WAX DEPOSITION

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

By

ARJIT KUMAR PRINCE

Admission Number: 14JE000335
SESSION: 2015-2016

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

TARUN KUMAR NAIYA

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

INDIAN SCHOOL OF MINES

DHANBAD-826004

Contents
1. Acknowledgement
.
2. Abstract
.
3. Introduction

4. Wax deposition and

Thixotropy
..
5. Wax Deposition Problem in Flow
Conditions.
6. Wax
crystallization
.
7. Mechanism of wax
deposition
..
8. Factors leading to wax precipitation and
deposition.
9. Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT) and Wax Dissolution Temperature (WDT)
Measurement.
10.Why Thixotropic property is important in Wax
Deposition..
11.Effects of wax deposition in
pipes

12.Methods of wax prevention and

removal.....
13.Thixotropic behavior of
oil

14.Conclusion
.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Apart from the efforts of me, the success of any project depends largely on the
encouragement and guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express
my gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in the successful
completion of this project.
I would like to show my greatest appreciation to Prof Tarun Kumar Naiya. I cant
say thank you enough for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and
encouraged every time I attend his meeting. Without his encouragement and
guidance this project would not have materialized. My deep sense of gratitude to
my seniors for support and guidance.
The guidance and support received from all the members who contributed and
who are contributing to this project, was vital for the success of the project.
I am grateful for their constant support and help. I would also thank my

Institution and my faculty members without whom this project would have
been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to my family and wellwishers.

ABSTRACT
Highly waxy crude oils can cause significant problems such as blockage of a
pipeline because of the precipitation and deposition of select wax
components during the production and transportation of the crude oil. The
cost of wax management is enormous and rapidly increasing because of
increased oil production in deep sea areas. Wax management costs can be
significantly reduced if wax deposition and gelation in pipeline can be
accurately predicted. In this research, a rigorous wax deposition model
combined with the wax precipitation kinetics in the boundary layer was
developed using a computational heat and mass transfer analysis. This
model accurately predicted the deposition and aging rates for lab scale and
pilot plant scale flow loop tests under laminar and turbulent flows. The model
was also extended to make prediction in subsea field pipelines. Studies of
wax deposition under turbulent flow conditions showed that the deposition
rate is significantly reduced by the precipitation of waxes in the thermal
boundary layer. Furthermore, this analysis proved that the convective mass
flux is bounded by the Venkatesan-Fogler solubility method as the lower
bound and the ChiltonColburn analogy method as the upper bound. The challenging issue of the
restart of a gelled subsea pipeline after shut-in period was also studied
experimentally and theoretically. The gel inside the pipeline formed during a

stoppage of oil flow must be broken to restart the flow. The gel breaking
mechanisms during the restart of a pipeline were investigated and were
found to be a function of cooling rate. The existence of a delineation point
between cohesive and adhesive failures was found by measuring the gel
strengths using various cooling rates. Using a controlled stress rheometer
and a cross polarized microscope, we elucidated the phenomena behind the
existence of a delineation point between cohesive and adhesive failures. This
study has shown that the controlled stress rheometer can predict the restart
pressure of a gelled pipeline when the cooling rate is low and breakage
occurs adhesively. Finally, we developed a restart model that can predict the
relationship between the amount of injection fluid and the pressure applied
to the pipeline.

INTRODUCTION
Crude oils are a complex mixture of hydrocarbons in which the majorities are
saturated alkanes. In some cases, the concentration of high molecular linear
alkanes is very high, leading to the appearance of solids when fluids are
cooled below a threshold temperature, termed wax appearance temperature
(WAT); in these cases, the fluids are typically called waxy oils. The wax
fraction of the oil comprises the molecules that are expected to solidify upon
temperature decrease and typically contain molecules with alkyl chain length
greater than 18 units. The percentage of such hydrocarbons in oils worldwide
usually ranges from 1 to 50 % .
At reservoir temperatures (70-150 oC) and pressures (50-100 MPa), wax
molecules are dissolved in the crude oil. However, as the crude oil flows

through a subsea pipeline resting on the ocean floor at a temperature of 4

oC, the temperature of oil eventually decreases below its cloud point
temperature (or wax appearance temperature, WAT) because of the heat
losses to the surroundings. The solubility of wax decreases drastically as the
temperature decreases and wax molecules start to precipitate out of the
crude oil.
Because oil reservoirs near the shoreline have become depleted, oil
production in deep sea areas has increased significantly. Forecasters expect
that, by 2017, oil production from deep sea areas will exceed 8 million
barrels per day which is about three times greater than deep sea production
in year 2002 (2.4 million barrels per day). Recent advances in the exploration
and production technologies in deep sea areas have made deep water
drilling economically feasible and the oil
industry has drilled subsea oil
wells as far as 160 miles away
from the shore. As oil wells are
developed, wax problems will
become more severe and
extensive due to the increased
transportation lines on the cold
ocean floor.

Oil production in
deep sea areas
The research in this dissertation elucidates the fundamental understanding
of problems in the production and transportation of waxy crude oil. More
specifically, the flow assurance problems incurred by the precipitation of wax
molecules during the production and transportation in the field pipelines can
be categorized as:
(1) Wax deposition in flow conditions and
(2) Wax gelation and restart problem after shut-in period.

Wax Deposition and Thixotropy

Petroleum (or crude oil) is a widely traded and important commodity in the
global economy, and in the context of petroleum production, the rheological
response of structured fluids can play a very important role. While in many

