Cases and solutions

Hazard and risk assessment for

sinkhole formation on dolomite
land in South Africa
D. Buttrick 7 A. van Schalkwyk

from water pipes and sewerage systems, results in altered

natural drainage patterns and the disturbance of the relatively impervious upper-soil horizon. These conditions
may lead to increased surface water infiltration, and
create ideal conditions for the formation of sinkholes and
dolines.
Sinkholes are generally of limited area (diameter ~50 m),
but can manifest within a matter of seconds and without
prior warning. Dolines, on the other hand, are large depressions, typically 50300 m in diameter, that generally
develop slowly. Dolines form as a result of dewatering
(lowering of the groundwater level) and, since their
mechanism of formation is different from sinkholes, they
are not dealt with in this paper.
During the past 30 years, 38 people have lost their lives
Key words Site characterization 7 Dolomite 7
in sinkholes, property damage in the amount of hundreds
Sinkhole 7 Hazard 7 Risk assessment 7 Dolomitic
of millions of Rand (1 Rand ; 0,18 US$) has taken place
overburden 7 Mobilising agency 7 Receptacles 7
and the value of property on dolomite land has plunged.
Blanketing layer 7 Doline
A typical sinkhole in an urban area is shown in Fig. 1.
In order to assess the stability of dolomite land, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms of sinkhole formation and to estimate the probable impact of mans activities on the dolomitic environment during the lifespan of
Introduction
a development. This enables the user to characterise the
In South Africa, dolomite land denotes areas that are
stability in terms of the hazard (size of sinkhole) and risk
underlain directly or at shallow depths (less than 100 m) (chance of sinkhole to occur) in the context of geological
by dolomite of the Chuniespoort Group of the Transvaal conditions and intended land use.
Supergroup (23002200 Ma). Twenty percent of the
The first step in risk assessment is a detailed geotechnical
densely populated Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vereeniging
investigation which allows the site to be zoned and dearea of the Gauteng Province is underlain by dolomite
scribed in terms of the bedrock geology and the thick(A. van Schalkwyk, unpub. data), and most of the gold
ness and properties of the overburden. Typical site invesmining areas in the Far West Rand and North-West
tigation methods used for zoning and description include
Province occur on dolomite land. These areas are used
aerial photographic studies, surface geological mapping,
extensively for urban and industrial development and
geophysical surveys (mainly gravity) and rotary percusthere is increasing pressure to provide more housing, es- sion drilling. These methods have been described elsepecially for the underprivileged communities.
where (Kleywegt and Enslin 1973; Roux 1987) and are
The negative impact of human activities, such as ground- only touched upon here briefly.
water extraction, ground-surface disturbance, and leakage In this paper, the different components of the dolomitic
environment are defined, the mechanisms of sinkhole
formation are described and a method is proposed to asReceived: 15 September 1996 7 Accepted: 12 May 1998
sess the stability of dolomite sites in terms of the hazard
(size of sinkhole) and the risk involved (chance of sinkD. Buttrick
Intraconsult CC, PO Box 2022, Rivonia 2128,
hole to occur) for a particular type of land development.
Republic of South Africa
It should be understood that this paper is intended only
to provide guidelines for hazard and risk assessment and
A. van Schalkwyk (Y)
that it does not cater to all possible geological conditions
Department of Geology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002,
Republic of South Africa
or types of land development on dolomite.
Abstract A method is proposed to assess the risk
for sinkhole formation in dolomitic areas where
changes in land use are envisaged. Data from geotechnical site investigations are used for the zoning
and characterization of sites in terms of the hazard
(maximum size of sinkhole that can form), while
the inherent risk for this hazard to occur is assessed by assuming that the site may be developed
or treated incorrectly (abused). By considering both
the hazard and the inherent risk, it is possible to
select appropriate types of development and precautionary measures to reduce the final (development) risk to an acceptable level.

