CHROMATOGRAPHY

DEFINITION OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
Science on the study of separation of
molecules based on differences in their
structure and/ or composition.
It originated from the Greek words
chroma meaning color, and
graphein meaning to write.
It was coined by the Russian botanist
Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet [Tswett]
during his research about chlorophyll
where he separated the different plant
pigments.
Used for separation, identification, and
determination of the chemical
components in complex mixture.
It involves passing a mixture dissolved in a
mobile phase through a stationary
phase which separates the analyte to be
measured from other molecules in the
mixture and allows being isolated.
(USP) Defined as a procedure by which
solutes are separated by a differential
migration process in a system consisting
of two phases, one of which moves
continuously in a given direction and in
which the individual substances exhibit
different mobility by reason of differences
in adsorption, partition, solubility, vapour
pressure, molecular size or ionic charge
density.
It may be preparative or analytical
Preparative Chromatography
It seeks to separate the
components of a mixture for
further use [and thus is a form of
purification].
Analytical Chromatography
It normally operates with smaller
amounts of materials and seeks to
measure the relative proportions of
analytes in mixtures.
PRINCIPLES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
It involves moving a preparation of a
materials to be separated (test
preparation) over a stationary support.
The molecules in the test preparations will
have different reactions with the
stationary support.
This will lead to separation of similar
molecules.
Different types of molecules can be
separated from each other, as they move
over the support material.
2 PHASES IN CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Stationary Phase
Fixed phase (may be porous or
finely divided solid or a liquid that

has been coated in a thin layer on

an inert supporting material.
Mobile Phase
Pure liquid or gas or mixture of
solutions that moves through or
over the fixed phase.

TERMINOLOGIES
Analyte
The substance to be separated
during chromatography
Chromatogram
The visual output/ result in
chromatography
Effluent
It is the mobile phase leaving the
column
Mobile Phase
It s the phase which moves in a
definite direction
It may be a liquid, a gas, or a
supercritical fluid
Retention Time
Is a characteristic time it takes for
a particular analyte to pass through
the system [from the column inlet
to detector] under set conditions
Adsorption
Stationary phase is solid
Mobile phase is liquid or gas
Retention and separation depends
on the ability of the atoms on the
surface to remove analytes from
the mobile phase and adsorb them
temporarily by means of
electrostatic forces
Molecular Exclusion
Also known as size exclusion,
gel permeation, or gel
filtration
Stationary phase is a polymeric
substance containing numerous
pores of molecular dimensions
Mobile phase is a liquid or gas
Retention and separation depends
on the differential migration of
solute molecules based on
molecular size
Partition
Stationary phase is liquid
Mobile phase is liquid or gas
Retention and separation occur due
to the relative solubility of the
analytes in the two fluids as
determined by their partition
coefficients
PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION
Ion-Exchange

Stationary phase is a polymeric

matrix bonded with ionic functional
groups [usually
styrenedivinylbenzene polymer]
Mobile phase is always a liquid
Retention and separation is mainly due
to the electrostatic bonds with the
functional groups

PRINCIPAL OBJECTIVES OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Resolution of mixtures into constituent
parts
Determination of homogeneity
Comparison of substances suspected of
being identical
Purification
Concentration of substances from dilute
solutions
Identification and control of technical
products
Quantitative separation from complex
mixtures
Indication of molecular structure
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY
PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION
Techniques by Chromatographic Bed
Shape
Column Chromatography
Planar Chromatography
Paper Chromatography
Thin Layer Chromatography
Techniques by Physical State of Mobile
Phase
Gas Chromatography
Liquid chromatography
HPLC
SUPPORTS IN CHROMATOGRAPHIC
PREPARATIONS
Immobilized Silica on
Glass Plates
Volatile Gases
Paper
Liquids, Containing
Hydrophilic,
Insoluble Molecules

Thin Layer
Chromatography
(TLC)
Gas Chromatography
(GC)
Paper
Chromatography
Liquid
Chromatography

THEORY OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
Exploits the differences in partitioning
behavior between:
Mobile Phase
Stationary Phase

