Specialevents

Definingthe product
DonaldGetz

Special events are a unique form of

tourism product, but they should not be
viewed narrowly as mere attractions for
exploitation in tourism development
schemes. This article discusses five
different but interrelated perspectives
on the event product, and argues that
effective event planning and management must be based on a comprehensive model. Conclusions are drawn
concerning potentially useful research
themes for increasing our understanding of events and improving events
tourism planning.
Keywords: special events; planning; community development
Donald Getz is Assistant Professor at the
Department of Recreation and Leisure
Studies, University of Waterloo, Canada
N2L 3Gl. He is a director of the Tourism
Research and Education Centre at Waterloo.

Special events are a unique form of tourism attraction, ranging in scale

from mega-events such as the Olympics and World Fairs. through
community festivals, to programmes of events at parks and facilities.
Their special appeal stems from the innate uniqueness of each event,
which differentiates them from fixed attractions, and their ambience,
which elevates them above ordinary life.
Increasingly, events are being viewed as an integral part of tourism
development and marketing plans. Although the majority of events
have probably arisen for non-touristic reasons, such as religious holidays. competitions, community leisure, or cultural celebrations, there is
clearly a trend to exploit them for tourism and to create new events
deliberately as tourist attractions.
As a starting point, a definition of special events is required. The
following was prepared by the National Task Force on Tourism Data
(Canada):
A celebration

or display

of some theme to which the public is invited

Criteria were also developed

types of attractions:
0
0
0

l
0
0
0

National Task force on Tourism Data

[Canada). Proiect Team on Festivals and
Special f&en& unpublished, 1986.
D. Foster, Travel and Tourism Managenent. Macmillan, London, 1985; and-R.
Willand A. Morrison, The Tourism System,
4n lntmductory Text, Prentice-Hall, Englevood Cliffs, 1985.

for a

limited time only. annually or less frequently.

to distinguish special events from other

special events are open to the public;

their main purpose is celebration or display of some theme;
they occur once a year or less frequently;
there are predetermined opening and closing dates;
permanent structures are not owned by the event;
the programme consists of one or more separate activities; and
all activities take place in the same community or tourist region.

There are problems with this and any other definition, owing to the
disparate nature of events and attractions. The task force definition was
clearly influenced by an orientation to community-based festivals, and a
predisposition
to exclude permanent fairs, exhibitions and theatre
programmes. It also excludes programmes of special events at historic
sites or recreation facilities. Accordingly, any definition of special
events should be designed to meet particular planning needs - a
universal definition is probably not practical.
Special events share many of the attributes of other tourism products,
as explained by Foster and by Mill and Morrison, yet there are features
which set them apart. Special event products:

1261.5177I69/020125-13$03.00 0 1989 Butterworth 8 Co (Publishers) Ltd

125

Sprciul

~vctlls

cannot be inspected in advance (except through repeat visits to

recurring
events, and even then each event will have unique
elements);
cannot

be stored

must commit

(surplus

resources

capacity

prior

is wasted);

to the actual

event;

largely intangible
(the experience of participating
is more
important than consumables purchased at events);
are of a fixed quantity (new events cannot easily be created to meet
increased demand, planned events often have fixed or constrained
capacities);
are an amalgam of services and tangible products (including entertainment. food, souvenirs, recreation, and any other services such
as accommodation which are used by visitors);
are difficult to package (events are seldom coordinated, nor linked
to all-inclusive
package holidays);
are subject to heterogeneous demand and abrupt changes in demand, due to external influences (but by their very nature can
overcome seasonal fluctuations);
are often small scale and dependent on intermediaries
to promote
them and deliver visitors;
are similar to some other tourism products. like scenery, in that
consumption is often free (though travel to them has a cost); and
cannot be standardized, even from year to year (although this is
partly a strength).
are

Defining the special event product, however, is subject to interpretation

based on ones viewpoint.
Indeed. five distinct but interdependent
perspectives can be identified. Figure 1 presents a conceptual model of
the five perspectives and the management functions which link them
into a coherent structure. Each perspective is discussed in turn in the
following
sections, concluding
with that of events tourism and the
management linkages. The article ends with observations on desirable
research lines and potential tourism planning and management applications.

The tangible product

3R. Meyer, Festivals: USA and Canada,
Ives Washburn, New York, 1970.
4J. Ritchie. Assessing the impact of hallmark events: conceptual and research
issues, Journal of Travel Research, Vol
23, No 1, 1984, ~~2-11.
of
Illinois
at
Urbana%niversity
Champaign, Planning Community- Wide
Special Events, Cooperative Extension
Service, College of Agriculture, Circular
1123, undated; 0. Getz and W. Frisby,
Evaluating management effectiveness in
community-run festivals, Journal of Travel
Research, Vol 27, No 1, 1998, pp 22-27;
and C. Watt and FL McCarville. 1985 Survey of Texas Festivals Association Membership, Texas A 8 M University, 1985.
%. Janiskee, Community-sponsored rural
festivals in South Carolina: a decade of
growth and change, paper presented to
the Association of American Geographers,
Detroit, 1985.