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Cases and solutions

Fig. 1
Typical sinkhole on dolomite land in South Africa

Geology
In the Gauteng and North-West Provinces, the Chuniespoort Group is represented by the Oaktree, Monte Christo, Lyttleton and Eccles Formations, which are identified
on the basis of the relative abundance of interlayered
chert. Whilst the Monte Christo and Eccles Formations
are rich in chert, the other two formations contain chertpoor dolomite. The Monte Christo and the Lyttleton Formations are distinguished further by stromatolites and

large stromatolitic mounds, respectively. These four units

are collectively about 1430 m thick (South African Committee for Stratigraphy 1980). In some areas dolomite is
overlain by younger deposits belonging to the Pretoria
Group of the Transvaal Supergroup, the Karoo Supergroup (Paleozoic age) or unconsolidated sediments of Cenozoic age. A typical stratigraphic column appears in Table 1.
Over geological time, dolomite rock is dissolved and removed as bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium by
weakly acidic rainwater and percolating groundwater.
This process is facilitated by fault, fracture and joint networks and results in typical karst features, including interconnected cavities within the dolomite bedrock and a
very irregular bedrock surface. Younger sediments, intrusives or residual materials (weathering products of dolomite and chert) commonly cover the karst landscape
and these materials are referred to here collectively as
dolomitic overburden.
The residual materials within the dolomitic overburden
play an important part in the occurrence of sinkholes.
They comprise wad (a low-density, fine-grained, black to
blue-grey clayey silt or silty clay which is rich in silica
and manganese oxides) or a mixture of wad and chert
rubble (collapsed remnants of the chert interbeds). Residual dolomitic soils are commonly very porous, erodible
and compressible. These properties are due to leaching
and gaps in grading between wad and chert rubble. Due
to natural compaction and ferricrete formation near the
ground surface, dolomite profiles are characterised by deteriorating geotechnical characteristics with depth. The
uppermost part of the soil horizon is often of higher density and strength and relatively impervious.

Terminology
A schematic three-dimensional model of a portion of dolomite land is depicted in Fig. 2. The various components
of the model can be described as follows:

Fig. 2
Schematic three-dimensional model
showing various components of
dolomite land and the effect of
these on the maximum potential
sinkhole size

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171

Cases and solutions

Table 1
Lithology of the Chuniespoort and Pretoria Groups in Gauteng and North-West Provinces (modified after SACS 1980)
Group

Formation

Lithology

Thickness (m)

Pretoria

Rayton
Magaliesberg
Silverton
Daspoort
Strubenkop
Hekpoort
Timeball Hill
Rooihoogte

Quartzite, shale
Orthoquartzite
Shale
Orthoquartzite
Iron-rich shale
Andesite
Shale, quartzite
Quartzite, breccia

1200
300
600
8095
105120
340550
270660
10150

Chuniespoort

Eccles
Lyttelton
Monte Christo
Oaktree
Black Reef

Dolomite and chert ( 1 10%)

Dolomite
Dolomite and chert (510%)
Dolomite
Quartzite, shale

Dolomitic overburden
Dolomitic overburden comprises all the materials occurring between the ground surface and the dolomite bedrock surface. It typically includes residual dolomitic soils
(wad and chert rubble), weathered intrusive sills and
layers of Karoo sedimentary rocks.

380
150
700
200
2530

Blanketing layer
The blanketing layer is defined here as that component
of the dolomitic overburden that overlies receptacles. Figure 2 depicts two blanketing layers, one of which (2a)
comprises the full thickness of dolomitic overburden,
while the other one (2b) is relatively thin and overlies interconnected openings within the overburden.

