1.

There are many mobile and wireless devices available in the market. More
such devices in advanced form would be available in future too. Such
devices are different in terms of size, shape, weight, or computing power.
These devices are advanced in terms of CPU, memory, display, input
devices etc. There are no clear separation between possible device types
(e.g. smart phones, embedded PCs, Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs)
etc.)
1. Vehicles: Vehicles would require wireless communication systems and
mobility aware applications. Music, news, road conditions, weather
reports, and other broadcast information can be received in vehicles
through various modes of wireless communication viz. Digital Audio
Broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. A Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) phone can offer voice and data
connectivity with 384 Kbit/s. Current position of the car is determined via
the global positioning system (GPS). Vehicles can get help of
communication networks with a fixed infrastructure like cellular phones
(GSM, UMTS) and it can be interconnected with trunked radio systems
(TETRA) and wireless LANs (WLAN). Satellite communication links can
also be used in vehicles for communication.
2. Business: In business, communication is required to access companys
database, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of their
travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. Laptop can be
turned into a true mobile office which is mobile and at the same time
capable of communicating to other devices with instant access
2.
You can enable your voice to be heard far away by screaming. But if you
want your voice to be heard still farther, then screaming would not be the
best way as you cannot scream more loudly than your limit. To
communicate your voice to other person in a distant place, you can either
have a wired medium or the wireless medium through which voice can be
transmitted. But to transmit voice through such medium, you need the voice
to be converted into electrical or electromagnetic signal which is capable of
travelling through such a medium. Your voice is converted into electrical
signal either in the form of analog data or digital data. This analog or digital
data is again transformed into a special signal so that it can travel to a
farther distance either by wire or wireless (air or vacuum) media. This
special signal is called modulated signal (or modulated data) and the
technique used to convert original signal (viz. voice) into modulated signal is
called modulation.
Hence you can say that modulation is a technique of facilitating the transfer
of information over a medium. The technique of converting information
(voice in this case) into a signal which is capable for transmission through a
medium (wire or air or vacuum) is called modulation.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In amplitude modulation, the message or information signal m(t) varies the

amplitude of the carrier sine wave. Here, Information signal is the
modulating signal. The instantaneous value of the amplitude of the carrier
signal changes in accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations
of the Information signal. The carrier frequency remains constant during the
modulation process, but its amplitude varies in accordance with the
modulating signal. An increase or a decrease in the amplitude of the
modulating signal causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the
positive and the negative peaks of the carrier amplitude.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
In frequency modulation, the message signal m(t), varies the frequency of a
carrier wave. The basic principle behind FM is that the amplitude of an
analog baseband signal can be represented by a slightly different frequency
of the carrier. FM is a variation of angle modulation where the frequency of
the carrier signal is varied in response to the message signal. The variation
in frequency of the modulated waveform from the carrier frequency is called
the frequency deviation.
Phase modulation (PM)
In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier waveform is varied according
to the message signal. PM is also a variation of angle modulation. The
variation in phase of the modulated waveform from the carrier waveform is
called the phase deviation, which can vary from 0 to 360 degree.
3. GSM TDMA/FDMA Frame
You can see in the GSM architecture that the entities are connected through
certain type of interface. Each interface has its own use and functionality.
For example, Um is a radio interface that comprises the mechanism for
multiplexing and media access. Let us study how this interface that deploys
TDMA/FDMA for media access works.
GSM implements Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) using cells with
BTS and assigns an MS to a BTS. Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) is the
technique to separate downlink and uplink channel between MS and BTS.
Media access combines TDMA and FDMA. In GSM 900, 124 channels,
each 200 kHz wide, are used for FDMA, whereas GSM 1800 uses, 374
channels.
Due to technical reasons, channels 1 and 124 are not used for transmission
in GSM 900. Typically, 32 channels are reserved for organizational data; the
remaining 90 are used for customers. Each BTS then manages a single
channel for organizational data and, e.g., up to 10 channels for user data.