PHASES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
Mobile Phase
A gas or liquid that passes through
the column
Stationary Phase
A solid or liquid that does not
move. It refers to the
chromatographic support.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC
METHODS
Adsorption
TLC
HPLC
Column Chromatography
Ion-Exchange
HPLC
Affinity
DNA Affinity Chromatography
Electrophoresis
Size Exclusion
Gel Permeation
Partition
HPLC
Paper Chromatography
BASIS OF INTERACTIONS OF AN ANALYTE TO
THE STATIONARY PHASE
Charge
Relative Solubility
Surface Adsorption
THEORIES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
Plate Theory
The chromatographic system is a
series of discrete layers of theoretical
plates. (Martin and Synge)
Rate Theory
The dynamics of the solute particle
passes through the void spaces
between the stationary phase particles
in a system as well as its kinetics.
(Giddings)
HOW RATE THEORY AND PLATE THEORY
WORKS
The mobile phase moves through the
stationary phase, picking up the
compounds to be tested.
As the mobile phase travels through the
stationary phase, it takes the compounds
with it.
At different points in the stationary phase,
the different components of the compound
are going to be absorbed, and are going to
stop (at a specific distance) moving
through the mobile phase.

RETENTION
DEFINITION OF RETENTION
Measure of speed at which a substance
moves in a chromatographic system.
In continuous development systems (HPLC
& GC), where the compounds are eluted
with an eluent, it is expressed as
Retention Time (Rt).
In interrupted development systems (TLC
& PC), it is expressed as Retention
Factor (Rf).
Retention factor is the run length of the
compound divided by the run length of the
eluent front.
FORMULA OF RETENTION

Rf =

Distance moved by the compound

Distance moved by the solv ent

Rf =

D1
D2

SIGNIFICANCE & IMPORTANCE OF

RETENTION
A quantitative indication of how far a
particular compound travels in a particular
solvent.
A good indicator of whether an unknown &
a known compound are identical or similar.
APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
Liquid Chromatography
Test water samples for pollution
Gas Chromatography
Bomb detection in airports
Identify/ Quantify Drugs & Alcohol
In Forensics, to compare fibers found
on a victim
Thin Layer Chromatography
Detection of Pesticides & Insecticides
in food
In Forensics, to analyze dye
composition of fibers
Paper Chromatography
Separation of Amino Acids and Anions
RNA Fingerprinting
Separation and testing of histamines &
antibiotics
ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary Phase
Solid on which sample components are
adsorbed
Mobile Phase
May be a liquid (liquid-solid) or a gas
(gas-solid)

e.g. Column Chromatography (CC) &

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

PARTITION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary Phase
Liquid supported on inert solid
Mobile Phase
Is a liquid (liquid-liquid partition) or a
gas (gas-liquid)
e.g. Paper Chromatography
Type of partition chromatography in
which the stationary phase is a layer of
water adsorbed on a sheet of paper
Liquid-Liquid Partition
Normal-Phase Chromatography
o Polar Stationary Phase (e.g. Water
or Methanol)
o Non-Polar Mobile Phase (e.g.
Hexane)
o This favors retention of polar
compounds and elution of nonpolar compounds
Reversed-Phase Chromatography
o Non-Polar Stationary Phase
o Polar Mobile Phase
ION-EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary Phase
Ion Exchange Resin
o Polymeric matrix with the surface
of which ionic functional groups
(e.g. Carboxylic Acids and
Amines) have been chemically
bonded.
Mobile Phase
Liquid
Method of choice for inorganic ions and
attempts of reversed phase method
unsuccessful
SIZE EXCLUSION CHROMATOGRAPHY (SEC)
Also called Gel Filtration or MolecularSieve Chromatography

Stationary Phase
Polymeric substance containing
numerous pores of molecular
dimensions
Mobile Phase
Contain analytes that are solvated
molecules separated according to their
size, by their ability to penetrate a
sieve-like structure
e.g. Soft Gels
Dextran (Sephadex), Agarose
(Sepharose), or Polyacrilamide
(Bio-Gel) GEL FITRATION
Semi-Rigid or Rigid Gels