126

Superficially,
events are easily classified by reference to their tangible
components. Meyer identified major types of festivals by reference to
their themes or key activities,
including
those pertaining
to crafts.
sports, drama, film, dance, music, and agriculture.
Ritchie classified
Hallmark
Events into seven categories - world fairs/expositions.
unique carnivals and festivals, major sports events. cultural and religious events, historical milestones, classical commercial and agricultural
events, and major political personage events.
A number of surveys have assessed the most common themes and
activities associated with festivals and special events. From these

surveys a more generic categorization of tangible event products can be

(both
made. These include - recreation activities and entertainment
spectator and participatory), parades, shows and exhibitions, competitions, merchandizing (food, beverages, specialty sales, souvenirs), and
gambling. It is also clear, as noted by Janiskee, that genuine thematic
diversity is less than that implied by festival names. Most feature
common elements, and the theme is often merely a backdrop for
programming.
TOURISM

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Speciul events

Fostering
Attracting

Target
Marketing

Assistance
Organizers

and
Events

to

1
(THE

- Essential services
- Generic benefits

EVENT

FACADE)

- Acquired
resources
- Survival/growth

- Theme I Image
- Visitor activities
- Merchandise

Production
of Events

Consumption
of Events

Community
Relations

Volunteer
Support
and Attendance

Host-Guest
Relations

COMMUNITY
-

Figure 1. Five perspectives on the

special events product - components
and linkages.

DEVELOPMENT

Community spirit/pride
Cooperation
Leadership
Enhanced
cultural
traditions
Control over development
Social and health improvements
Environmental
quality

The tangible products are really a facade presented to the public.

They are the mechanisms by which visitor experiences are partially
created, although there must be a synergistic process involving these
products and many intangibles to create the atmosphere or ambience
that makes events special. Furthermore,
special events are usually
produced as a means towards attaining broader goals. Even in cases
where festivals or other celebrations are traditional and have no planned
touristic orientation, tourism will often become a factor when tourism
agencies begin to advertise, promote or package the event.

Visitor experiences
From the visitors perspective, special events present the opportunity to
participate in a collective experience which is distinct from everyday
life. And because they occur infrequently, or are different each time,
novelty is assured.
Various classifications of tourists have included types who are seeking
the kinds of experiences which might, apriori, be associated with special
events. These types have variously been called:
S. Plog, Why destination areas rise and
fall in popularity, paper presented to the
Southern CaliforniaChapter of the Travel
Research Association, San Diego, 1972;
E. Cohen, Towards a sociology of international tourism, Social Research. Vol 39,
No 1, pp 164-182, 1972; and P. Pearce,
The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour, Pergamon, Oxford, 1982.

allocentrics.
educational

0
0

who search for the exotic,

they have cultural

and

motives;

explorers, who want to mix with the host society; and

high-contucr truvellers, who seek high levels of contact with hosts.

Yet it is clear that while special events do attract certain types of tourists
for particular reasons, there is also a universal appeal to special events.

TOURISM MANAGEMENT June 1989

127

Special

events

Basic travel
categories

motivators

- physical,

Different

have been

cultural,

identified

as falling

interpersonal.

into the four

and status and prestige.

types of events can satisfy all these motivations,

as illustrated

below:

physical

physical

entertainment

cultural

exercise

in sports competitions,

and relaxing

at music festivals:

- discovering

folklore

at ethnic

celebrations,

and music,

dance, and art festivals;

interpersonal
family

- social interaction

get-togethers;

prestige/status

The underlying
simultaneous
intrinsic

in large audiences,

- being a part of something

motivations

for all travel,

prestigious.

according to Iso-Ahola,

desire for escape from the ordinary

rewards

and events as

and

of leisure

pursuits.

The

are a

and a search for the

universal

appeal

of special

events can clearly be explained by this theory, as special events are

extra-ordinary
by definition,
and offer a full range of social and
psychological
benefits,
including
self-determination,
mastery,
challenge,

learning.

exploration

fore, that researchers

of the attractiveness
Zins

found

important

that

of tourist destinations.

both

cultural

and relaxation.

It is little wonder,

there-

have found special events to be an important

residents

attractions

For example,

and non-residents
of a region

were

part

Ritchie

believed
animated,

and

the most
such as

festivals and historic recreations.