Mobilisation and mobilising agency

In the dolomitic context, mobilisation is defined as the
movement of dolomitic overburden by sub-surface eroMechanisms of sinkhole formation
sion that may lead to the formation of sinkholes. The
mobilising agency is concentrated water seepage through
the portion of the dolomitic overburden that is above the A sinkhole is typically cylindrical or conical in shape and
groundwater table. This water may originate from leaking varies in diameter (150 m) and depth (150 m). A sinkhole is potentially more dangerous than a doline in that
services or from surface ponding.
it usually manifests within a matter of seconds and without prior warning.
Receptacles
The primary requirement for a sinkhole to develop is
Receptacles occur as interconnected openings in the dolomitic overburden (especially where chert rubble is pres- that parts of the blanketing layer are mobilised into a receptacle. If the blanketing layer contains substantial
ent) or as large solution cavities in the bedrock. Both
types of receptacles may be able to receive mobilised ma- amounts of wad, the potential for mobilisation is high.
On the other hand, if the blanketing layer contains dense,
terials from overlying horizons.
impermeable layers of Karoo shale or intrusive sills, the
mobilisation potential is low.

Fig. 3
Schematic representation of sinkhole
formation

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Cases and solutions

When material is removed from the blanketing layer, a

(secondary) void may form above the point of exit
(throat), as shown in Fig. 3a. This void can grow upwards
until it reaches a more resistant layer or daylights as a
sinkhole (Fig. 3b). Typically the void will grow until it
reaches the stronger uppermost part of the soil horizon
(0.22.0 m below ground surface) and then attain temporary stability. For this soil roof to fail and cause a catastrophic sinkhole, a triggering mechanism (for example,
wetting, or vibration) is required. If arching does not develop while material from the blanketing layer is being
mobilised, surface subsidence may manifest as the initial
stage of sinkhole formation.
Jennings and others (1965) postulated that certain criteria
had to be met in order for a sinkhole to develop. These
criteria include the presence of adjacent rigid material to
form abutments for the roof of a void; arching within the
overburden; development of a void below the arch in the
overburden; the presence of a reservoir below the void to
accept the mobilised material; some means of transportation for the material such as flowing water; and lastly,
once a sufficiently large void has been established within
the overburden, a trigger mechanism to cause collapse of
the arch. The permeability of the overburden determines
the mechanism of sinkhole formation, by controlling the
erosive activity of the percolating groundwater (D. B.
Buttrich, unpub. data).

Impact of land development

(mobilising agencies)
The man-induced mobilising agencies that disturb the
natural geological environment to cause sinkholes are
concentrated water seepage, lowering of the groundwater
level (dewatering) and ground vibration.
Water seepage
Water that originates from surface ponding or leaking
pipes can percolate down through the blanketing layer
and mobilise material into receptacles. Such seepage may
be absent or very slight in the case of open virgin tracts
of land where the ground surface is not disturbed, to severe, in the case of high-density low-cost housing with
associated poor drainage, unpaved roads and poor control over compaction of trenches for services and maintenance of wet services. The relationship between urban
development and ground surface instability on dolomite
land is borne out by the fact that 94% of 375 sinkholes
recorded south of Pretoria has occurred in developed areas (Schning 1990).

el by over 100 m during mining operations (Kleywegt and

Enslin 1973; Wolmarans 1984). The main effects of dewatering on sinkhole formation can be summarised as follows:
1. When the original groundwater level is located close
to the ground surface, mobilisation of material from
the blanketing layer is severely restricted. If the water
level is lowered, a greater part of the blanketing layer
is subjected to sub-vertical water movement and subsurface erosion. The efficiency of infiltrating water as a
mobilising agency and the risk for mobilisation is
therefore greatly increased.
2. Material arching over voids in a state of meta-stability
below the original groundwater level may fail and result in sinkhole formation upon dewatering and
change in hydrostatic pressure.
3. Dolines and ground cracks that form as a result of dewatering can damage water pipes and facilitate surface
water ingress.
Based on observations in the Far West Rand dolomitic
area, Vegter (1987) assumed that up to 6 m of groundwater level drawdown would have little effect on ground
surface stability.
Ground vibrations
Ground vibrations can serve as a triggering action for
sinkhole formation. They can be caused by heavy machinery (for example crushing plants), passing trains or
blasting.