cases crude oil itself exhibits highly non-Newtonian flow behavior, there are
also other fluids which are of interest to rheologists in the field of petroleum
engineering. For example, drilling fluids are often designed in order to exhibit
a wide range of complex rheological behaviors, from thixotropy to elastoviscoplastic yield-like behavior at large deformations. Non-Newtonian
surfactant solutions are frequently utilized in enhanced oil recovery scenarios
in order to maximize output from a particular oil field. In order for these
fluids to be of use to the practicing petroleum engineer, a working
knowledge of their rheology is required.
The problem of understanding the rheology of these fluids is of greater
relevance today than ever before. Predictions made in the mid-20th century
such as those by Hubbert showed that the production of crude oil within a
given region would follow a bell shaped curve which, after peaking, would
decrease slowly over time. While Hubbert's peak theory predicts that
eventually global production of crude oil will reach a peak, the point in time
at which this peak will occur is still unclear although estimates are typically
on the order of several decades.
One of the reasons for the peak point being difficult to predict is that modern
oil exploration techniques have been uncovering new reserves of petroleum
in remote locations. As the technology used to both and these reserves and
extract oil in more efficient manners continues to develop, total global
production of oil can continue to grow. Hence, a significant segment of the oil
industry today is focused solely on developing technology that both allows
extraction of crude oil from remote reserves, but also allows more efficient
extraction of petroleum from current and future reserves. Complex fluids and
smart material systems will feature heavily in these developments.
In this context, the rheological characterization of precipitate-containing
crude oils is of increased importance. Precipitate-containing oils tend to
exhibit highly non-Newtonian flow behavior, due to the inherent
microstructure associated with the presence of a number of possible solid
phases. The most commonly encountered precipitates are waxes, hydrates
(or clathrates) and asphaltenes. In the case of ultra-deep water oil
production, precipitates such as waxes may pose significant problems
towards the goal of ensuring continuous flow of the fluid from a reserve. In
particular, the fluid may experience large drops in temperature due to the
cool ambient sea-water and extremely long pipelines (several kilometers) ,
resulting in a waxy crude oil being cooled to below its wax appearance
temperature, denoted by Twa. Once the waxy crude is cooled to below Twa, it
may form a viscoelastic gel, and much larger pressure drops are then
required in order to ensure the same flow rate. This issue is often so
problematic that field workers will insulate and/or heat pipelines to prevent
this cooling from occurring

Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids

that are thick (viscous) under static conditions will flow (become thin, less
viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed (time
dependent viscosity). They then take a fixed time to return to a more viscous
state. In more technical language: some non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids
show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes
shear stress, the lower its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a
finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity when introduced to a step change in
shear rate. Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such
as ketchup, and are called pseudo plastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take
much longer and can become nearly solid. Many gels and colloids are
thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming fluid
when agitated.
Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an
increase in viscosity or even solidification. Constant shear stress can be
applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which exhibit this property are usually
called rheopectic.
To tackle the situation of wax deposition, we need to understand the problem
and for that the properties of the crude oil like viscosity, flocculation,
deflocculation, thixotropy, etc must be known along with their dependency
on the temperature as the main problem occurs due to the temperature
variance.
The properties of fluids vary a lot from the gases. Like the property of
viscosity; in gases the viscosity increases with increase in temperature while
in liquids viscosity decreases with increase in temperature. So, here we can
see how differently the two behave in similar conditions. It is not that liquids
behave like solids. As for example, solids can resist lower values of shear
stress and to bring the solid in motion a minimum value of shear stress is
needed. While in liquids a small value of shear stress is enough to bring
about the system into motion i.e. it cant resist the shear stress no matter
how small its value is. From these two cases we can conclude that the
properties of the liquids are very different than that of solids or gases. So,
there properties are needed to be studied separately if we want to control
phenomenon like wax deposition.
This project is mainly deals with one property of the fluids: thixotropy.

Wax Deposition Problem in Flow Conditions

Wax deposition occurs when paraffin components in crude oil (alkanes with
carbon numbers greater than 20) precipitate and deposit on the cold pipeline
wall when the inner wall temperature falls below the cloud point temperature
(solubility limit). If preventive methods for wax deposition (e.g. insulation of
pipeline, injection of wax inhibitor, or combination of both) are not
successful, a wax gel layer grows rapidly in thickness and impedes the flow
of oil due to the flow restriction. In the Lasmo field in the UK, wax deposition
was so severe and frequent that the entire field was abandoned at a cost of
over $100,000,000.
Once the wax deposit starts to impede the production and transportation due
to the flow restriction, corrective methods to remediate the wax deposit are
generally necessitated. One of the most commonly used corrective methods
used in the fields is pigging. In pigging, a pig (a solid object with the
diameter smaller than the inner diameter of the pipe) passes through the
pipeline to scrape off the wax deposit. However, the pigging method cannot
efficiently be utilized without a proper wax deposition prediction.
Successful management of wax deposition will become more important in
the future because new explorations and productions are being made farther
offshore. The wax deposition management cost to the petroleum production
industry is enormous and will increase both in terms of capital costs (e.g.
preventive methods) and operating costs (e.g. corrective methods).It is
widely recognized that tremendous savings could be realized from accurate
wax prediction in offshore systems. Consequently, a fundamental
understanding of wax deposition phenomena and a comprehensive wax
deposition model based on this fundamental understanding is strongly
necessitated in order to overcome the challenges in production and
transportation of subsea pipelines.

Wax Gelation and Restart Problem after Shut-in

Wax precipitation during oil flow results in wax deposition and flow
restriction, wax precipitation during a production shutdown results in
problems when attempting to restart the flow. If the transportation in a
pipeline is stopped due to a planned maintenance or an emergency situation
such as severe weather conditions on the off-shore platforms, the
temperature and solubility of wax decreases and wax molecules precipitate
out of liquid phase in a static condition. In the absence of flow, the
precipitation of wax molecules leads to the formation of a wax-oil gel as
shown in the cross-polarized microscope photo of wax.

This restart flow problem is especially challenging

when the ambient temperature is below the pour
point temperature (ASTM D 5853) or the gelation
temperature, which indicates the lowest
temperature at which oil is pumpable. In order to
prevent this risk and to enhance the restart ability
after shut-in, chemical agents which can depress
the pour point temperature and/or weaken the
strength of the wax-oil gel. When assessing the restart ability, it is necessary
to estimate the pressure required to break the plug of wax-oil gel. The
pressure required to break the gel and to restart flow is proportional to the
strength of the gel (yield stress) and the aspect ratio of the pipeline.
Consequently, a fundamental understanding on the wax-oil gel breaking
phenomena is needed to overcome the challenges in production and
transportation of subsea pipelines.

