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Group 6: Photovoltaic System
BSME 5B
Photovoltaics (PV) covers the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry,
and electrochemistry.
A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which
generate electrical power. The first step is the photoelectric effect followed by
an electrochemical process where crystallized atoms, ionized in a series, generate an electric
current. PV Installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted.
Solar PV generates no pollution. The direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any
moving parts. Photovoltaic systems have been used for fifty years in specialized applications,
standalone and grid-connected PV systemshave been in use for more than twenty years.[3] They
were first mass-produced in 2000, when German environmentalists and the Eurosolar organization
got government funding for a ten thousand roof program.
On the other hand, grid-connected PV systems have the major disadvantage that the power output
is dependent on direct sunlight, so about 10-25% is lost if a tracking system is not used, since the
cell wil not be directly facing the sun at all times. Power output is also adversely affected by weather
conditions, especially cloud cover. This means that, in the national grid for example, this power has to
be made up by other power sources: hydrocarbon, nuclear, hydroelectric or wind energy. To some,
solar installations also have a negative aesthetic impact on an area.
Advances in technology and increased manufacturing scale have reduced the cost, increased the
reliability, and increased the efficiency of photovoltaic instalations and the levelised cost of
electricity from PV is competitive, on a kilowatt/ hour basis, with conventional electricity sources in
an expanding list of geographic regions. Solar PV regularly costs USD 0.05-0.10 per kilowatt-hour
(kWh) in Europe, China, India, South Africa and the United States. In 2015, record low prices were
set in the United Arab Emirates (5.84 cents/kWh), Peru (4.8 cents/kWh) and Mexico (4.8 cents/kWh).
In May 2016, a solar PV auction in Dubai attracted a bid of 3 cents/kWh.
Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated
electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. More than 100 countries now use
solar PV. After hydro and wind power, PV is the third renewable energy source in terms of globally
capacity. In 2014, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to 177 gigawatts(GW), which is two
percent of global electricity demand. China, followed by Japan and the United States, is the fastest
growing market, while Germany remains the world's largest producer (both in per capita and
absolute terms), with solar PV providing seven percent of annual domestic electricity consumption. [11]
With current technology (as of 2013), photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them
in 1.5 years in Southern Europe and 2.5 years in Northern Europe
All photovoltaic (PV) cells consist of two or more thin layers of semiconducting material, most commonly silicon. When the semiconductor is
exposed to light, electrical charges are generated and this can be conducted
away by metal contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical output from a
single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected together to form a 'string',
which produces a direct current.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert sunlight into electricity. The PV
effect is the process from which light (photons) is converted into electric
current. Different PV technologies have different efficiencies. There are 3
main classes of photovoltaic semiconductor technologies:
Crystalline
silicon
cells Crystalline Silicon
semiconductors
dominate
the
world
PV
market,
accounting for nearly 90
percent in 2013. Although
single
crystalline
cells
account for the majority of
PV panels, there are a few
types
of
silicon
PV
technologies on the market
today single
crystalline
silicon (c-Si), multicrystalline (mc-Si), and silicon heterostructures.
Diagram of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. To make this type of cell,
wafers of high-purity silicon are doped with various impurities and fused
together. The resulting structure creates a pathway for electrical current
within and between the solar cells.
PV panels installed on a private home in Brooklyn Heights, New York (Photo courtesy of Alan
Blake)
The energy crisis of the 1970s saw the beginning of major interest in using
solar cells to produce electricity in homes and businesses, but prohibitive
prices (nearly 30 times higher than the current price) made large-scale
applications impractical.
Industry developments and research in the following years made PV devices
more feasible and a cycle of increasing production and decreasing costs
began which continues even today.
Mounting
Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which
may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount.
For solar parks a large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules
mounted on the rack.
For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For
flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used.
Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see
Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole
has something else mounted at its top, such as a light fixture or an antenna.
Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above
weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements
regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to
more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A
multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other
shade structure. A rack which does not follow the sun from left to right may
allow seasonal adjustment up or down.
Cabling
Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are specifically designed to be resistant
against UV radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally
unaffected by the weather.
A number of standards specify the usage of electrical wiring in PV systems, such as
the IEC 60364 by the International Electrotechnical Commission, in section
712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems", the British Standard BS 7671,
incorporating regulations relating to micro generation and photovoltaic systems,
and the USUL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire".
Solar Panel
Solar Aircon
Solar air conditioning refers to any air conditioning (cooling) system that
uses solar power. This can be done through passive solar, solar thermal
energy conversion and photovoltaic conversion (sunlight to electricity).
Solar Balloon
Solar balloon is a balloon that gains buoyancy when the air inside is heated
by solar radiation, usually with the help of black or dark balloon material. The
heated air inside the solar balloon expands and has lower density than the
surrounding air. As such, a solar balloon is similar to a hot air balloon. Usage
of solar balloons is predominantly in the toy market, although it has been
proposed that they be used in the investigation of planet Mars, and some
solar balloons are large enough for human flight. A vent at the top can be
opened to release hot air for descent and deflation
Solar Cars
Solar cars only run on solar power from the sun. They are very stable and
can come in different sizes. To keep the car running smoothly, the driver must
keep an eye on these gauges to spot possible problems. Cars without gauges
almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows the driver's team to
monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other
parameters and thereby freeing the driver to concentrate on driving.