Site investigation
The purpose of a site investigation is to sub-divide dolomite land into zones with similar geological conditions
and to develop typical geological models for each zone.
For each zone, the hazard (size of potential sinkhole) and
the mobilising potential of the overburden can then be
assessed.
The method of investigation depends on the area of the
site, the present state of development and the surface
geological conditions. Large areas of open land will generally be geologically mapped and geophysically surveyed
before drilling is undertaken, while on small sites in
built-up areas, it may only be possible to drill one or two
boreholes.
Geological mapping
For surface geological mapping, aerial photographs can
be very useful to delineate areas of outcrop, shallow bedrock, rock types, intrusives, joint orientations and karst
features. Other essential information to be recorded is the
present land use, drainage features and signs of previous
surface instability.

Dewatering
Lowering of the groundwater level within a dolomitic
aquifer has a dramatic effect on the formation of sinkGeophysics
holes and dolines. This is best illustrated by the occurOn sites of more than 1 ha and where the avearge bedrence of over 700 sinkholes in the Far West Rand gold
mining area, following a lowering of the groundwater lev- rock surface is deeper than 5 m, gravity readings are gen-

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173

Cases and solutions

erally taken at grid points spaced between 10 m and 30 m

apart. Results from this, coupled with information from a
few boreholes, allow the calculation of residual gravity as
positive values where bedrock is above the groundwater
level and negative where bedrock is below the ground
water level (Kleywegt and Enslin 1973). These residual
gravity contour maps delineate areas of relatively deep or
shallow bedrock and depict the bedrock surface gradient.
Drilling
Rotary percussion drilling is the only economical means
of deep sub-surface exploration in dolomite areas. Diamond drilling is generally too expensive due to the high
rate of bit wear on interbedded chert. Information is obtained by recording penetration rates, air losses, sample
return, hammer action and inspection of drill cuttings.
The groundwater level can also be measured. Borehole
positions are selected to further investigate and confirm
the land classification obtained from surface mapping
and geophysics. Their results are used to evaluate the
sites in terms of hazard (size of sinkhole) and inherent
risk (mobilisation potential of the blanketing layer).

Hazard assessment
The potential hazard associated with a specific zone can
be defined as the size of sinkhole that can be expected to
form. The maximum potential sinkhole size is an estimation of the maximum sinkhole that can be anticipated in
a particular soil profile, assuming that the available space
is fully utilised by the mobilising agency (Fig. 4).
The following factors need to be assessed here (refer to
Fig. 2):
1. The total thickness of the blanketing layer, which determines the estimated depth to the potential throat of
the receptacle or disseminated receptacles.

2. The estimated angle of draw in the various horizons

in the blanketing layer.
3. The thickness of the various horizons within the blanketing layer.
The angle of draw defines the angle of a metastable slope
that will form within a particular material. Buttrick and
van Schalkwyk (1995) suggest typical angles of draw for
typical materials in the blanketing layer (Table 2) but
warn that professional judgement, based on experience
and on conditions observed during the geotechnical investigation of the site, is required for the assessment.
The maximum potential sinkhole size is the maximum
size that a sinkhole will attain within a particular soil
profile, assuming that the available space can be fully
utilised by the mobilising agency. Full utilisation of the
available space can only be achieved if (1) the receptacle
is large enough to accommodate all the mobilised material, (2) the materials within the blanketing layer can be
mobilised and (3) the mobilising agency is adequate to
mobilise all the material. Since these factors are difficult
to assess during a site investigation, it is generally assumed that a sinkhole will attain the maximum potential
size. A suggested classification of sinkhole sizes is presented in Table 3.
Figure 2 depicts two situations, (a) and (b), with different
maximum potential sinkhole sizes. The profile is characterized by a deep groundwater level situated within the
bedrock, and contains an intrusive horizon which will act
as an aquitard or aquiclude, thus preventing mobilisation
of materials into the receptacle by ingress water. Consequently, despite the maximum potential size (MPS 1) in
Fig. 2a, the material within the blanketing layer would be
protected from the mobilising agency. In Fig. 2b, the potential receptacles above the intrusive horizon are located
at a shallow depth, and a smaller maximum potential size
(MPS 2) is available.
Table 2
Suggested angles-of-draw for typical dolomitic overburden
materials
Type of material