Wax Crystallization
Crystallization generally is the process of separation of solid phase from a
homogenous solution, the separated solid phase appearing as crystals.
Paraffins (waxes) remain in solution as natural components of crude oil until
temperature gets to or below their solubility limit. The separation of wax
(solid phase) out of the oil (liquid phase) at favorable prevailing conditions is
referred to as wax precipitation or crystallization. Crystallization and
precipitation have been used interchangeably in wax deposition studies and
will be used to mean the same process in this work. Two types of wax
crystals have been distinguished: macro-crystalline wax composed mainly of
normal paraffin and micro-crystalline wax from iso-paraffins and naphthenes
(cyclo-paraffins).
Wax crystal formation involves two stagesnucleation and growthwith
nucleation preceding growth stage. As the solubility limit is approached, the
kinetic energy of the paraffin molecules is reduced as a result of temperature
reduction. Consequent to this reduced kinetic energy, the motion of the wax
molecules is hindered, leading to continuous reduction and closure of the
space between the molecules. As this process continues, the wax molecules
get tangled, forming clusters which grow larger and become stable upon
reaching a certain critical size. The critical size is dependent upon the
prevailing condition. However, the clusters re-dissolve when critical size is
not attained and become unstable. These clusters are referred to as nuclei.
Nuclei that achieve critical cluster size will have an increasing number of
molecules clinging to them as the prevailing condition remains favorable to
crystal formation, leading to an increase in size of formed wax crystals. This
process of increase in size is known as wax crystal growth stage. Nucleation

and growth occur simultaneously in the oil system, with one or the other
predominating at a time.
Sometimes in the literature, deposition is used interchangeably with
precipitation, but they are different concepts. Wax deposition is the
formation of a layer of the separated solid phase, and the eventual growth of
this layer, on a surface in contact with the crude oil. Wax deposition can be
formed from an already precipitated solid phase (wax) through mechanisms
of shear dispersion, gravity settling, and Brownian motion, or from dissolved
wax molecules through a molecular diffusion mechanism. Precipitation does
not necessarily lead to deposition, as precipitated wax may not deposit due
to other prevailing operating conditions. Thus, precipitation, though an
important condition for deposition, is not necessarily sufficient for wax
deposition. Singh et al. (2001) reported that there are two stages or steps
that are involved in wax deposition: wax gel formation followed by aging of
deposited wax gel. Petroleum wax deposits contain some crude oil, water,
gums, resins, sand, and asphaltenes, depending on the nature of the
particular crude oil, which are entrapped during the crystallization and
deposition process. The trapped oil causes diffusion of wax molecules into
the gel deposit and counter-diffusion of oil out of the gel deposit, a process
that depends on the critical carbon number of the oil. The critical carbon
number is unique for different waxy crude oils and depends on the prevailing
operating conditions also (Singh et al., 2000). In the gel deposit, the fraction
of molecules with carbon numbers greater than the critical carbon number
increases, while that of molecules with carbon numbers lower than the
critical carbon number decreases. The process of diffusion and counterdiffusion leading to hardening of the gel deposit, increase in size of deposit,
and increase in the amount of wax in gel deposit, is called aging, the second
stage of wax deposition. Molecular diffusion, therefore, is critical to aging and
hardening of wax gel deposits.
Wax model Singh et al. (2000) reported that the deposition of wax gel on the
pipe/tubing wall follows a process that can be described by the following five
steps:
1. Gelation of the waxy oil (or formation of incipient gel layer) on the cold
surface.
2. Diffusion of waxes (hydrocarbons with carbon numbers greater than the
critical carbon number) towards the gel layer from the bulk oil.
3. Internal diffusion of these molecules through the trapped oil.
4. Precipitation of these molecules through the trapped oil.
5. Counter diffusion of de-waxed oil (hydrocarbons with carbon numbers
lower than the critical carbon number) out of the gel deposit layer.
Steps 3, 4, and 5 are reported to be responsible for the increase in solid wax
content of the wax gel deposit (aging of the wax deposit).

Images showing the effect that various types of precipitates may have on a
pipeline cross-section.

Mechanism of Wax Deposition

The mechanism of wax deposition is considered here with respect to the
lateral transport of waxy residue. Wax deposition is believed to occur as a
result of lateral transport by diffusion, shear dispersion, and Brownian
diffusion. Gravity settling is believed to be a possible transport mechanism
also.
Molecular Diffusion- For all flow conditions, oil will be in laminar flow either
throughout the pipe or at least in a thin laminar sublayer adjacent to the pipe
wall. When the oil is being cooled, there will be a temperature gradient
across the laminar sublayer. If temperatures are below the level where solid
waxy crystals can be precipitated, then the flowing elements of oil will
contain precipitated solid particles, and the liquid phase will be in equilibrium
with the solid phase; that is, the liquid will be saturated with dissolved wax

crystals. The temperature profile near the wall will lead to a concentration
gradient of dissolved wax, and this dissolved material will be transported
toward the wall by molecular diffusion. When this diffusing material reaches
the solid/liquid interface, it will be precipitated out of solution.
Brownian Diffusion- Small, solid waxy crystals, when suspended in oil, will
be bombarded continually by thermally agitated oil molecules. These
collisions will lead to small random Brownian movements of the suspended
particles. If there is a concentration gradient of these particles, Brownian
motion will lead to a net transport, which in nature and mathematical
description is similar to diffusion. The possible contribution of Brownian
diffusion to wax transport and deposition has been mentioned prominently in
USSR literature.
Shear Dispersion- When small particles are suspended in a fluid that is in
laminar motion, the particles tend to move at the mean speed and in the
direction of surrounding fluid. The particle speed is that of streamline at its
center, and the particle rotates with an angular velocity which is half the fluid
shear rate. If the particles approach a solid boundary, both linear and
angular velocities will be reduced. Because of fluid viscosity, rotating
particles will impart a circulatory motion to a layer of fluid adjacent to the
particle. This rotating fluid region exerts a drag force on neighboring
particles. In a shear field, each particle passes and interacts with nearby
particles in slower or faster moving streamlines. When only two particles are
present, far from a wall and at a very low Reynolds number, these passing
encounters result in large temporary displacements. As the particles pass,
their trajectories are such that the particles curve around one another and
return to their original streamline. Thus, there is no net lateral displacement.
If the particle concentration is high, however, then a significant number of
multi particle interactions will occur. These multi particle collisions result in
net lateral transport and a dispersing of particles.
Gravity Settling- Precipitated waxy crystals are denser than the
surrounding liquid oil phase. Hence, if particles were non-interacting, they
would settle in a gravity field and could be deposited on the bottom of pipes
or tanks. For an initially uniform mixture in a vessel, there would be a
beginning rate of settling followed by a diminishing rate of deposition, which
asymptotically would approach zero at complete settling.

Factors Leading To Wax Precipitation and Deposition

Wax precipitation occurs when the wax molecules contained in the crude oil reach their solubility
limit due to change in equilibrium conditions in the crude, resulting in loss of paraffin solubility. The
solubility limit is directly dependent on temperature and, as such, is defined by temperature, given
other specified conditions. There are other factors that affect the precipitation of wax and thus wax
deposition. While some of these factors influence wax precipitation by shifting the solubility limit in
terms of temperature upwards/downwards, others provide a favorable environment for deposition to
occur. Such factors include oil composition plus available solution gas, and pressure of the oil which
affects the amount of gas in solution. Others are flow rate, completion, and pipe or deposition surface
roughness.