Data is transmitted in small portions, called bursts. In Figure 5.3, a normal

burst used for data transmission inside a time slot (for user and signaling
data) is shown. This burst is only 546.5 s long and contains 148 bits. The
remaining 30.5 s are used as guard space to avoid overlapping with other
bursts due to different path delays and to give the transmitter time to turn on
and off. Filling the whole slot with data allows for the transmission of 156.25 bit within 577 s.
Each physical TDM channel has a raw data rate of
about 33.8 kbit/s, each radio carrier transmits approximately 270 kbit/s over
the Um interface.
The first and last three bits of a normal burst is known as tail and are all
set to 0. It can be used to enhance the receiver performance. The training
sequence in the middle of a slot is used to adapt the parameters of the
receiver to the current path propagation characteristics and to select the
strongest signal in case of multi-path propagation. A flag S indicates
whether the data field contains user or network control data. As defined by
ETSI (1993a), there are four more bursts for data transmission other than a
normal burst. They are: (i) a frequency correction, (ii) a synchronization
burst (iii) an access burst (iv) a dummy burst. A frequency correction burst
allows the MS to correct the local oscillator to avoid interference with
neighboring channels. A synchronization burst with an extended training
sequence synchronizes the MS with the BTS in time. An access burst is
used for the initial connection setup between MS and BTS, and finally a
dummy burst is used if no data is available for a slot.
A simple transmitter hardware can be used for MS. It is because on one
hand, the slots for uplink and downlink of a physical TDM channel are
separated in frequency (45 MHz for GSM 900, 95 MHz for GSM 1800 using
FDD). On the other hand, the TDMA frames are shifted in time for three

slots, i.e., if the BTS sends data at time t0 in slot one on the downlink, the
MS accesses slot one on the uplink at time t0+3577 s. Hence, an MS does
not need a full-duplex transmitter, a simpler half-duplex transmitter switching
between receiving and sending is enough.
4.
Hard handover: When the User Equipment (UE) switches between
different antenna and different systems then there the carrier frequency
used for communication also changes. When the carrier frequency changes
for communication, we say this type of handover as hard handover. This
type of handover is only in UTRA TDD. Switching between TDD cells is
performed between the slots of different frames. Typically, all inter system
handovers are hard handovers in UMTS. This includes handovers to and
from GSM or other IMT-2000 systems. Different frequencies are used
during the handover in a satellite system (inter-segment handover) and
hence it is also a hard handover.
To enable a UE to listen into GSM or other frequency bands, UMTS
specifies a compressed mode transmission for UTRA FDD. During this
mode a UE stops all transmission. To avoid data loss, either the spreading
factor can be lowered before and after the break in transmission (i.e., more
data can be sent in shorter time) or less data is sent using different coding
schemes.
Soft Handover: This type of handover is available only in the FDD mode.
Soft handover is performed by means of macro diversity when several radio
links are active at the same time. Normally soft handover is performed when
cells operated on the same frequency are changed. As shown in Figure 7.9,
a UE can receive signals from up to three different antennas, which may
belong to different node Bs. In this case, the RNC splits the data stream and
forwards it to the different node Bs to transfer it to UE. The UE combines the
received data again. The UE sends its data back to all the involved node Bs
for duplex communication. The RNC then combines the data streams
received from the node Bs. This mechanism when a UE receives data from
different antennas at the same time is called a soft handover. This makes
the communication smooth when UE moves from one cell to another.

5.
Advantages of Infra-red technology:
Its simple.
No licenses are needed for infra-red technology
Version 1.0 of this industry standard implements data rates of up to 115
kbit/s, while IrDA 1.1 defines higher data rates of 1.152 and 4 Mbit/s.
Shielding is very simple if needed.
Infra-red technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture etc. or
directed light if a line-of-sight (LOS) exists between the sender and receiver
Electrical devices do not interfere with infra-red transmission.
Disadvantages of Infra-red technology:
It has a low bandwidth when compared to other LAN technologies.
Infra-red is quite easily shielded and invaders can do it intentionally.
For good transmission quality and high data rates a Line of Sight (LOS)
is needed.
IrDA devices are internally connected to a serial port limiting transfer
rates to 115 kbit/s which is not a high data rate.
6.
HiCoMo: High Commit Mobile Transaction Model
HiCoMo is a mobile transaction execution model and mainly processes
aggregate data stored in a data warehouse in the mobile units. Since the
data warehouse resides in mobile units, HiCoMo transactions are always
initiated on mobile units where they are processed in a disconnected mode.
As a result, transaction commitments are quite fast. The results of these
transactions are then installed in the database upon reconnection.
The base database resides on the fixed network. It is manipulated by
transactions called base or source transactions. These transactions are
initiated at the fixed network. Transactions which are initiated and
processed at mobile units are called HiCoMo.
Kangaroo mobile transaction model
Kangaroo mobile transaction model captures both data and the movement
of mobile units and is based on a split transaction model. It enforces
majority of ACID properties. In Kangaroo transaction model each time a
mobile host connects to a different base station, communication will take
place with the previous base stations in order to transfer transaction
information to the new base station. This model captures the movement
behaviour of transactions in a multi-database environment where mobile
transactions do not originate and end at the same site. In this model the
transaction manager splits a kangaroo transaction into a set of Joey
Transactions, which are the nexecuted on the underlying data bases. A
transaction is split when the Mobile node moves, and the first transaction of
the split gets committed immediately. Thus this releases some of the data
items improving concurrency.