Angle of draw

Chert
Alternating chert and silty clay (wad)
Shale
Clayey silt (wad)
Silty clay (wad)
Chert rubble with clayey silt

907
807907
907
457607
457757
457907

Table 3
Suggested scale for sizes of sinkholes

Fig. 4
Schematic representation of sinkhole where the maximum
potential size has not been utilised

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Suggested term

Maximum diameter on surface (m)

Small sinkhole
Medium-size sinkhole
Large sinkhole
Very large sinkhole

~2
25
510
1 10

Cases and solutions

Risk assessment
Inherent risk
The risk (chance for sinkhole to occur) depends on the
mobility (mobilisation potential) of the dolomitic overburden and the nature of the mobilising agencies. Since
the nature of the mobilising agencies depends on the future land use and can usually not be assessed during the
site characterization stage, it must be assumed that the
site will be developed or treated incorrectly (abused) and
that all mobilising agencies will become operative. The
risk of mobilisation (and for sinkhole formation) under
such conditions is termed the inherent risk.
Buttrick and van Schalkwyk (1995) relate the degree of
risk to occurrence of sinkholes in various dolomitic type
areas of South Africa. Most of these type areas had been
developed before the concept of appropriate development
and compulsory precautionary measures were introduced.
It can therefore be assumed that these areas had, to some
extent, been abused and that the number of sinkholes
represents the inherent risk.
The occurrence of sinkholes in urban areas generally increases with time as the wet services become older and
the effect of precautionary measures decreases. The risk
classification as given in Table 4 is therefore defined in
terms of the average number of ground surface damage
events per hectare in a 20-year period, after an initial 20year period.
The risk of mobilisation can be assessed from information on the properties of the blanketing layer obtained
during the site investigation. Although approximate guidelines are provided in Table 5, the reader is cautioned
that professional judgement is required and that specific
site conditions must be taken into account.
Development risk
Depending on the type of land development and precautionary measures that are selected, the type, duration,
frequency and extent of mobilising agencies can be influenced. The development risk for a site is determined
by taking into account both the inherent risk and the selected type of development.

Table 4
Inherent risk classification in terms of average number of
events ha P1 20-year period P1 after an initial 20-year period
(after Buttrick and van Schalkwyk 1995)
Inherent risk class

Typical number of ground

movement events ha P1 20 years P1

Low
Medium
High

0
0.1
11

Five categories of typical land development and their

likely effect on the realization of mobilising agencies are
presented in Table 6. If other types of land development
are to be considered, their effect on the mobilising agencies has to be assessed.
Precautionary measures are implemented as part of the
appropriate development in order to further reduce disturbance of the natural environment. Certain precautionary measures are standard for all sites on dolomite and
all types of development, while other measures are recommended for specific types of development. Typical
precautionary measures are listed in Table 7.
Acceptable development risk
The perception by people of the degree of risk in any
given situation depends, amongst other factors, on the
hazard that is involved. For example, one casualty per
year caused by a sinkhole would be perceived as a high
risk, while for road accidents it would be very low.
The acceptable risk for sinkhole formation depends on
the type of development and various social, political and
economic factors. It can therefore not simply be expressed in terms of a maximum permissible number of
sinkholes per hectare in a period of 20 years. For these
reasons, development risk is not categorised in terms of
high, medium or small, but simply as acceptable or not
acceptable.
An acceptable development risk can be obtained by selecting appropriate types of development and precautionary measures for the type of hazard and potential risk as-

Table 5
Guidelines for assessing the risk for mobilisation of the blanketing layer (Inherent risk for sinkholes) (after Buttrick and van
Schalkwyk 1995)
Risk for mobilization
(Inherent risk)

Typical site conditions

Low

No cavities, sample or air-loss encountered during drilling. Blanketing layer contains layers of shale
or intrusive sills. Groundwater level may be very shallow. Bedrock surface is relatively flat.