Polystyrene, Glass Beads, or

Alkylated Dextran GEL
PERMEATION
Mobile Phase
Liquid or Gas
Used for the separation of solutes with
different molecular size
Used extensively for the separation of
macromolecules or biological origin and
for purification of synthetic-organic
polymers

AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY
Utilizes high specific interactions between
one kind of solute molecule and a second
molecule covalently attached
(immobilized) to the stationary phase
Immobilized molecule can be an antibody
to a particular protein

MATERIALS USED IN PARTITION

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Columns containing a matrix that adsorb
solutes
Diatomaceous Earth (Celite)
Silica Gel
Cellulose Powder
Cross-Linked Dextrans (Sephadex LH
20)
Stationary phase created by suspending
the support or washing the column with a
proper sorbent
Hydrophobic Solvent (Benzene)
Hydrophilic Solvent (Alcohol)
Mobile Phase
Alcohols & Amides for non-polar
materials
Purified Water for polar materials

TECHNIQUES IN PARTITION
CHROMATOGRAPHY
COMMON TYPES OF PARTITION
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper Chromatography
Thin Layer Chromatography
Gas-Liquid Chromatography
Gel Chromatography

PLANAR CHROMATOGRAPHY
A separation technique in which the
stationary phase is present as or on a
plane
The plane can be a paper, serving as such
or impregnated by a substance as the
stationary bed or a layer of solid particles
spread on support such as a glass plate

SPECIAL TYPES OF PARTITION

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Liquid Chromatography (LC)
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC)
Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)
Column Chromatography (CC)

TECHNIQUES IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHYDESCRIPTION
This method involves spotting the sample
solution onto a strip of chromatographic
paper
The paper is placed into a jar, containing a
shallow layer of solvent and then sealed
As the solvent rises through the paper, it
meets the sample mixture, which starts to
travel up the paper with the solvent
Different compounds in the sample
mixture travel different distances,
according to how strongly it interacts with
the paper
This allows the calculation of the Rf
values, and compare with a standard
A method invented by the British
biochemists, Archer John Porter Martin
and Richard Laurence Millington
Synge
An analytical technique for separating and
identifying mixtures that or can be
colored, especially pigments

TECHNIQUES IN PARTITION
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Operation of a column (a tube filled with
adsorbent and solvent)
A solution containing the solute is layered
on top of the sorbent and is allowed to
enter the sorbent
The solvent is allowed to pass continually
through the column
PARTITION COEFFICIENT (K)
If two phases are in contact with one
another, and if one or both phases contain
a solute, the solute will distribute itself
between two phases
It is the ratio of the concentrations of the
solute in the two phases

Concentration of solute the

stationary phase
K=
Concentration of solute the
mobile phase

TWO-DIMENSIONAL CHROMATOGRAPHY
Different colors/ spots will appear on the
paper after 2 hours (vertically)
Then after 2 more hours and the paper
rotated 90 degrees, more colors/ spots will

appear on the paper (either scattered or

horizontally)
DETECTION OF SPOTS IN PAPER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
By color
By its fluorescence
By chemical reaction, after spraying the
spots with a visualizing reagent
By radioactivity

IDENTIFICATION OF SPOTS ON PAPER

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Comparison with standards of known Rf
values
Elution by cutting out the spot and
soaking the paper in an appropriate
solvent