More

specifically,

many authors

have commented

festival and special events experiences.

on the nature

Festivals in particular

of

have been

shown to involve powerful emotions and attitudes:

l
0
0
%. McIntosh and C. Goeldner, Tourism,
Principles, Practices, Philosophies, Fifth
edition, Wiley, New York, 1988.
gS. Iso-Ahola and R. Mannell, Psychological nature of leisure and tourism experience, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol
14, No 3, pp 314-331, 1987.
OJ. Ritchie and M. Zins, Culture as a
determinant of the attractiveness of a tourism region, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol5, No 2, pp 252-267.1978.
D Spicer, festivals of Western Europe,
Wilson, New York, 1958; J. Gutowski, The
protofestival: local guide to American folk
behaviour, Journal of Folklore Institute,
Voll5, pp 113-l 31,1978; and D. Heenan,
Tourism and the community, a drama in
three acts, Journal of Travel Research,
Vol 16, No 4, pp 3&32, 1978.
2J. MacAloon, Olympic Games and the
theory of spectacle in modern societies, in
J. MacAloon, ed, Rite, Drama, Festival,
Spectacle, Rehearsals Toward a Theory of
Cultural Performance, Institute for the
study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, PA,
USA, pp 241-280, 1984.
13C. Brissenden, Expo 86. . . scenario for
success. Tourism Management, Vol8, NO
1, pp 49-53, 1987.

128

the outward expression of heritage, fear, joy and devotion;

joy, celebration and excess; and
the sharing of community character and its feeling towards the
outside world.

From

an anthropological

perspective,

MacAloon

has analysed

the

His identification of
four genres of performance is relevant to most forms of special events.
The first is spectacle, which stresses the visual appeal of large and
dramatic public displays. The second is festival, embodying celebration
and joyousness. Ritual is also present, especially in the Olympics,
when religious or sacred forces are invoked. Finally there is the genre of
games which is often present at events in the form of general
playfulness. However, games can also have deeper political and social
significance. MacAloon concludes that the Olympics embody all four
genres in a nested manner. Consequently, spectacle can either be an
introduction to festival or games or destructive of them by stressing
uninvolved observation rather than participation.
Ideally, spectacle
attracts attention and arouses emotions, but does not take the place of
the other components.
Regarding other special events, similar attributes have been noted.
The planners of the successful Expo 86 in Vancouver sought to create a
celebratory experience, with its key ingredients being festivity, exuberance, exhilaration, surprise, creativity, colour. incongruity, and even
outrageousness.- Research concerning the impacts of the Australian
Grand Prix concluded that Adelaide residents were overwhelmingly in
favour of the event, despite its social and envirt~nmental costs. because
symbolic

and cultural

meanings of the Olympics.

TOURISM

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June 1989

Speciul events

of the excitement
by

being

the

atmosphere
Actual
direct

the event
centre

which
visitor

evidence
Much

logical
special

surveys

at special
motivations

survey

Esserlrial

and

should

by

the

provide

and benefits.

But,

to event-goers

to motives

therefore,

Research

shown

three-level

and benefits

in Figure

will

is a model

to date allows

structure

benefits

but research

were made to feel good

carnival

even

more

unfortunately,

is usually

superfi-

at the sociopsycho-

is needed.

events.

upper-level

events

administered

attention

is required,

framework
The

People
attention,

the race.

regarding

greater

level

What

generated.

international

accompanied

the type of visitor

cial.

of

of the various

the formulation

2 and described

in the following

of

suggests

this

dependent

be required

model

on the benefits

benefits

of

of the tentative
paragraphs.

a hierarchy,

or services

below

with
them,

to test this hypothesis.

serlvices

services are those necessary to undertake any special event or

programme. Even if visitors do not consciously seek or notice them, the
absence or failure of any one of these elements can discourage or
disappoint event-goers.
Food and beverages,
for example, are so
necessary at special events that they could also be considered as generic
benefits. There is little difference
between
events
and permanent
attractions
insofar as the need for these basics is concerned.
although
the mechanisms
by which they are provided
might be more difficult to
manage for some types of events.
Essential

14J. Burns, J. Hatch and T. Mules, eds,

The Adelaide Grand Prix - The Impact of a
Special Event, Centre for South Australian
Economic Studies, Adelaide, 1986.

1 SPECIFIC

(TARCETED)

BENEFITS

Uniqueness
-

theme

Visitor

Entertainment
-

GENERIC

special
rarity

targeted

to

Activities
special

BENEFITS

[ALL

Authenticity

Belonging

I Sharing

- infectious
- celebrating
- contributing
- conforming

community
based
non-exploitive

Merchandise

interests

SPECIAL

EVENTS)
Spectacle
-

merry-making

visual,
largerthan-life
displays
and performances

Ritual

Games

- fun
- competition
- chance
- humour

invokes
a higher
principle
or religious
meaning

1 ESSENTIAL

Figure
2. Special event
from the visitor perspective.