Medium

No aquitards such as shale or intrusives present. Typically chert rubble. Groundwater level lies below
blanketing layer. Bedrock surface has low gradient.

High

Cavities, sample and air-loss encountered during drilling. Thick layers of wad occur within the
dolomitic overburden. No shale or intrusives present. Groundwater level lies below blanketing layer.
Bedrock surface has steep gradient.

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Cases and solutions

Table 6
Relationship between land development and mobilising agencies
Development
type no.

Development type description

Potential mobilising agency

D0

No buildings; parks or nature reserves; agricultural

use

Natural infiltration; ground vibrations due to natural

seismic events or surrounding land use

D1

Gentlemens estates ( 1 4000 m 2 stands); commercial

or light industrial development

Possibly isolated infiltration from few leaking wet

services; no surface ponding

D2

High-rise buildings or low-density residential

development

Infiltration from leaking wet services and surface

ponding

D3

High-density, low-cost residential development

Infiltration from numerous leaking wet services

D4

Site and service schemes

Water ponding and infiltration through disturbed

ground surfaces; poor storm water management

Table 7
Typical precautionary measures for development on dolomite land

176

Measure
no.

Description of precautionary measures

P1

All natural ponds and water courses located within 10 m of any structure shall be rendered impermeable.
The site and surrounding areas shall be shaped to permit the ready drainage of surface water and to prevent
ponding.
Brick and concrete walls shall provide drainage ports at ground level.
Water-borne sewerage reticulation shall be installed. French drains are unacceptable.
The backfilling of all trenches and excavation works shall be compacted to render it less permeable than the
surrounding material.
Surfaces around structures shall be shaped to fall at least 75 mm over the first 1.5 m from where it shall drain
away freely.
Downpipes for roof water must discharge on sealed surfaces or drain into lined furrows to roadways/stormwater
systems.
Where guttering is not provided, a 1.5 m wide impervious apron slab shall be provided around buildings.
No garden watering is allowed within 1.5 m from buildings.
Backwash water from swimming pools shall be discharged into the storm water system.
Water mains shall be constructed only in road reserves.
All storm water, sewerage and water pipes shall be watertight, resistant to corrosion and provided with flexible
couplings to accommodate differential movements without causing leaks.
Water pipes through walls shall be sleeved to permit relative movement.
No trees shall be planted over the line of water bearing services.
No boreholes shall be allowed if the water level is above bedrock level.

P2

Individual or continuous earth mattresses shall be provided for residential or high-density development,
respectively.
Water and sewerage services shall be placed within mattresses.
If mattress is penetrated, wet services shall be placed in sleeves extending a minimum of 5 m away from structure.
or
Interlocked residential modules shall be constructed on large, rationally designed rafts, capable of spanning small
and medium-size sinkholes.
Water and sewerage services shall be placed in ducts within the rafts.

P3

A detailed sanitation plan shall be drawn up according to local geological conditions.

Bulk water services shall be placed in road reserves or in minimum 5 m wide servitudes that may be utilised as
parks of bridle paths.
Water and sewer connections of every two units shall be located along common boundary.
Property entrances shall be placed at points farthest away from water and sewer connections.
Each stand shall have a rodding eye or similar access to sewer connection, in addition to inspection eyes.
Roads shall be graded and designed to act as drains for surface water.
Gradients of unpaved roads shall not be so steep as to cause erosion.
Roadways which act as major storm water collectors shall be surfaced.

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Cases and solutions

sociated with the site. Suggested appropriate development

types and precautionary measures, as presented in Table 8, should be used as guidelines only, while for each
site, professional judgement is required in order to make
an appropriate selection.