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Used in the identification of Digoxin, USP
Used in the separation of
Trisulfapyrimidine Drugs
Stationary Phase
It consists of a sheet of paper with
controlled texture and thickness
usually made up of cellulose [filter
paper] which is polar
Mobile Phase
The mobile phase used in paper
chromatography may include any of
the following:
Mixture of alcohol and water with
added ammonia or acetic acid
Chloroform
Benzene
Cyclohexane
Sample Preparation and Application
Samples are applied as a solution in
volatile solvent [usually in quantities of
0.1 to 1000 mcg]
Samples are applied to a strip of
chromatography paper at origins using
capillary pipettes or microliter syringe
[for accuracy]
For ascending chromatogram,
the spots are applied at 3-5 cm
from the lower edge
For descending chromatogram,
the spots are applied at 7-9 cm
from the upper edge
For radial chromatogram, the
spots are applied on a circle with a
radius of 1-3 cm
Optimum size of spots varies from 3-8
cm in diameter. Adjacent spots should
be 2-3 cm apart.
The paper is then dipped into a
suitable solvent, taking care that the

spot is above the surface of the

solvent and placed in a sealed
container.
The solvent moves up the paper by
capillary action, which occurs as a
result of the attraction of the solvent
molecules to the paper.
As the solvent rises through the paper,
it meets and dissolves the sample
mixture which will then travel up the
paper with the solvent solute sample
Different compounds in the sample
mixture travel at different rates due to
differences in solubility in the solvent
and due to differences in their
attraction to the fibers in the paper.
This usually takes several minutes up
to hours.

Evaluation of Chromatogram
The components which have been
separated differ in their retention
factor or Rf values, which are then
computed using:

Distancetraveled
by solute
Rf value=
Distancetraveled
by solvent
TECHNIQUES IN THIN LAYER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
THEORIES
Widely used laboratory technique, similar
to paper chromatography
Stationary phase used is a thin layer of
adsorbent on an inert, flat substrate (glass
plate):
Silica Gel
Alumina
Cellulose
ADVANTAGES OF THIN LAYER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Rapid
Sensitive
Excellent Resolution
Simplicity
Cheap
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary Phase [TLC Plates]
It consists of a thin layer of adsorbent
material immobilized onto flat, inert
carrier sheet.
TLC Plates

TLC Plates are made by mixing the

adsorbent, such as silica gel with
a small amount of inert binder like
calcium sulfate [gypsum] and
water.
The mixture is spread as thick
slurry on an unreactive carrier
sheet, usually glass, thick
aluminum foil or plastic, and the
resultant plate is then dried and
activated by heating in an oven for
30 mins. at 110C.
The thickness of the adsorbent
layer is typically around 0.1-0.25
mm for analytical puposes and
around 1-2 mm for preparative
TLC.
To ensure the stationary adheres firmly
on the backing plate and does not
flake off during development, binders
are added to the adsorbent.
Calcium Sulfate (gypsum)
Starch
Carbomethylcellulose
Mobile Phase
The common solvents are the
following:
Heptane
Hexane
Isooctane
Cyclohexane
Methanol
Acetic Acid
Water
Ethyl Ether
Chloroform
Acetone
CCl4
Toluene
Benzene
Acetonitrile
Pyridine
Ethylene Chloride
Ethanol
I-Propanol
Dioxane
Ethyl Acetate
For mixtures of unknown composition,
benzene or chloroform with 10%
ethanol is the best solvent for
explorotatory runs.
Sample Preparation and Application
Different compounds in the sample
mixture travel at different rates due to
the differences in their attraction to
the stationary phase and because of
differences in solubility in the solvent.
Separation of compounds is based on
the competition of the solute and the

mobile phase for binding places on the

stationary phase.
Special Detecting Methods
Charring
Involves the spraying of
concentrated sulfuric acid and
heating the plate
The result is seen by the charring
of the spots
Use of Iodine Vapor
In this method, the chromatogram
is placed in a closed container
holding a few iodine crystals
The sample spots react with the
iodine vapor and form brown spots
The reaction is reversible
Examination under UV Radiation
Useful for compounds that
fluoresce
Two UV light sources are useful and
commercially available:
UV short-wave [254nm]
UV long-wave [360nm]

Preparation of Derivatives

FUNCTIONA
L GROUPS
Acids
Aldehydes
and
Ketones
Amines and
Amino
Acids
Alkaloids
Barbiturate
s
Carbohydra
tes
Lipids
Steroids

REAGENTS
Bromcresol
Green
2,4dinitrophenylhyd
razine
Ninhydrin
Mercuric Nitrate
Diphenylcarbazo
ne
Aniline
Phthalate
Bromthymol
Blue
Antimony
Trichloride