TOURISM

MANAGEMENT

- safety,
health,
sanitation
- comfort
- food and beverages
- information
- communications
- accessibility

products

June

SERVICES

1989

129

Special evetils

Generic

benefits

Generic benefits are those which distinguish special events from permanent attractions. Each generic benefit is of the kind likely to be expected
by the visitor regardless of the tangible event programme, although the
relative importance of each will vary from event to event. A brief
description of each benefit follows.
(I) Spectacle. As MacAloon noted. the Olympics epitomize the spectacle associated with special events.
This is both a strength and a
weakness, for while there is no doubt that spectacle, especially mediaorientated
events, have universal appeal, it is also true that raw
spectacle can overpower the more fundamental
meanings of festivity.
ritual and games that events should embody. Spectacle can be an
important element in any special event by focusing on visual, largerthan-life displays and performances. Events orientated towards television may achieve the greatest benefit from a tourism perspective, but
run the risk of having to make sacrifices to accommodate the demands
of television.

MacAloon, op cit. Ref 12.

IsP. Valee, Authenticity as a factor in
segmenting the Canadian travel market,
unpublished Masters thesis, University of
Waterloo, Canada, 1987.
0. Redfoot, Touristic authenticity, touristic angst, and modern reality, Qualitative
Sociology, Vol 7, No 4, pp 291-309 1984;
D. Boorstin, The Image, A Guide to
Pseudo-Even& in America, Harper and
Row, New York, 1981; and D. MacCannell,
The Tourisr, A New Theory of the leisure
Class, Schocken, New York, 1976.
J Wilson and L. Udail, Folk Festivals: A
Handbook for Organization and Management, University of Tennessee Press,
Knoxville, TN, USA, 1982; S. Papson,
Spuriousness and tourism, politics of two
Canadian provincial governments, Annals
of Tourism Research, Vol8, No 2, pp 220235, 1981: R. Buck, Making good business better: a second look at staged tourist
attractions, Journal of Travel Research,
Vol 15, No 3. pp 30-31, 1977; and G.
Moscardo and P. Pearce, Historic theme
parks, an Australian experience in authenticity, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol
13, No 3, pp 467-479, 1986.
lgE. Cohen, Rethinking the sociology of
tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol
6, No 1, pp 18-35, 1979; and Pearce, op
tit, Ref 7.
2oP. Murphy, Tourism, A Community
Approach, Methuen, New York, 1985; and
L. DAmore. Guidelines to planning in
harmony with the host community, in P.
Murphy, ed. Tourism in Canada: Selected
issues and Options, Western Geographic
Series, Vol 21. University of Victoria,
Canada, pp 135-l 59. 1983.

130

(2) Belonging/sharing.
The sharing of experiences with others in the
context of a public celebration or display is a major leisure motivator.
There is usually a kind of infectious merry-making
which accompanies
special events and encourages participation.
This emotional high might
actually be the main reason why many people participate in events,
either as volunteers or visitors.
(3) Authenticity.
Authenticity
has been much debated in the literature,
with no clear conclusions as to its significance as a motivator or as a
criterion
for evaluating the product. An operational
definition
suggested by Vallee gives insights into both the motivational
and productorientated nature of the term:
Authenticity is a desired and actively pursued experience by tourists which is
perceived to reflect or give access to the true and unadulterated
nature of
everyday life in the destination.lh
Redfoot notes that the traditional lines
who believe that the modern tourist
authentic (eg Boorstin) and those who
involved in a quest for the authentic
agree, however, that tourists mostly

have been drawn between those

is generally uninterested
in the
have suggested that tourists are
(eg MacCannell).
Both sides
find only pseudo-events,
or

cultural productions, and not the genuine article.

Literature on this subject has been expanding, including examination
events
of the authenticity of folk festivals, how tourist-orientated
transform culture and history, the value of cultural productions in
avoiding a negative impact on tourism, and a questioning of whether or
not historic re-creations can be authentic.lx Work by Cohen and by
Pearce has also provided a framework which suggests that visitor
satisfaction will depend not only on the nature of the scene (authentic or
not), but also on the visitors perceptions of whether authenticity exists
and their need for authentic experiences.lY
For the purposes of defining and planning event products, some
practical guidelines are needed. To a degree, guidelines already established for successful community-based tourism are applicable.* Others
are derived from the preceding discussion. Authenticity will be maximized when special events:
TOURISM

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June 1989

Speciul events

0
0
0
l

are community-based and reflect indigenous themes;

offer culturally genuine goods and entertainment;
realistically re-create historical or cultural traditions; and
do not exploit tourists (ie do not seek to maximize profits at the
expense of quality for visitors).