Evaluation procedure
Table 9 illustrates the procedure for evaluating a dolomitic area. In step 1, the site is subdivided into karst morphological zones based on information gained from aerial
photographic/surface mapping and geophysical surveys.
Boreholes are then drilled in order to characterise these
zones in terms of potential hazard and mobilisation potential of the dolomitic overburden (steps 2 and 3).
In step 4, the likely size of sinkhole must be determined
for each zone. This is based on information from the site
investigation, experience and professional judgement of
the evaluator. The presence or likely presence of individual or interconnected receptacles must be noted and their
depths must be estimated. It is important to substantiate
any assumptions, e.g. possible interconnected receptacles
in chert-rich overburden. The size of potential sinkholes
is based on the depth of receptacles and the angle of
draw of the blanketing layers (see Table 2) and is classified according to Table 3. A final zonation of the area in
terms of potential hazard can then be done (step 5).
An assessment of the mobilisation potential of the dolomitic overburden is also based on information from the
site investigation and the guidelines contained in Tables
4 and 5 (step 6). For mobilisation potential, the most important material characteristics are the grain size distribution (for example, gap-graded materials are very prone
to internal erosion), cohesion and density. In each case, a
severe mobilising agency (concentrated water seepage)
must be postulated.

Table 8
Guidelines for selection of appropriate development types
(D1D5) and precautionary measures (P1P6) to achieve
acceptable development risk for sites with different categories
of hazard and inherent risk
Hazard

High
inherent risk

Medium
inherent risk

Low
inherent risk

Very large
sinkhole

D0

D0
D1cP1

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP3

Large
sinkhole

D0

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP3

Medium
sinkhole

D0
D1cP1

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP3

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP3

Small
sinkhole

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP2cP3

D0
D1cP1
D2cP1cP2
D3cP1cP3

The final selection of the type of development that affords an acceptable development risk can be done according to guidelines provided in Table 8. The guiding
principle here is that the development risk (either acceptable or not acceptable) is obtained by taking into account
the hazard plus the inherent risk plus the development
type and the selected precautionary/remedial measures.
For all types of development on dolomite land, it is advisable to take the maximum amount of precautionary
measures in order to reduce the risk further.

Table 9
Summary of procedure for risk-based site evaluation
Step 1

Preliminary zoning using aerial photographic/surface mapping and/or geophysics

Step 2

Geological characterisation by means of boreholes

Step 3

Pooling of individual borehole characterisations and amending of preliminary zoning, taking historical information
into account

Step 4

Hazard assessment (sinkhole size) for each zone

Location and form of bedrock surface
Properties of blanketing layer
Positions of potential receptacles
Size of potential receptacles
Angle-of-draw of blanketing layer
Strength of surface layer
Maximum potential size
Location of groundwater level

Step 5

Final zonation in terms of potential hazard (size of sinkhole)

Step 6

Assessment of inherent risk for sinkhole formation based on the mobilisation potential of the dolomitic overburden

Step 7

Selection of appropriate development types and precautionary measures

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Cases and solutions

Conclusions
In South Africa, dolomite land occurs in significant proportions in the densely populated areas of the Gauteng
and North-West Provinces. There is an ever-increasing
demand in these areas for additional housing, but human
activities tend to disturb the metastable subsurface conditions in dolomitic environments and often result in the
formation of catastrophic sinkholes. Therefore, there is a
very urgent need for a scientific method to evaluate the
risk of a certain type of event occurring within areas
where human activity has or is envisaged to take place.
The method of hazard and risk assessment proposed here
allows for professional judgement of the likelihood of catastrophic events occurring, based on geotechnical investigations and assumed land use. It evaluates a site according to local geological conditions within a framework
of well-defined factors. Based on this information, the
most appropriate type of development for each zone
within a greater area can be selected. Under all circumstances, it is recommended that appropriate precautionary measures for the control of piped or surface water be
taken.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Dr. Kleywegt
and staff members of the SA Council for Geoscience and other
colleagues for their contributions in the form of discussions
and advice.

178

Environmental Geology 36 (12) November 1998 7 Q Springer-Verlag

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