Temperature -Temperature seems to be the predominant and most critical factor in wax precipitation
and deposition due to its direct relationship with the solubility of paraffin. Sadeghazad et al. (1998)
reported that temperature and the amount of light constituent are the two most important factors
affecting wax precipitation and deposition. Paraffin solubility increases with increasing temperature
and decreases with decreasing temperature. In working with food-grade wax in a model oil solvent
consisting of mineral oil and kerosene mixed at a ratio of 3:1, Singh et al. (2000) showed the
relationship between wax solubility and temperature. Wax precipitates from crude oil when the
operating temperature is at or below the WAT (cloud point temperature). It has been reported that
wax deposition will not occur until the operating temperature falls to or below the WAT (Erickson et
al., 1993). All other factors actually lead to wax deposition when the temperature is already at or
below the cloud point. The ambient temperature around the pipe is generally less than the oil
temperature in the pipe. Thus, there is loss of heat through the pipe wall to the surroundings because
a temperature gradient exists between the bulk oil and the colder pipe wall. This temperature gradient
leads to wax deposition when the pipe wall temperature falls below the cloud point. The rate of wax
deposition is in direct proportion to the temperature difference between the bulk oil and the pipe wall
(Eaton et al., 1976) when bulk oil temperature is fixed. However, Haq (1981) showed that keeping
the pipe wall temperature constant at a value below the cloud point of the oil and varying the bulk oil
temperature reduce the amount of wax deposited as the temperature difference between the bulk oil
and pipe wall increases. The temperature gradient between the cold tubing/pipe wall and the bulk oil
initiates a concentration gradient in the paraffin molecule distribution. Paraffin molecules near the
pipe wall crystallize out of the oil as wall temperature falls below cloud point, leading to a reduction
in the number of dissolved paraffin molecules around the wall inducing a radial concentration
gradient. The simple law of diffusion is obeyed then as dissolved paraffin molecules in the oil diffuse
towards the wall, causing additional precipitation and further deposition. This leads to increasing wax
deposit thickness with time. Cole and Jessen (1960) opined that it is the difference between the cloud
point temperature and the temperature of the pipe wall that most importantly determines the rate of
wax deposition.

Crude Oil Composition- Crude oil is composed of saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes
(SARA), the distribution of which in a particular crude oil system is shown by the SARA analysis.
SARA determines the susceptibility of the crude to deposition of wax solids, and thus the stability of
the crude oil. Saturates are flexible in nature, the flexibility being highest in normal paraffins because
they are straight chain compounds. The very high flexibility of normal paraffins makes it possible for
them to easily cluster and crystallize. The iso-paraffins equally enjoy a high level of flexibility, but
form a more unstable wax. Cyclo-paraffins (naphthenes) are least flexible due to their cyclic nature
and do not contribute much to wax deposition. These components are in thermodynamic equilibrium
at initial reservoir conditions. It is known that aromatics serve as solvents for high molecular weight
saturates, which are the sources of paraffin waxes in crude oil while the polar components, especially
asphaltenes, induce wax nucleation (Hammami et al., 1999) . Singh et al. (2001) reported, however,
that the solubility of paraffins in aromatic, naphthenic, and other organic solvents becomes low at
room temperature (low temperatures). Light ends of saturates equally help to keep the high molecular
weight heavy ends in solution. The onset of production results in the loss of these light ends, as they
are first to leave the reservoir. This alters the original composition of the oil system, resulting in
decreased solubility of the paraffin waxes. This loss of solubility could lead to precipitation and
deposition of wax. In a model study, Huanquan et al. (1997) reported that increasing the percentage
of light end (C5) in a synthetic oil system decreased the cloud point temperature, reducing the chance
of wax deposition. Generally, the weight percent of the saturates in the crude oil, the structural
distribution of the paraffin components, and the occurrence of other solids like formation fines,
corrosion materials, and presence of asphaltenes which could form nucleating sitesall contribute to
wax precipitation and deposition. Oils containing high C 30+ (especially normal paraffin C30+)
concentrations exhibit high cloud point temperatures (Ferworn et al., 1997). Therefore, knowledge of
the oil composition (SARA) gives a fair idea of the wax deposit potential of the crude and, hence, the
oil stability. Oil stability has been reported to depend on its solids content and the balance between
aromatics and saturates. By SARA analysis, the distribution by weight percent of saturates,
aromatics, resins, and asphaltene components, for stable and unstable crude oils, is as follows:
Unstable crude: Saturates > Aromatics > Resins > Asphaltenes
Stable crude: Aromatics > Saturates > Resins > Asphaltenes This distribution is to be expected since
the aromatics keep the heavy paraffin wax in solution, while a crude oil system that displays a large
amount of saturates (paraffin) is likely to be unstable (Carbognani et al., 1999) and thus precipitate
and deposit wax.

Pressure -Pressure, as an important parameter in the exploitation of reservoir fluids, plays a