COLOR
PRODUCED
Yellow
Yellow
Fluorescen
t
Yellow to
Brown
Purple
Gray-Black
Light
Green
Various

DETECTION OF SPOTS ON THIN LAYER

CHROMATOGRAPHY
By its natural color

By fluorescence
By spraying with visualization reagents

SPECIFIC
VISUALIZING
AGENTS
Ninhydrin
Rhodamine B
Antimony Chloride
Sulfuric acid +
Heating
Potassium
Permanganate in
Sulfuric Acid
Anisaldehyde in
Sulfuric Acid
Bromine Vapor

SPEICIFC
COMPOUNDS
IDENTIFIED
Amino Acids
Lipids
Steroids, Terpinoids
Universal Visualizing
Agent for Most
Organic Substances
Hydrocarbons
Carbohydrates
Olefins

ADVANTAGES OF THIN LAYER

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Great resolving power because spots are
smaller
Greater speed of separation; Higher
resolution
Wider choice of materials as sorbents
Easy detection of spots
Easy isolation of substances from the
chromatogram
DRUGS ANALYZED IN THIN LAYER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Analgesics
Antipyretics
Aspirin, Phenacetin, Acetaminophen
Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
Uricosuric Drugs
Caffeine and Caffeine-Containing Drugs
GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Also known as gas-liquid
chromatography or gas-liquid
partition chromatography
A separation technique in which the
mobile phase is gas
It is used in the analysis of gaseous and
volatile substances

Mobile Phase
This is the carrier gas
Considerations in the choice of carrier
gas:
Safety
Purity
Inertness
Availability
Cost

Detector to be used
Samples matrix
Carrier gases employed in GC:
Helium
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Argon
Air
Stationary Phase
It is adhered to the inside of a:
Small diameter glass tube
(Capillary Column)
Solid matrix inside a larger metal
tube (Packed Column)
Characteristics:
Chemically stable
High boiling point
Low viscosity
Specific solvent properties towards
the components to be separated
Examples:
Hydrocarbons
Silicone oils and gums
Polyesters
Polyalcohols [carbowax]

TYPES OF GC COLUMN
Packed Columns
Large core columns with a length of
1.5-10 meters and an internal
diameter of 2-4 mm
The tubing is usually made of
stainless steel or glass and contains
a packing of finely divided, inert, solid
support material that is coated with a
stationary phase
Capillary Columns
Flexible columns with a very small
internal diameter of 0.2-0.75 mm and
a length of 25-60 meters
The tubing is made of fused-silica
with a polyimide outer coating
Types:
o WCOT [column walls are
coated with the active
materials]
o PLOT [columns are quasi-solid
filled with many parallel
micropores]

COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF GC

SYSTEM
Carrier Gas Tank

A chamber made of stainless steel that

supplies the carrier gas needed in the
analysis
Pressure Regulator
A suitable two-stage diaphragm
controlled pressure regulator that
reduces the pressure level compatible
with the requirement of the instrument
Flow Controller
It is contained within a thermostatic
chamber capable of maintaining a
constant temperature as high as 400
degrees centigrade
It is important to control gas flow rate
because it affects the analysis of the
samples
Injector Port
A small chamber where the sample is
introduced into the system
The primary requirement of the
injection system is that the sample be
vaporized instantaneously so that a
narrow band of vapor is introduced into
the beginning of the column
Column or Column Oven
The heart of the GC System. It is
contained in an oven, the temperature
of which is precisely controlled
The rate at which a sample passes
through the column is directly
proportional to the temperature of the
column
The higher the column temperature,
the faster the sample moves through
the column
However, the faster a sample moves
through the column, the less it
interacts with the stationary phase and
the less analytes are separated
Detector
A number of detectors are used in GC
The most common detectors are the
following:
Thermal Conductivity
Detector
o A universal detector
o Simple, inexpensive, and
non-destructible to the
sample
Flame Ionization Detector
[FID]
o Highly sensitive detector
o Almost a universal detector
Other detectors that are sensitive only
to specific types of substances or work
well only in narrower ranges of
concentrations
Discharge Ionization
Detector [DID]