Whether or not the creation of tourist-orientated

events, or the promotion of cultural events for tourism creates inauthenticity, is an issue for
continued research and clarification. From a tourism perspective, the
real issue is ensuring visitor satisfaction and community support.
Nevertheless. tourism developers should be sensitive to the goal of
protecting events which are primarily cultural and local in nature,
especially in traditional societies. Not all events should be seen as
resources for tourism exploitation.
(4) Ritual. Ritual is at the heart of most traditional festivals, but is
found to some extent in most special events either in secular or religious
form. Themes and symbols which invoke community or national pride
and loyalty, often found in parades. are closely linked to ritualistic
activities. Even at the most basic level, opening and closing ceremonies
can be enhanced through ritual.
(5) Games. People expect to have fun at most special events. Their
expectations can be met through the fostering of a general atmosphere
of festivity, and through formal opportunities
to participate in. or
witness, games of chance, recreational activities, competitions,
and
humour. The most serious of ritualistic events is often counter-balanced
by formal or peripheral episodes of unadulterated merry-making.
Targeted benefits
Targeted benefits are those which differentiate events and yield competitive advantages. Visitors expect basic services to be provided and
are looking for certain general benefits from all events. but their
attraction to particular events in a competitive environment will require
something more.
The event theme is important in conveying messages to potential
visitors about the benefits they might derive from attendance. The name
alone is not sufficient, nor is the tangible facade in the form of
activities. Rather, the theme must be presented in such a way that the
unique benefits offered by the event are clear. Each element of the
tangible product can provide this competitive advantage. as in these
examples - entertainment,
eg bluegrass festivals, merchandizing, eg
ethnic foods, and activities, eg street dances or tours.
Little empirical research has been conducted to refine these benefit
attributes specific to events, so this discussion remains hypothetical.
Nevertheless, forming a concept of the product in this way should assist
event and tourism planners and marketers to create and promote
desirable events more effectively.

Organizers

perspective

Once established, organizations can take on a life of their own. Over

time, producing the event might become secondary to survival of the
group, or original goals might be displaced by totally different ones.
TOURISM

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131

Special

events

When assessed from this viewpoint, the product takes

new meaning.
A model of the event product from the organizers
been presented elsewhere by Getz and Frisby and will
rized here.* A systems perspective of organizational
essential, as it recognizes that any organization must
reference to several key processes - relationships with
(especially resource acquisition). internal management
sustain it, transforming processes which convert inputs
the outputs themselves.

on a completely
perspective has
only be summadevelopment is
be evaluated by
its environment
processes which
to outputs, and

(I) The organization and its environment. The environment for events
is both a physical and a community setting. The physical impact tends to
be less for events than for other attractions, unless major construction
occurs. However, most events have a community impact because they
are dependent on community volunteer participation and attendance.
The event organizer must view the community and the physical environment as a resource, and must therefore worry about negative impact.
More importantly, the organizer can deliberately employ the event as a
tool in community development.

(2) Internal management processes. Events differ from most attractions

in that their typical reliance on volunteers makes management more
difficult, notably because of a lack of professional expertise, difficulty in
recruiting and keeping volunteers, and diffuse goal setting and decision
making. Also, to the volunteer the event might be secondary to
considerations such as prestige. community involvement. or socializing.
The product, in this light, is inward-orientated
and might tend toward
self-perpetuation
of the organization itself, rather than production of a
quality event.
(3) Transforming processes. As noted above, there is a risk that resources and efforts might be used more to perpetuate benefits to the
organizers and volunteers, than to improvement of the event. Most of
the organizations energies should be directed at converting resources
(including the energy of volunteers) into the event and its desired
outcomes. To the extent that community development or some other
goal motivates the organization, the product is not the event itself but
what the event can do toward achieving those broader goals. This point
leads to the consideration of a whole range of possible outcomes which
define the event product in terms of its effects on the host community.

Community development perspective

2Getz and Frisby,op cit. Ref 5.

The term community development

is used here to describe the
enhancement
of the host populations way of life. economy, and
environment. To the extent that organization of the event springs from a
community it can be expected to reflect the needs of that community,
but this cannot be taken for granted. Problems are particularly likely if
the event is superimposed on the host population. is purely commercial
in nature, or is controlled by narrow interest groups.
Little attention has been paid to the potentially positive effects of
tourism on organizations, IoCilliticS, ilnd SOCiillplanning programmes.
However, recent interest in ;rltcrnativc tourism. as developed by
TOURISM

