4.

1 Shoring members
Vertical shoring [1]
Vertical shoring provides the main support for beam, girder and slab formwork. The vertical
and lateral pressures that occur during and after concrete placement, and the weight of the
form materials, machinery, and workers are considered in designing shoring systems. Shoring
systems may consist of wood or metal shores, or metal scaffold shoring. Traditionally, wood
was used entirely for shoring purposes. Wood shoring is still used but, usually for smaller
projects. Metal shores and scaffolding are now common on most larger construction projects.
The shoring system used should be designed by a structural engineer. The shoring system and
scaffolding design should include the spacing, size, and types of wood or metal shoring to be
used.

Fig. 4-1. Vertical shoring is placed beneath stringers that support the joists for floor forms.
Diagonal and horizontal bracing is used to secure the shores [1]

Fig. 4-2. The difference between beam and girder. Basically a beam carries load via bending
(as columns carry load via compression). But deep beems (depth significantly larger than
width) are very stiff and hence in addition to bending some shear deformations also occur.
Such types of beams are called Girders.

Wood shoring. All wood shoring members must be straight and true (accurate). Cuts made at
the bearing ends and splices of the shoring members should be square. Vertical shores must
be placed in a plumb position (perfect vertical) and secured with braces to they cannot tilt
(lean). Inclined shores must be securely braced to prevent slippage. Shoring systems must be
properly braced to ensure integrity of the shoring. Horizontal braces tie the shores together.
Diagonal braces prevent sway or lateral movement of the shores.
A T-head shore supports beam and girder forms. The head of a T-head is centered on top of a
vertical post. Cleats are nailed to the post and head. An L-headed shore is commonly used
under spandrel beam (an exterior beam extending from column to column usually carrying an
exterior wall load) (Fig. 4-3) forms. The heads of wood shores are attached to the posts using
plywood cleats or metal angle brackets.

Fig. 4-3. Elements of a typical RC structure

Types of wood shores used for vertical shoring are the singe-post, double-post, and two piece
adjustable wood shores. Double-post wood shores support heavy girder loads, spandrel beams,
drop panels (ACI 318-05 defines a drop panel as a "projection below the slab at least one
quarter of the slab thickness beyond the drop.") (Fig. 4-4).

Fig. 4-4. Drop panel

A two-piece adjustable wood shore has two overlapping wood posts held in place with a post
clamp (Ellis clamp). The post clamp is nailed to the lower post.

Fig. 4-5. Wood shores are used to support beam, girder, and floor slab formwork. Heads or
stringers are fastened to the tops of the posts to support formwork [1]
Mudsills should be placed beneath wood shores positioned over the ground to spread the load
over a large area. Wood shores are generally cut shorter than required to accommodate a pair
of wedges beneath the posts. The wedges are used to adjust the height of the shores when
aligning the formwork.

Reshoring and permanent shores. Reshoring takes place during the construction of
multistory buildings. It consists of placing shores beneath beams and floor slabs immediately
after the formwork has been stripped away. The shores must be placed immediately because
the floor slab and beams may not have cured sufficiently to adequately support materials and
equipment to be used in the construction of the floors above.

Fig. 4-6. Reshores are single post shores placed under structural members after the original
shoring is removed. Reshores are placed directly above one another in successive levels [1]
Permanent shores are erected with the top of the stringers connected with the top of the floor
slab sheathing. Ledgers are held down the thickness of the floor slab sheathing from the tops
of the stringers and bolted into position. The floor slab sheathing is then placed on top of the
ledger. After the concrete has set, the intermediate shores, floor slab sheathing, and ledgers
are removed, leaving the permanent shores and stringers in place.

Fig. 4-7. Permanent shores remain in place after the floor slab forms have been removed [1]
The main advantage of the permanent shores is that the cost of reshoring is avoided and the
deck and beam forms can be stripped sooner. Although called permanent shores, they will be
removed at a later time.