Electron Capture Detector

[ECD]
Flame Photometric Detector
[FPD]
Hall Electrolytic
Conductivity Detector
[EICD]
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Detector [NPD]
Mass Selective Detector
[MSD]
Photo Ionization Detector
[PID]
Pulsed Discharge Ionization
Detector [PDD]
Thermal Energy Analyzer
[TEA]
Recorder/ Integrator
Used to graphically reproduce the
output of the detector and record the
result chromatogram
Retention Time (tR)
o The time required by an average
molecule of component to pass
from the injector port through the
column to the detector
Retention Volume (vR)
o The volume of the carrier gas
necessary to carry an average
molecule of the component from
the point of injection to the
detector

APPLICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY
In analytical chemistry & biochemistry
Petrochemical environmental monitoring
In chemistry research (extensively)
Measurement of toxic substances in water,
soil, or air
In drug quality control, to assure the
quantitative/ qualitative features of
pharmaceuticals
Assay of volatile oils content
PRINCIPLE AND THEORY OF GLC
GLC uses a flow-through narrow tube
(column), through which different
chemical constituents of the sample pass
in a gas stream (mobile phase) at different
rates, with the stationary phase
As the chemical exit at the end of the
column, they are detected and are
identified electronically
The function of the stationary phase in the
column is to separate the different
components
This causes each of the component to exit
the column at a different time (Rt)

Other parameters that can alter the Rt

are:
Carrier Gas Flow Rate
Temperature

1. A known volume of gas or liquid analyte is

injected into the entrance/ head of the
column using:
Microsyringe
Gas source switching system
2. The carrier gas sweeps the analyte
molecules through the column
3. The sweeping motion is inhibited by the
adsorption of the analyte molecules onto
the:
Column walls
Packing materials in the column
4. Since each type of molecule has different
progression, the various components of
the analyte mixture are separated as they
progress through the column, at different
times (Rt)
5. A detector is used to monitor the outlet
stream from the column

GLC DETECTORS/ INJECTORS

Flame Ionization Detector
Split/ Splitless Injector
ADVANTAGES OF GAS-LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Excellent separation, usually less than 60
seconds
Sensitivity & speed are extraordinary, with
10-12 gram sample being detectable for
many substances
GC can be run 1000 times faster than LC
Larger preparative GLCs can be used for
purification of samples
MOLECULAR SIEVE/ GEL CHROMATOGRAPHY
PRINCIPLES
DEFINITION OF MS/ GC
A common type of partition
chromatography in which separation of
components is based on molecular size
THEORY OF MS/ GC
A column is prepared of tiny particles of an
inert substance that contain small pores
If a sample solution (containing molecules
of various dimensions) is passed through

the column, the following movements

happen:
Molecules larger than the pores move
only in the space between the particles
and are not retarded by the column
material
Molecules smaller than the pores
diffuse in and out of particles (with
probability that it increases with
decreasing molecular size) this slows
down their movement through the
column
Molecules are eluted from the column in
the order of:
Decreasing size
Decreasing molecular weight (for
relatively constant shapes Globular
or Rod)

MATERIALS USED IN MS/ GC

Gels
A 3D network with a very random
structure. Consist of cross-linked
polymers that are:
Inert
Non-Reactive
Uncharged
Used for aqueous solution
Dextran
o Polysaccharide composed of
glucose residues. Produced by
fermentation of glucose by
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
o Prepared by various degrees of
cross-linking to control pore size
o Sephadex - tradename
Agarose
o Obtained from seaweeds
o Its pore size is larger than
Sephadex
o Useful for the analysis &
separation of DNA
o Sepharose/ Biogel
tradenames; supplies as wet
beads
Polyacrylamide
o Its pore size is determined by
the degree of cross-linking
o Prepared by cross-linking
Acrylamide with N,NMethylene-Bis-Acerylamide
o Biogel P - tradename