MANAGEMENT

June 1989

Special even&

of the kind
in the
subject. Also. the work of sociologists and anthropologists has contributed to a better understanding of the meaning and significance of
events in communities. For example, Farber noted that the study of
events reveals much about a communitys symbolic, economic, social
and political life. Events create links between people and groups
within a community, and between the community and the world.
Research concerning the social and cultural impacts of events has
been completed, illustrating both positive and negative forces. Soutar
and McLeods evaluation of the effects of the Americas Cup on
Fremantle, Western Australia, concluded that the residents quality of
life has been improved, and most residents wanted another event. *
Detailed assessment of the first Australian Grand Prix in Adelaide
documented such negative impacts as noise, congestion and increased
automobile accidents, but found that residents were overwhelmingly in
favour of the event and believed it to be of significant benefit to the
city. * Clearly there is a need to weigh the costs and benefits carefully,
with emphasis on the host communitys perspective.
Getz hypothesized a social multiplier to illustrate the desirable
effects of tourism initiatives, such as special events, on a host
community. 26 The model includes parallel and often overlapping developments by the commercial and public sectors, leading to mutually
beneficial cooperation in holding events. Private profits are returned to
strengthen the localitys economic base, while public profits are invested
in social infrastructure. The results should be increased community
viability, and a positive demonstration effect on other communities.
Studies of several community festivals in Ontario, Canada, have corroborated the importance of special events in stimulating leadership,
interorganizational
development,
higher community self-esteem, and
financial benefits for local charities and community projects.*
Similarly, research on over 50 festivals in Ontario documented
relationships between event organizations and the wider community,
revealing the dependency of events on support and participation from
numerous community groups and the private sector.*
Although much work is required on the links between special events
and the impact on the community, some tentative conclusions can be
drawn. Special events can contribute to community development in
several ways, to the extent that the following objectives are satisfied:
Krippendorf

explored

*J. Krippendorf, The Holiday Makers,

Heinemann, London, 1987; and P. Murphy, op cir, Ref 20.
23C. Farber, High, healthy and happy:
Ontario mythology on parade, in F. Manning, ed, The Celebration of Society: Perspectives on Contemporary Cultural Performance, Bowling Green University Popular Press, OH, 1983, pp 33-50.
24G Soutar and P. McLeod, Fremantle
residents perceptions of the impact of the
Americas Cup on their city, paper presented to the People and Physical Environment Research conference, Perth,
Western Australia, 1987.
25Burns. Hatch and Mules, op tit, Ref 14.
2sD. Getz, Tourism, community organisation and the social multiplier, in Congress
Proceedings of the International Geographical Union Commission on the
Geography of Tourism and Leisure, Vol 2,
pp 4.1.14.1.15,
Edinburgh, Scotland,
1983.
27D. Shepherd, Community organizations
and hallmark events, a case study of the
Wellesley apple butter and cheese festival, unpublished Bachelors thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1982; B.
Plant, Elmira maple syrup festival, profile
of a success story, unpublished paper,
Department of Recreation and Leisure
University
of
Studies,
Waterloo,
Canada,1 984; J. Cann, The Wellesley apple butter and cheese festival, a study of
organizational development and sociocultural impacts, unpublished Bachelors
thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada,
1988; W. Johnson, The effect of festivals
on the host community: a case study of the
Bala cranberry festival, unpublished
Bachelors thesis. Universitv of Waterloo,
Canada, 1986; and L. McIntosh, An analyi
sis of the economic impacts of the 1986
Wellesley apple butter and cheese festival, unpublished Bachelors thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1987.
28Getz and Frisby, op tit, Ref 5.

l
l
l
0

and community-based

by

Peter

Murphy

tourism

has certainly

development

awakened

interest

the community has control over the event;

the event is first and foremost directed at meeting community
needs;
local leadership and interorganizational
networks are fostered; and
taking into account the social,
event planning is comprehensive,
cultural, economic and environmental dimensions.

Events tourism
Special events are becoming established as an integral and major part of
tourism development
and marketing strategies. The term Events
Tourism has been employed to describe this component. and a simple
definition would be the systematic development
and marketing of
special events as tourist attractions. Typical goirIs will be:

TOURISM MANAGEMENT June 1989

133

to expand

to spead tourist demand

to attract foreign

to create a favourable

There

the traditional

appears

tourist season;
more widely throughout

image for a destination.

to be a strong temptation

think mainly in terms of mega-events,

for tourism

cultural

objectives,

or ecological

policies.

on mega-events

First, the benefits

of hosting special events,

is too narrow

of mega-events

cost-benefit

boosterism

much less than expected.