Fig. 4-8. Fastening and adjusting shores. The bearing capacity of the soil determines the
method used to fasten shores at ground level. Metal or angle brackets, or plywood cleats
secure stringers to posts. Metal shore jacks are used to adjust the height of wood shores,
eliminating the need for wood wedges [1]
Adjustable metal shoring. They are used for vertical shoring and are constructed of tubular
steel. The tubular steel is open at both ends to prevent accumulation of water and rust. The
upper tube is adjusted to the approximate height required and a locking pin is inserted through
a hole in a slot above the adjustment collar. The adjustment collar is turned to make the final
adjustments. Flanges secure the top and bottom of the adjustable metal shore to a stringer and
pad or mudsill. Braces may be attached to the shores by using nailing brackets or other
devices. Like wood shores, horizontal and diagonal braces must be attached to the metal
shores. One method used metal clamps designed for this purpose.

Fig. 4-9. Adjustable metal tubular shores can be adjusted to different heights. Metal clamps
are designed to attach horizontal and diagonal braces [1]
Another type of vertical metal shoring is the scaffold type shoring in Fig. 4-10.

Fig. 4-10. Scaffold type shoring is usually assembled into towers by combining a number of
units into a single shoring structure [2]
Horizontal shoring. They are also referred to as telescopic joists or centers. They are
lightweight, and can be carried by one laborer. See Fig. 4-11.

Fig. 4-11. Telescopic joists [3]

Horizontal and diagonal bracing.

Horizontal and diagonal bracing ensures the stability and safeness of a shoring system.
Bracing reduces of form collapse resulting from overloading forms and lateral pressure
caused by wind, movement of heavy weight, and disturbance of the forms caused by crane
booms or other equipment.
Horizontal bracing is placed at the midpoint of the shores and extends in two directions.
Diagonal bracing should also be installed in two directions. At ground level, bracing may be
extended from the outside row of shores and fastened to stakes driven into the ground. See Fig.
4-12.

Fig. 4-12. Shores supporting formwork for floor systems require extensive horizontal and
diagonal bracing [1]

Metal frame shoring. In metal-framed shoring, sections of tubular steel frames are
assembled to the required heights. Metal-framed shoring is used to support beam and slab, flat
plate and flat slab floor forms.
Metal-framed shoring is erected according to a layout plan. Safe working loads for metalframed shoring range from 18 kN to 110 kN per leg, depending on the type of frame, bracing
and height of the scaffold. Greater working loads are possible with specially designed towers.
Individual frames are made up of two tubular steel uprights (a post or rod fixed vertically,
especially as a structural support.) joined by two horizontal members. Cross braces extending
across the uprights of individual frames provide lateral stability. The individual frames are
mounted on top of each other and secured with coupling insert pins. Opposite frames are

fastened to each other with diagonal cross braces. A beam clamp, sometimes called U-head, is
installed at the top of the shoring to hold and support the stringers. The assembled scaffold
shoring is supported by adjustable swivel screw jacks that rest on metal base plates. The
plates rest on sills similar to those used for wood shores. See Fig. 4-13. Scaffold shoring
supporting heavy loads over soil is placed on thick timbers to distribute the load over a large
area.

Fig. 4-13. Metal-framed shoring consists of a frame secured together with insert coupling pins.
A cross brace lock secures cross braces extending from the frames

4.2 Formwork principles [5]

The principles behind good formwork are based on the same basic frame theories used in the
design and construction of structural frames. Formwork must be able to withstand
construction forces that, in many aspects, can be more severe than those experienced by the
complete structure. It is imperative that each component of the formwork be erected
according to the formwork drawings to ensure that all construction loads are safely supported.

Although formwork is temporary by nature, the methods used in building formwork must
adhere to the code specifications that apply to the particular material being used. Each
component of the formwork must be able to support its load from two points of view:
(1) Strength, based on the physical properties of the material used;
(2) Serviceability, the ability of the selected sections to resist anticipated loads without
exceeding deflection limits.

4.2.1 Formwork loads

The basic consideration in form design is strength-the forms ability to support, without
excessive deflections, all loads, and forces imposed during construction. Two types of
problems arise in formwork design:

Horizontal forms support gravity loads e.g. mass of concrete and reinforcement,
construction crew and equipment, weight of the formwork itself and the vibrating
effect of the concrete compaction.
Vertical forms must primarily resist lateral pressures due to a particular height of
plastic concrete (e.g. static load from lateral pressures due to a particular height of
plastic concrete, dynamic load from lateral pressures due to impact of falling concrete
during placement, and wind forces on wall forms.