significant role in wax precipitation and deposition. The pressure profile during oil production is such
that the reservoir pressure declines with production, and the pressure of the flow stream drops all the
way from the reservoir to the surface. The lighter components of the reservoir fluid tend to be the
first to leave the reservoir as pressure depletes. This causes an increase in the solute solvent ratio,
since the light ends serve as solvent to the wax components. Hence, the solubility of wax is reduced
with the loss of these light ends. Brown et al. (1994) studied the effect of pressure on the cloud point
of dead oil as well as live oil by measuring cloud point at atmospheric pressure and higher pressures.
The wax appearance temperature increases with increase in pressure above the bubble point, at
constant composition. This phenomenon implies that increase in pressure in the one-phase liquid
region (above bubblepoint pressure) will favor wax deposition. The situation is different below the
bubblepoint where there is two-phase existence. Here wax appearance temperature decreases with
increase in pressure up to bubble point pressure (Brown et al., 1994) due to dissolution of light ends
back into the liquid phase. The WAT increases with increase in pressure for STO, commonly referred
to as dead oil (Brown et al., 1994; Karan et al., 2000). Huanquan et al. (1997) reported that the WAT
increases with increase in pressure for a fixed component liquid mixture.
Other Contributing Factors- Though temperature, composition, and pressure of oil play the most
significant role in wax deposition, other factors that have been identified as contributing to wax
deposition include flow rate, gas-oil ratio, and pipe/tubing wall roughness. Laboratory investigations
have revealed that wax deposition is influenced more by laminar flow than when flow is in the
turbulent regime. Increasing flow rate from laminar to turbulent reduces maximum deposition rate
and at the same time lowers the temperature at which maximum deposition rate occurs (Hsu et al.,
1994), a scenario that is expressed in Figure 2.3. Low flow rates offer the moving oil stream longer
residence time in the flow channel. This increased residence time allows more heat loss to the
surroundings, leading to a higher chance of the bulk oil temperature falling below the WAT and
enough time for wax precipitation and final deposition. Jessen and Howell (1958) believed that when
flow is in the laminar regime, wax deposition increases with increase in flow rate. Increase in flow
rate in the laminar regime makes more fluid available for wax deposition. However, wax deposition
decreases as flow moves to the turbulent regime. Turbulent flow stream exerts a kind of viscous
force, which tends to drag or slough the wax deposits from the pipe wall. When this viscous drag
exceeds the resistance to shear in the deposits, the wax then sloughs and is lodged back into the
liquid. This removal mechanism has a significant impact on the wax deposition rate (Hsu et al.,
1994). There is a difference in texture between wax deposited at high flow rates and wax deposited at
low flow rates (Jessen and Howell, 1958; Tronov, 1969; Haq, 1981). Paraffin wax deposited at high
flow rates appears harder, being more compact and more firmly attached to the deposition surface,
the molecules having good cohesion among them. In his study of the effect of deposition surface
roughness on paraffin deposition, Hunt (1962) concluded that deposits do not adhere to metals
themselves, but are held in place by surface roughness which acts as wax nucleating sites. Jorda
(1966) observed that paraffin deposition increases with greater surface roughness. In their wax
deposition study with pipes of different materials, Jessen and Howell (1958) concluded that the
amount of wax deposited on a smooth surface is less than that deposited on steel. However, Patton
and Casad (1970) could not see any correlation between wax deposition and surface roughness, but
opined that adhesion bond at a surface should be proportional to the total contact area and therefore
related to surface roughness.
Gas/oil ratio influences wax deposition in a manner that depends on the pressure regime. Above the
bubblepoint, where all gases remain in solution, solution gas helps to keep wax in solution. Luo et al.
(2001) reported that wax appearance temperature will be high with low GOR (gas oil ratio), while

Singh et al. (2004) observed that injection of lift gas in a closed loop reduced wax deposition by
causing a depression in wax appearance temperature as a function of pressure.
High GOR would result in more expansion and subsequent cooling as pressure of the oil system
depletes, a situation that can aggravate the wax deposition problem. In a study to reduce waxappearance temperature by injection of diluent lift gas, Singh et al. (2004) noted that good results
were not obtained in high GOR wells.

Effect of flow rate on wax deposition rate

Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT) and Wax Dissolution

Temperature (WDT) Measurement
Wax Crystallization Point The point defining when paraffin separates into solid phase from the
bulk oil liquid phase is a very important thermodynamic parameter in wax deposition studies.
Sadeghazad et al. (1998) described it as a very important parameter that affects wax precipitation and
is basic to the wax deposition problem. It has been reported that rheologically, crude oil is a lowviscosity Newtonian fluid, but exhibits non-Newtonian behavior at low temperature (Leontaritis and
Leontaritis, 2003), a phenomenon attributed to paraffin wax solid-phase separation. This point of
separation, defined by temperature, happens to be unique for a particular pressure as well as oil
composition, and is interchangeably referred to as wax appearance temperature or cloud point. Cloud
point temperature has been defined as the temperature at which paraffin wax begins to crystallize
from crude oil solution (Kruka et al., 1995; Karan et al., 2000). Monger-McClure (1999) defined
measured cloud point as the highest temperature at which wax solids are detected when an oil sample
is cooled at a controlled rate. This is different from thermodynamic cloud point (which can be
referred to as true cloud point), defined as the highest temperature at which a paraffin wax will exist
in a crude oil at a given pressure (Hammami et al., 2003). Whereas true cloud point lies on the
solid/liquid-phase envelope, laboratory or experimentally measured cloud point lies within the
solid/liquid-phase envelope (Karan et al., 2000). Below WAT a solid phase of wax exists in the crude
oil.

As can be seen from figure, the crystallization temperature decreases as

pressure increases from zero to the bubblepoint, then increases with pressure
above the bubblepoint. Measuring the exact cloud point or WAT has not been
easily achievable despite the several techniques available for determining such.
The wax appearance temperature is a unique oil property that is dependent
upon many factors including oil composition, measurement technique, thermal
history of oil, and oil properties relating to crystal nucleation and growth
(Hammami et al. 2003). The cooling rate employed during a test affects the
result. When oil samples are cooled fast, there seems to be a supercooling
problem that tends to depress the measured WAT. Hammami et al. (2003)
reported that, in the event of supercooling, the oil is cooled beyond the WAT
without wax crystallization. Nucleation sites are then required to initiate wax
formation. Where there are no nucleation sites, wax crystallization becomes
spontaneous at such a low temperature.

Research has shown that STO WAT results match closely with field experience (Hammami & Raines,
1999). STO WAT gives higher value than live oil WAT of the same crude oil. This is to be expected,
as light ends increase the solubility of paraffin molecules (Huanquan et al., 1997), while increase in
pressure depresses the WAT below the bubblepoint pressure (Brown et al., 1994). The entire wax
deposition process is complex. Karan et al. (2000) reported that a likely reason why STO WAT
closely matches field experience could be the difference between bulk oil temperature, which
corresponds to field deposition temperature, and tubing wall temperature where actual deposition
occurs. Stock tank oil WAT remains relevant in wax deposition studies and in characterizing waxy
crude oils partly because of the apparent difficulty in obtaining and handling live oil samples (Karan
et al., 2000). The WAT test is the most important and critical among other diagnostic tests carried out
on a crude oil sample for wax precipitation and deposition. It indicates whether or not wax
precipitation or deposition will be an issue during oil production. Oil composition and properties
change at the WAT as wax begins to precipitate. Viscosity and density of the crude increase with an
increase in the amount of wax precipitated; therefore, the aim is to ensure that the temperature of the
producing oil as it arrives at the surface is above its WAT. Also, the tubing wall temperature should
be kept above the oil WAT to avoid deposition by molecular diffusion. The results of STO WAT tests
performed using two different techniquesviscometry and CPMare hereby presented.