fewer

although

than

over 30%

Emphasizing
more

effective

culture,

5%

of

its visitors

development,

%ee. eg J. Ritchie and D. Beliveau, Hallmark events: an evaluation of a strategic

response to seasonality in the travel market, Journal of Travel Research, Vol 13,
No 2. pp 14-20, 1974; R. Vaughan, Does
a Festival Pay? A Case Study of the Edinburgh Festival in 1976. Tourism Recreation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 1979; D. Murray Consulting Associates, A Study to Determine the
Impact of Events on Local Economies,
Province of Saskatchewan, Ministry of
Tourism and Small Business, Regina,
Canada, 1985; C. Mitchell and G. Wall,
Impacts of cultural festivals on Ontario
communities, Recreation Research Review, Vol 13, No 1, pp 28-37, 1986; and
The Role and Impact of Mega-Events and
Attractions on kgional and-National Tourism DeveioDment. Editions AIEST. Vol28.
St Gall, Sv&zerland, 1987.
3oJ. Armstrong, International events: the
real tourism impact, in conference proceedings of the Canada Chapter, Travel
and Tourism Research Association,
Edmonton, Canada, 1985, pp 9-37.
3Burns, et al, op tit, Ref 14.
32J. Ritchie and J. Yangzhou. The role
and impact of mega-events and attractions
on national and regional tourism: a conceptual and methodological overview, in
The Role and Impact oiMega-Events and
Attractions on Regional and National Tourism Development, Editions AIEST, Vol 28,
pp 17-57, St Gall, Switzerland, 1987.

use of parks

goals,

and

facilities.

parks, community

and

134

they might

satisfy

the

ambience

have

been

and
that

it appears

recreation

forging

not in themselves

and social service

of events in pursuing

alliances

foreign

visitors

desire

and to meet locals.

motivate

with

way for visitors to satisfy a variety

of local foods, witnessing

ing in games or other activities,

domestic

Local

market

that

they

and regional

of desires,

cultural
the most

including

the

participat-

or simply being entertained.

are a part of something

authentically

events also have value in keeping

the

there is no way to predict which small

large attractions.

Their

success will depend on a

not least of which is the decision of the event to expand

or remain small. A sound tourism strategy will therefore

between

they can

authentic

costumes and traditions,

competing.

active. Finally,

events might become

host of factors,

development.

travel,

of small events is that they can make visitors believe

or wrongly)

indigenous.

the tourism

events could become

sampling

The key advantage

foreign

to experience

Indeed,

the events

Indeed,

the benefits

common

(rightly

the country.

the arts and culture,

industry.
Small events also have a vital role to play in tourism
While

for example,

outside

also ignores the links between

of community

arts, heritage,

own

from

had been predicted.

agencies have been quick to realize

their

to foreign tourists can be

The first Grand Prix of Australia,

mega-events

and the fostering

Armstrong

often takes the place of

analysis when major events are being promoted.3

And it has been found that their attractiveness

attracted

in the

but over-

and can be self-defeating.

are often exaggerated.

has noted that raw civic or national

rational

and social.

These biases are understandable

benefits

to

As well, the focus has been

rather than the links between events

light of the documented

emphasis

organizations

with small events being dismissed

as having only local or regional significance.

on economic

the area;

visitors; and

large, tourism-orientated

seek a balance

events and local and regional events.

Events tourism planning

Components
which

of events

is a simple

determined
refinement
discussion
long-term

first,

tourism

model

planning

of the

are illustrated

planning

process.

and effects must be evaluated

of goals and policies

of goals, particularly

in Figure

Goals

must

3,
be

to yield a continuing

(see Ritchie and Yangzhou

for a
those relating to the creation
of

benefits from mega-events).s

The product

of events tourism

can be variously interpreted as the events themselves, their impacts (eg.

income, employment,
trips generated) or packages of events and tours
including events. It can even be argued that there is no tourism product
unless special events are efficiently packaged and promoted for visitors.
Although

most of the elements

in this strategic

TOURISM

planning

MANAGEMENT

framework

June 1989

Spccid evenIs

GOALS
- Tourism development
- Community development
- Environmental
enhancement
and conservation

POLICIES

AND

PRIORITIES

- Comprehensive,
systematic
development
of events
- Balance among tourism,
community
and environmental
goals
- Assistance
programmes
/
MARKET

PRODUCT

RESEARCH

- Segmentation
(domestic
and international)
- Satisfaction
of visitors
- Travel
patterns
and
trends
\

IMPACT

\
DEVELOPMENT

I MARKETING

Organizational
development
Assessing competitive
advantages
Attracting
events
New events (themes,
timing, setting)
Facilitating
accessibility,
accommodation
and services
- Packaging
and promoting

EVALUATION

- Developing
evaluative
criteria
- Involving
event organizations
and host communities
- Assessing
policy and planning

and methods

implications

REVISIONS
- TO goals. policies,
priorities
- To research
strategy
- To product development
and marketing

Figure 3. Components of strategic

planning for events tourism.

have been discussed, the issue of packaging deserves some additional

comment. Most recurring events have apparently sprung up without
consideration of competitive position or potential packaging in concert
with other events and attractions. One-time mega-events and major
recurring events do attract package holidays and tours, but the real
challenge is to develop integrated packaging so as to attain the
maximum benefits from events. Several basic types of event packages
can be suggested:
0
0
0
0
0
l

by theme.(eg a tour of several music or food festivals):

by area and theme (crafts of the Scottish country);
by season (spring festivals);
circuits (events corresponding with tour routes);
gateways (events at major entrance points and resorts): and
piggy-backing (combining smaller events with major ones).

