Denoting the topological distance from a node i to its most
remote node as max dij , the centre index is the smallest
j
(19451949) then a gradual rebound in the era of Peoples Republic of China (PRC) after 1949. In the early stage of PRC, the gamma
index decreased from 0.087 in 1952 to 0.046 in 1975 when many
new airports were under construction and few routes connected
them, but the index then rebounded in the post-reform era since
1980 and reached 0.099 in 2008 with the addition of a large number of new routes. The diameter of ATNC declined from 13 in 1930
to 4 in 2012 (with a brief bump up to the largest value 15 in 1962),
and the centre index also dropped from 7 in 1952 to 2 in 2012 (also
with a brief peak value 8 in 1962). The outlier year 1962 was the
end of the Three-Years Great Famine (19591962) that brought
Chinas economy to the edge of collapse. The diameter and the centre index reached the lowest value (4 and 2, respectively) in 1995
and again 2012. This may indicate that the development of ATNC
became fairly mature in 1995. The expansion continued by adding
more nodes (cities) in peripheral areas to the network with temporally increased values of diameter and centre index during 2000
2008. As more air routes were built in the network, the diameter
and centre index returned to their minima in 2012.
3.3. Declining average path length and increasing clustering coefcient
Fig. 4 shows the distribution of city pairs that are connected by
the fewest link(s), denoted by SL (the topological distance between
two cities). For example, SL = 1 represents a city pair by a direct
link, 2 by a one-stop connection, and so on. The development of
ATNC has made more cities reachable by direct, one-connection
or fewer ights. The proportions by various numbers of SL
Fig. 3. ATNC network connectivity 19302012: (a) alpha, beta and gamma index, (b) diameter and centre index.
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
SL=1
SL=2
SL=3
SL=4
2012
2008
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
1962
1957
1952
1947
1941
1937
0%
1930
10%
Year
SL>4
uctuated before 1952, but some patterns emerged after that. For
example, the proportion of city-pairs with SL = 1 varied during
19302012, and was below 10% with one except (14.0% in 1941).
The proportion of city-pairs with SL = 2 uctuated before 1965,
but increased steadily from about 10.7% in 1970 to more than
57.2% in 2012. The proportion with SL = 3 increased till 1975 and
declined gradually afterwards, and the portions for SL = 4 or more
decreased quickly and became negligible since 1990s. In a sharp
contrast, the proportion of city pairs with SL 6 3 was merely
30.4% in 1952, and all city-pairs could be reached by transferring
no more than twice in 2012.
The above observation of improving connectivity between
nodes can be further validated by two analytical indices (Watts
and Strogatz, 1998):
(i) The average path length (L) is dened as the average number
of edges along the shortest paths for all possible node-pairs
P
1
in a network, written as L 1nn1
i>j dij .
Fig. 5. Comparison of the average path length and clustering coefcient of the ATNC with the random network, 19302012. Note: L is average path length; C is clustering
coefcient; L0 and C0 are their theoretical values in a random network of the same number of nodes.
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
is the number of edges that a node shares with others, the closeness centrality (CCi) is the inverse of the average shortest distance
from a node to all other nodes, and the betweenness centrality
(BCi) measures how often a node is traversed by the shortest paths
connecting all pairs of nodes. These nodal centrality indices capture a nodes importance as being directly connected to others,
being close to others, and being the intermediary between others,
respectively (Wang et al., 2011).
Here a centralization index for an entire network is introduced
(Freeman, 1978/1979; Gil and Schmidt, 1996). Using Ci to represent any of the aforementioned nodal centrality DCi, CCi or BCi at
node i, the most central node (or center node) in the network
is the one with the highest centrality value, i.e., CMAX = max {Ci}.
The network centralization index measures how central the most
central node in a network is in comparison to every other node
(Sinclair, 2009). It is normalized to have a value between 0 and
1, written as:
P
CX
Ci
C
Ci
MAX
i2V
i2V C MAX
max
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
of hub airports, and the latter was useful for forming the loops and
improving the network structure. For instance, the 1965 ATNC had
61 airports and 100 air routes with the beta index reaching 1.64
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
Fig. 8 (continued)
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
Year
1930
1937
1941
1947
1952
1957
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008
2012
1
2
3
3
1
2
4
3
5
6
8
10
15
15
13
24
21
4
7
5
13
14
12
9
22
23
28
26
31
26
6
13
10
22
50
49
36
157
216
289
214
430
297
100
61.9
100
28.2
54.9
74.2
100
68.0
85.4
76.5
65.8
92.5
91.4
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
10
82.0 million passengers in 2012 (i.e., the 2nd largest in the world),
and is on pace to reach its design capacity of 76 million passengers
by 2015. The second international airport will be built in the
Daxing District in south Beijing and put to service in 2017.
Fig. 9. Spatial distribution of nodes and edges in the ATNC since 1952.
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
11
Fig. 9 (continued)
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
12
Fig. 9 (continued)
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
13
6. Conclusions
The objective of this paper is to analyze the evolution process of
the air transport network of China (ATNC) since 1930. The process
has been highlighted by the role of the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) being transformed from a two-headed monster with dual roles of a regulator and operator to a lesser role of
supervision. The network analysis approach is employed to examine the temporal changes of network structure from 1930 (the earliest data with a connected network) to 2012 (the latest data
available to this study). The results suggest the ATNC has signicantly improved in connectivity based on (1) rising alpha, beta
and gamma indices, (2) dropping diameter and centre index and
(3) declining average path length and increasing clustering coefcient. The network centralization index reveals a pre-1980 centralization phase before the economic reform era, a decentralization
phase after the mid-1990s deregulation, and a uctuation phase
between. The k-core decomposition method is used to illustrate
the evolution of core network and hierarchy of the ATNC over time:
from a core network of ve cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan,
Zhengzhou and Nanjing) in the North China Plain and the Middle-Lower Basins of Yangtze in 1965 to a much expanded core network of 31 cities that were nearly fully connected (direct links
between any city pairs) and occupied the southeast half of China
in 2012.
Inspired by the classic transportation development model by
Taaffe et al. (1963) that was based on surface transportation, a spatial development model is proposed in this paper to conceptualize
the evolution of ATNCs network structure. The model
Please cite this article in press as: Wang, J., et al. Evolution of air transport network of China 19302012. J. Transp. Geogr. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.002
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