Wax-Deposition Measurements in the Simulation

and Design of Subsea Pipelines:
Conventional practices for estimating the amount of deposited wax in pipelines are
usually based on predictions made with simulation packages using limited stocktank-oil (STO) deposition data collected under laminar-flow conditions in benchscale flow loops.
Such practices are conservative and often lead to non-optimal designs of pipelines
and surface facilities. For optimized designs, laboratory-scale deposition
measurements made under realistic conditions are required to calibrate flowline
models. In this work, a high-pressure deposition cell that operates on the TaylorCouette (TC) flow principle is used to generate more deposition data with live
reservoir fluids under turbulent flow similar to the conditions encountered in many
flowlines. The analogy between TC flow and pipe flow is explained, and a scalability
flow chart for linking the laboratory-scale deposition data from TC configuration to
pipe configuration is presented. Through a case study, the scaled-deposition data
are then used to tune a wax-deposition model in the OLGA5 simulation package.
Next, the tuned model is applied to predict wax deposition under actual production
and transportation conditions. The importance of tuning the deposition models with
live fluid data under turbulent-flow conditions is also shown by comparing results
obtained from conventional dead-oil low-shear data.

Effect of wax deposition in pipes

Crystallization of waxes in crude oils leads to non-Newtonian flow characteristics,
including very high yield stresses that are dependent on time and the shear and
temperature histories of the fluid. This crystallization may cause three problems:
1. High viscosity, which leads to pressure losses
2. High-yield stress for restarting flow
3. Deposition of wax crystals on surfaces
Wax precipitation-induced viscosity increases and wax deposition on pipes are the
primary causes of high flowline pressure drops. In turn, these pressure losses lead
to low flow rates that make conditions for wax deposition more favorable. In
extreme cases, pumping pressure can exceed the limits of the system and stop flow
entirely. A related problem is the high-yield stress for restarting flow. When oil is
allowed to stand in a pipeline at temperatures below its pour point, a certain
pressure is required to break the gel and resume flow. Again, this pressure may be
higher than the pressure limits of the pumps and pipelines.

Why Thixotropic property is important in Wax

Deposition
When designing the pipelines and the pump facilities, engineers usually do a
simplified force balance. The assumption is that when the pressure is enough
to overcome the yield stress, the restart occurs. The problem is that there is
evidence that this calculation is overestimated; therefore, a better
rheological modeling of these oils is necessary once they present an
elastoviscoplastic thixotropic behavior, which is a complex mixture of
plasticity, elasticity, and thixotropy.
Thixotropy of waxy crude is an important but complex issue in crude oil
rheology study. Due to difference between the broken-down structures with
the developed structure of fluid system, thixotropy means that apparent
viscosity decreases continuously over time under shearing stress, and
recovers gradually over time after stress relief. Thixotropy is basic data for
shutdown and restart calculation and pumpability evaluation of waxy crude
oil pipeline, besides that, safety analysis for running waxy crude oil pipeline
needs accurate quantitative description in thixotropic behavior.
Proposed mathematical modes described thixotropic fluid properties;
domestic and foreign scholars have numerous studies in thixotropic fluid.

Methods of wax prevention and removal

Wax can deposit on surfaces in the production system and in the formation. Wax
deposition can be prevented or removed by a number of different methods. These
methods fall into three main categories:
1. Thermal
2. Chemical
3. Mechanical

Thermal

Because wax precipitation is highly temperature dependent, thermal methods can

be highly effective both for preventing and removing wax precipitation problems.
Prevention methods include steam- and electrical-heat tracing of flowlines, in
conjunction with thermal insulation. Thermal methods for removing wax deposition
include:
*Hot oiling
*Hot watering
*Hot water treatments cannot provide the solvency effects that hot oiling can, so
surfactants are often added to aid in dispersion of wax in the water phase.
Surfactants are discussed under chemical methods.
Hot oiling is one of the most popular methods of deposited wax removal. Wax is
melted and dissolved by hot oil, which allows it to be circulated from the well and
the surface producing system. Hot oil is normally pumped down the casing and up
the tubing; however, in flowing wells, the oil may be circulated down the tubing and
up the casing. There is evidence that hot oiling can cause permeability damage if
melted wax enters the formation.
Higher molecular-weight waxes tend to deposit at the high-temperature bottom end
of the well. Lower molecular-weight fractions deposit as the temperature decreases
up the wellbore. The upper parts of the well receive the most heat during hot oiling.
As the oil proceeds down the well, its temperature decreases and the carrying
capacity for wax is diminished. Thus, sufficient oil must be used to dissolve and melt
the wax at the necessary depths.
Chemical
The types of chemicals available for paraffin treatment include:
*Solvents
*Wax crystal modifiers
*Dispersants
*Surfactants
Solvents can be used to treat deposition in production strings and also may be
applied to remediate formation damage. Although chlorinated hydrocarbons are
excellent solvents for waxes, they generally are not used because of safety and
processing difficulties they create in the produced fluid. Hydrocarbon fluids
consisting primarily of normal alkanes such as condensate and diesel oil can be
used, provided the deposits have low asphaltene content. Aromatic solvents such as
toluene and xylene are good solvents for both waxes and asphaltenes. Solvents are
mostly used in large batch treatments.
Wax crystal modifiers act at the molecular level to reduce the tendency of wax
molecules to network and form lattice structures within the oil. Wax crystal
modifiers which are used to prevent wax deposition, reduce oil viscosity and lower
the wax gel strength are only effective when used continuously. Since they work at
the molecular level they are effective in concentrations of parts per million, as

opposed to hot oil or solvents, which must be applied in large volumes. Wax crystal
modifiers have a high-molecular-weight and as a result they have high pour points,
so their use can be limited in cold climates.
Dispersants are a type of surfactants that helps disperse the wax crystals into the
produced oil or water. This dispersing of the wax crystals into the produce oil or
water helps prevents deposition of the wax and also have a positive effect on the
viscosity and gel strength. Dispersants can help break up deposited wax into
particles small enough to be carried in the oil stream. To prevent wax deposition
dispersants must be used continuously. To remediate deposited wax, dispersants
can be used continuously or in batch treatments. Dispersants generally have a very
low pour point making their use suitable for cold climates. These chemicals are used
in low concentrations and can be formulated in both aqueous and hydrocarbon
solutions, making them relatively safe and inexpensive.
Surfactants are a general class of chemicals that are most often used to clean
vessels, tanks, pipes, machinery or any place where wax may deposit. Surfactants
or dispersants can also be used in combination with hot oil and water treatments.
Mechanical
Scrapers and cutters are used extensively to remove wax deposits from tubing
because they can be economical and result in minimal formation damage. Scrapers
may be attached to wireline units, or they may be attached to sucker rods to
remove wax as the well is pumped. Deposits in surface pipelines can be removed by
forcing soluble or insoluble pigs through the lines. Soluble pigs may be composed of
naphthalene or microcrystalline wax. Insoluble pigs are made of plastic or hard
rubber.
Another method of mechanical intervention to prevent deposition is the use of
plastic or coated pipe. Low-friction surfaces make it more difficult for wax crystals to
adhere to the pipe walls. Deposition will still occur if conditions are highly favorable
for wax precipitation, and deposits will grow at the same rate as for other pipes
once an initial layer of material has been laid down; therefore, the pipe and coating
system must be capable of withstanding one of the other methods of wax removal.