Another way to examine the events-tourism planning process is by

reference to the linkages between the five perspectives, as illustrated in
Figure 1. Each of these linkages defines a planning or management task,
or is subject to some control through planning. Examples are provided
below.
TOURISM

MANAGEMENT

June 1989

135

Special evem

Turger markering. Effective target marketing depends on a thorough

understanding of travel motives and benefits. Each special event will
have general appeal, but specific attributes can be themed and promoted in order to attract target audiences. Marketing research must be
carried out by event organizers to ensure the success of their own event,
and tourist organizations at a higher level should be considering the
entire range of event products and all related markets. A key planning
issue will be that of developing packages of events that cater to various
target groups.
Consumption of the tangible product. The actual consumption of tangible products, or participation in entertainment and other events, is a
mechanism by which experiences are created. The visitor desires certain

experiences which can be identified as benefits. At the same time, the

visitor is engaged in activities which contribute to economic growth and
community development. The activities of visitors are multidimensional
in both meaning and impact.
Host-guest

relations. To the extent that outsiders are involved, events

are formalized settings for interaction between locals and visitors. It has
been found that host communities tend to enjoy this relationship, as
long as the perceived benefits outweigh the costs. Special events are
potentially excellent means for creating host-guest contacts in nonexploitative ways, where both groups can be at leisure. Accordingly,
events should be seen as important contributors to overcoming the
many disadvantages of mass tourism.
Support and participation of the host community.

The host
required to organize the event, support it through volunteer
attend it as a community celebration. This is the foundation
successful events rest, and it cannot be artificially induced
if the community has doubts about the costs and benefits.

population is
labour, and
upon which
from outside

Community relations. Event organizers have a responsibility to seek

community support and maintain it through good community relations.
This task can be facilitated in several ways: information to the commun-

ity; involvement by representative

elements of the local population;
involvement by community leaders; and open planning and evaluation
of the event and its impacts. It is a two-way process because community
development
depends in part on the fostering of leadership and
entrepreneurial
expertise through community events, and because of
the profits generated for community projects.
Production of the event. The organizers produce an event which has
tangible components.
Rewards to the organizers (and hence to the
community) are generated by attendance and consumption. But the
tangible production is not the only provider of resources for the
organizers, as they will probably be in part reliant on grants or
sponsorships. Furthermore, the production of the tangible event is often
in itself insufficient to ensure survival or success.
Assistance

to organizers. Tourism
agencies must determine
their
appropriate role with respect to special events. including types and
levels of assistance. Such help can be in the form of money, expertise.

136

TOURISM

MANAGEMENT

June 1989

Speck1 events

promotion,
events

or research.

become

more

In return.

orientated

tourism

agencies

to, and effective

will

want

in attracting

to see

tourists.

Conclusions
Drawing

on

all

five

systematic

approach

recognizes

that

tourist
visitors,
that

can make

pinpoints

event-goers

involving
should

interviews

which

Research
rigorously
broader

of community

benefits

they

generic

than

It

mere

be determined

by

to be gained

by

and the many contributions

focus on event

derive.

The

three-level

and

targeted

requiring

diverse
research

settings.
should

with

testing.
event

product

of the motives
model
benefits,

Research
visitors,

should

and home

attractions.

the impacts
Only

on the event

is understood

benefits,

of, and interviews

and magnitude.
in

part

a more

modelled.

more

the benefits

needs. Too little

as an hypothesis

concerning

impact

in large

impacts,

of all these perspectives

the

observations

product,

has been

be seen as much

of organizers,

services,

be viewed

include

in scope

and

events

to tourism.

research

essential

the

planning

success will

consideration
several

must

community

the goals and actions

events

on

tourism

events

Their

of their

Similarly,
of

special

attractions.

consideration

perspectives
to events

of events

must be greatly

expanded

economic
impacts have been explored
Using the models
described
earlier,
be formulated,

effects and organizational

particularly

in the areas

development.

As special events become a mainstay of tourism development,

researchers and planners have an obligation to seek greater understanding of the meanings and impacts of events. If narrowly defined and
planned, special events will not fulfil their potential, nor will their
importance be appreciated.

TOURISM

MANAGEMENT

June

1989

137