Solar-powered refrigerator
Solar Cooker
A solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat,
cook or pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers currently in use are
relatively inexpensive, low-tech devices, although some are as powerful or as
expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced, large-scale solar cookers can
cook for hundreds of people. Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to
operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in
order to help reduce fuel costs (especially where monetary reciprocity is low)
and air pollution, and to slow down
the deforestation and desertificationcaused by gathering firewood for
cooking. Solar cooking is a form of outdoor cooking and is often used in
situations where minimal fuel consumption is important, or the danger of
accidental fires is high, and the health and environmental consequences of
alternatives are severe. Many types of solar cookers exist, including curved
concentrator solar cookers, solar ovens, and panel cookers, among others.
There are also grid-tied installations that reserve power in a battery backup
that is used during power outages. They charge the batteries so that
continuous power is available, even if the utility grid is down. When the
outage is fixed, net-metering resumes.
Off-grid systems are usually implemented in locations that are too remote
to receive service from a utility. These systems can generate AC power that
can run regular appliances and electric devices. They store power in batteries
that are used to supply power when sunlight is not available. Those that
generate DC power are used to power remote telecommunications gear,
appliances used in boats and recreational vehicles as well as farm equipment.
DC is less expensive than AC because it does not require an inverter. AC
systems can power common home appliances.
Net Metering
Net metering is a billing mechanism that credits solar energy system owners
for the electricity they add to the grid. For example, if a residential customer
has a PV system on the home's rooftop, it may generate more electricity than
the home uses during daylight hours. If the home is net-metered, the
electricity meter will run backwards to provide a credit against what
electricity is consumed at night or other periods where the home's electricity
use exceeds the system's output. Customers are only billed for their "net"
energy use. On average, only 20-40% of a solar energy systems output ever
goes into the grid. Exported solar electricity serves nearby customers loads.
EVEN AFTER OVER 100 YEARS, THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY IS STILL THE
BATTERY OF CHOICE FOR 99% OF SOLAR AND BACKUP POWER SYSTEMS.
WITH THE BETTER AVAILABILITY DURING THE LAST FEW YEARS OF THE NEW
AGM BATTERIES AND THE TRUE DEEP-CYCLE BATTERIES, WE FEEL THAT
THERE IS LITTLE REASON TO USE ANY OTHER TYPE. INDUSTRIAL TYPE
BATTERIES CAN LAST AS LONG AS 20 YEARS WITH MODERATE CARE, AND
EVEN STANDARD DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES, SUCH AS THE GOLF CAR TYPE,
SHOULD LAST 3-5 YEARS. INTERMEDIATE BATTERIES, SUCH AS THE S460 AND
OTHER BATTERIES MADE BY SURRETTE SHOULD LAST 7 TO 12 YEARS.
Downsides:
Very expensive
Non-standard voltage and charging curves may make it difficult to use some
equipment, such as standard inverters and chargers.
Downsides:
Low efficiency - may be as low as 50%, typically 60-65%. very high rate of
self-discharge
high internal resistance means you can get large voltage drops across series
cells.
can reduce the overall efficiency of the solar system as much as 25%
Solar Windows
Solar Balloons
This solar balloon isnt a hot air balloon powered by the sun its a way to
use existing technology to harvest solar power on arrays of silvery
balloons. Big plastic balloons concentrate and direct solar energy ontosolar
cells using readily available (and relatively low-cost) components.
No, this solar power innovation isnt in need of a good shave. Its actually a
product of nanotechnology, using light-absorbing nanowires on carbonnanotube fabric. These nanowires can absorb more energy from the sun than
silicon can, which may allow for more efficient energy harvesting (as well as
giving us a fun new term, "hairy solar."
Microinverters
One of the pieces of the residential solar power puzzle is the inverter the
device which takes the DC power produced by solar panels and transforms it
into AC power (which is what our homes are wired to use). The price of an
inverter to handle the power you could produce on your rooftop used to be
quite high (as well as being inefficient), but with the advent ofmicroinverters,
its possible to have just one panel (and one inverter) to start your solar
power generating station.
The solar energy harvested by current solar panels comes entirely from the
visible spectrum, which leaves quite a bit of the light spectrum untapped.
But research into adding new materials (vanadium and titanium) to solar
semiconductors could mean that in the future, our solar panels will also be
able to capture some of the infrared spectrum and turn it intoelectricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in groundmounted solar farms, converting sunlight directly into electric power.
INCENTIVES
Fiscal Incentives
Corporate Tax Rate of 10% on net taxable income after 7 years of ITH
Accelerated Depreciation
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics#Economics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics#Forecast
http://solarcellcentral.com/cost_page.html
http://www.seia.org/policy/solar-technology/photovoltaic-solar-electric
http://solar.gwu.edu/q-a/what-types-solar-photovoltaic-technologies-existtoday-and-how-do-they-work
http://www.pilkington.com/products/bp/bybenefit/solarenergy/applications/crystallin
e+silicon+photovoltaics.htm
http://www.nef.org.uk/knowledge-hub/solar-energy/types-of-photovoltaic-pv-cells