Thixotropic behavior of oil

5 % crude oil sample
EXPERIMENT DATA

1, 1

Target
Shear Shear
Shear
Torque Temperat Stress Rate
Viscos Rate
Time
Nm
ure C
Pa
1/s
ity Pas 1/s
s
1.39E0.339 0.099
06
40.8
1
04
3.424
0.1 10.03

1, 2
1, 3
1, 4
1, 5
1, 6
1, 7
1, 8
1, 9
1, 10
1, 11
1, 12
1, 13
1, 14
1, 15
1, 16
1, 17
1, 18
1, 19
1, 20
1, 21
1, 22
1, 23
1, 24
1, 25
1, 26

0.0001
43
0.0002
72
0.0004
02
0.0005
34
0.0006
68
0.0007
9
0.0009
14
0.0010
43
0.0011
7
0.0013
03
0.0014
37
0.0015
63
0.0016
98
0.0018
37
0.0019
76
0.0021
12
0.0022
51
0.0023
92
0.0025
33
0.0026
73
0.0028
19
0.0029
86
0.0031
08
0.0032
85
0.0034
15

40.8

34.98

26.6

1.315

26.76

20.1

40.7

66.44

53.15

1.25

53.43

30.18

40.8

98.31

79.71

1.234

80.09

40.28

40.8

130.4

106.2

1.228

106.8

50.35

40.7

163.3

132.8

1.23

133.4

60.43

40.8

193.1

159.3

1.212

160.1

70.5

40.8

223.5

185.8

1.203

186.7

80.58

40.7

255

212.4

1.201

213.4

90.67

40.7

285.9

238.9

1.197

240.1

100.8

40.8

318.6

265.4

1.2

266.7

110.8

40.7

351.3

292

1.203

293.4

120.9

40.7

382.1

318.5

1.2

320.1

131

40.8

415.2

345.1

1.203

346.7

141.1

40.7

449

371.6

1.208

373.4

151.1

40.7

483

398.1

1.213

400.1

161.2

40.7

516.3

424.7

1.216

426.7

171.3

40.7

550.2

451.2

1.22

453.4

181.4

40.7

584.7

477.7

1.224

480

191.5

40.7

619.3

504.3

1.228

506.7

201.5

40.7

653.4

530.8

1.231

533.4

211.6

40.7

689.2

557.4

1.237

560

221.7

40.7

729.9

583.9

1.25

586.7

231.8

40.7

759.7

610.4

1.245

613.4

241.9

40.6

803.1

637

1.261

640

251.9

40.7

834.9

663.5

1.258

666.7

262

1, 27
1, 28
1, 29
1, 30
1, 31
1, 32
1, 33
1, 34
1, 35
1, 36
1, 37
1, 38
1, 39
1, 40
1, 41
1, 42
1, 43
1, 44
1, 45
1, 46
1, 47
1, 48
1, 49
1, 50
1, 51
1, 52

0.0036
12
0.0038
54
0.0039
89
0.0040
28
0.0041
54
0.0040
78
0.0039
19
0.0037
97
0.0037
43
0.0036
12
0.0034
64
0.0033
72
0.0032
52
0.0031
19
0.003
0.0028
71
0.0027
42
0.0026
08
0.0024
76
0.0023
35
0.0021
94
0.0020
54
0.0019
02
0.0017
6
0.0016
18
0.0014

40.7

883.1

690

1.28

693.4

272.1

40.6

942.1

716.5

1.315

720

282.2

40.7

975.2

743.1

1.312

746.7

292.3

40.6

984.7

769.6

1.28

773.3

302.3

40.7

1016

796.2

1.276

800

312.4

40.6

997

769.7

1.295

773.3

322.5

40.6

958.1

743.1

1.289

746.7

332.6

40.7

928.3

716.5

1.296

720

342.7

40.6

915

690

1.326

693.4

352.7

40.6

883

663.5

1.331

666.7

362.8

40.7

846.8

637

1.329

640

372.9

40.6

824.4

610.4

1.351

613.4

383

40.6

794.9

583.8

1.361

586.7

393.1

40.6
40.6

762.4
733.4

557.3
530.8

1.368
1.382

560
533.4

403.1
413.2

40.6

701.7

504.2

1.392

506.7

423.3

40.6

670.3

477.7

1.403

480

433.3

40.6

637.6

451.2

1.413

453.4

443.5

40.6

605.3

424.7

1.425

426.7

453.5

40.5

570.8

398.1

1.434

400.1

463.6

40.6

536.4

371.6

1.444

373.4

473.7

40.5

502.2

345.1

1.456

346.7

483.7

40.6

464.9

318.5

1.46

320.1

493.8

40.5

430.3

292

1.474

293.4

503.9

40.5
40.6

395.5
355.4

265.4
238.9

1.49
1.488

266.7
240.1

514
524.1

1, 53

54
0.0013
05

40.5

319

212.4

1.502

213.4

534.1

10% crude oil sample

EXPERIMENT DATA

1, 1
1, 2
1, 3
1, 4
1, 5
1, 6
1, 7
1, 8
1, 9

Target
Shear Shear
Shear
Torque Temperat Stress Rate
Viscos Rate
Time
Nm
ure C
Pa
1/s
ity Pas 1/s
s
1.27E0.031 0.098
0.316
07
39.9
11
38
2
0.1 10.03
0.0001
52
39.9 37.25
26.6
1.4 26.76
20.1
0.0002
98
39.8 72.78 53.14
1.37 53.43 30.18
0.0004
44
39.8 108.6 79.71
1.363 80.09 40.29
0.0005
89
39.8
144 106.2
1.355 106.8 50.36
0.0007
33
39.7 179.2 132.8
1.349 133.4 60.43
0.0008
72
39.7 213.1 159.3
1.337 160.1
70.5
0.0010
15
39.6 248.1 185.8
1.335 186.7 80.58
0.0011
46
39.7 280.2 212.4
1.319 213.4 90.68

1, 10
1, 11
1, 12
1, 13
1, 14
1, 15
1, 16
1, 17
1, 18
1, 19
1, 20
1, 21
1, 22
1, 23
1, 24
1, 25
1, 26
1, 27
1, 28
1, 29
1, 30
1, 31
1, 32
1, 33
1, 34

0.0012
77
0.0014
11
0.0015
35
0.0016
67
0.0017
93
0.0019
14
0.0020
36
0.0021
52
0.0022
71
0.0023
83
0.0024
9
0.0026
13
0.0027
21
0.0028
29
0.0029
78
0.0031
29
0.0032
03
0.0033
14
0.0034
8
0.0036
46
0.0036
48
0.0037
39
0.0036
34
0.0034
53
0.0033
05

39.8

312.1

238.9

1.306

240.1

100.8

39.8

344.9

265.5

1.299

266.7

110.8

39.9

375.2

292

1.285

293.4

120.9

39.9

407.5

318.5

1.279

320.1

131

39.9

438.3

345.1

1.27

346.7

141.1

40

467.9

371.6

1.259

373.4

151.2

40

497.8

398.1

1.25

400.1

161.2

40.1

526.1

424.7

1.239

426.7

171.3

40.2

555.1

451.2

1.23

453.4

181.4

40.2

582.7

477.7

1.22

480

191.5

40.3

608.8

504.2

1.207

506.7

201.6

40.3

638.7

530.8

1.203

533.4

211.6

40.4

665.1

557.4

1.193

560

221.7

40.4

691.7

583.9

1.185

586.7

231.8

40.4

728

610.4

1.193

613.4

241.9

40.3

764.9

637

1.201

640

251.9

40.4

782.9

663.5

1.18

666.7

262

40.4

810.2

690

1.174

693.4

272.1

40.4

850.7

716.5

1.187

720

282.2

40.4

891.3

743.1

1.2

746.7

292.3

40.4

891.7

769.6

1.159

773.3

302.3

40.4

914.1

796.1

1.148

800

312.4

40.4

888.3

769.6

1.154

773.3

322.5

40.4

844

743.1

1.136

746.7

332.6

40.3

807.9

716.5

1.127

720

342.7

1, 35
1, 36
1, 37
1, 38
1, 39
1, 40
1, 41
1, 42
1, 43
1, 44
1, 45
1, 46
1, 47
1, 48
1, 49
1, 50
1, 51
1, 52
1, 53
1, 54
1, 55
1, 56
1, 57
1, 58
1, 59

0.0032
75
0.0031
94
0.0030
31
0.0029
11
0.0027
96
0.0026
76
0.0025
41
0.0024
25
0.0023
03
0.0021
69
0.0020
55
0.0019
34
0.0018
02
0.0016
81
0.0015
55
0.0014
27
0.0013
04
0.0011
78
0.0010
49
0.0009
18
0.0007
92
0.0006
61
0.0005
29
0.0003
98
0.0002
64

40.4

800.6

690

1.16

693.4

352.7

40.4

780.9

663.5

1.177

666.7

362.8

40.4

741

637

1.163

640

372.9

40.4

711.7

610.4

1.166

613.4

383

40.4

683.5

583.9

1.171

586.7

393.1

40.3

654.1

557.3

1.174

560

403.1

40.4

621.2

530.8

1.17

533.4

413.2

40.4

592.7

504.3

1.175

506.7

423.3

40.3

563

477.7

1.178

480

433.4

40.4

530.4

451.2

1.175

453.4

443.5

40.4

502.4

424.7

1.183

426.7

453.5

40.3

472.7

398.1

1.187

400.1

463.6

40.3

440.4

371.6

1.185

373.4

473.7

40.3

410.9

345.1

1.191

346.7

483.8

40.3

380.3

318.5

1.194

320.1

493.9

40.3

348.9

292

1.195

293.4

503.9

40.3

318.7

265.4

1.201

266.7

514

40.3

288

238.9

1.206

240.1

524.1

40.3

256.5

212.4

1.208

213.4

534.1

40.3

224.4

185.8

1.208

186.7

544.2

40.3

193.5

159.3

1.215

160.1

554.3

40.3

161.5

132.8

1.216

133.4

564.4

40.3

129.4

106.2

1.218

106.8

574.5

40.3

97.2

79.71

1.219

80.09

584.5

40.2

64.64

53.15

1.216

53.43

594.6

1, 60

0.0001
32

40.3

1, 61

-1.41E08

40.3

32.33
0.003
44

26.59

1.216

26.76

604.7

0.096
91

0.035
49

0.1

614.8

Analysis

For gelled waxy crudes oil, the thixotropic behavior of hysteresis loop which
is formed under cyclic loading of linear increasing and decreasing shear rate
is studied. Hysteresis loop area could represent the strength of thixotropic
properties. With increasing of the rate of share rate sweep, the area of
hysteresis loop increased. The area of second hysteresis loop is much smaller
than first one, and began a slow decline from the third hysteresis loop.
Areas of each hysteresis loops were decreased with increasing temperature,
but it was different in decline ratethe lower the temperature, the greater
the rate of decline. The maximum rate of decrease is the first hysteresis loop
with exponential decline, and remaining hysteresis hoops approximately
decrease linearly.

Conclusion
Wax deposition and wax gelation problems can cause severe flow assurance
problems for operators in deep water installations. To help combat these issues,
laboratory measurements are required to develop an understanding of fluid
characteristics and temperature requirements. Intelligent data interpretation of
these measurements can provide rules of thumb and accurate models for
establishing pigging and treating programs. Modeling can also provide key
indicators for profiling pipeline temperature and wax buildup. These tools can

greatly assist the operator in making economic decisions and exploring multiple
design operations. Current modelling technology includes real time, online pipeline
monitoring and advisory systems that help manage a myriad of flow assurance
issues. A number of operators worldwide have developed such system.

References
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6.

www.petrowiki.org
www.woodgroup.com
www.onepetro.org
www.wikipedia.com
web.mit.edu/chrisd/Public/chevron/main.pdf
web.mit.edu/nnf/publications/GHM216.pdf