The individual form panels and members may be limited to bending and shear, and they
should be checked against the allowable values prescribed by norms and specifications.
Two types of loads are considered in the design calculations: vertical loads and horizontal
loads.

4.2.2 Formwork pressures

The pressure exerted by concrete on formwork is determined primarily by the following
factors: rate of concrete placement, concrete temperature, weight of the concrete, method of
concrete vibration and depth of placement.
The lateral pressure exerted by plastic concrete on vertical formwork is rather complex in
nature and is affected by several factors. The freshly placed concrete initially acts as a liquid,
exerting fluid or hydrostatic pressure against the vertical form.
Because hydrostatic pressure at any point is the result of the weight of the fluid above, the
density of the concrete mix influences the magnitude of the force acting on the form.
Nevertheless, because fresh concrete is a composite material rather than a true liquid, the laws
of hydrostatic pressure apply only on approximately and only before the concrete begins to set.
The rate of placement also affects lateral pressure. The greater the height to which concrete is
placed while the whole mass remains in the liquid stage, the greater the lateral pressure at the
bottom of the form.

The temperature of concrete and atmosphere affect the pressure because they affect the setting
time. When these temperatures are low, greater heights can be placed before the concrete at
the bottom begins to stiffen, and greater lateral pressures are therefore built up.
Vibration increases lateral pressures because the concrete is compacted and acts as a fluid for
the full depth of vibration. This may cause increases of up to 20% in pressures over those
produced by spading.
Norm C11-1974 specifies the following loads for formwork design:
a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

(1) VERTICAL LOADS, include:

Weights of the formwork itself and the scaffold:
- Lumber in panels
7500N/m3 ;
- Lumber in shoring members 6000 N/m3 ;
- Plywood 8500 N/m3;
Weight of fresh concrete:
- Normal weight (heavy) concrete: plain 24000 N/m3
Reinforced 25000 N/m3
- Lightweight concrete 7000-19000 N/m3
Uniform distributed load of runways for concrete transport and impact loads of the
crowding of crewmen.
- Panel design 2500 N/m3
- Horizontal shoring (joists) of panels 1500 N/m3
- Vertical shoring elements (props, columns etc) 1000 N/m3
Concentrated load from the weight of work crews and transport equipment:
- One crew member that carries loads 1300 N
- Wheel barrow concrete transport 2800 N
Load from the vibrating effect of the concrete compaction: 1200 N/m2

(2) HORIZONTAL LOADS, include:

f) Static load from lateral pressures due to a particular height of plastic concrete (placed and
compacted) according to the rate of placement on the panels surface (Fig. 4-14).

Figure 4-14. Lateral pressure on wall form according to rate of concrete placement [5]
Two factors that affect the maximum effective horizontal pressure are seen to be: rate of rise
of the concrete in the forms and rate of setting (loss of fluidity).

The first depends on the size of forms being filled vs. rate at which the concrete is placed. The
second depends on a number of factors, of which the most significant is the temperature. The
time of setting for concrete according to NE 012 -99 is when the temperature of concrete is
1030C is 3540 min and for t < 10C is 5070 min according to the grade of cement
used (32.5 or 42.5).
The effect of pressure in compacting the lower fluid layers by forcing out mixing water
(bleeding) has led to the belief that for very rapid rates of rise there is a maximum pressure
which cannot be exceeded. It will usually be more economical to control the rate of rise than
to try to provide form strength to resist such high pressures.
The rate of placement is the relation between the height of the form, H, and the time period
needed for the casting of the whole element. The rate of pour is expressed in meters of
concrete poured per hour.
The hydrostatic lateral pressure is given by the following equation:
=
Where: p = lateral pressure [N/m2]
c = unit weight of fresh concrete [N/m2]
H = height of plastic concrete [m].
The position of the maximum pressure is determined by the following equation:
= 1
Where 1 has the value given in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. Characteristics of concrete pressure on formwork

The value of the maximum pressure Pmax is determined with the following equation:
= 1 2 3 4

(N/m2)

Where H the height of the poured concrete (m);

density of the fresh concrete (kg/m3).
The minimum pressure Pinf is determined with the following equation:
=
Where has the value according to table 4-2.

Table 4-2. Coefficient according to rate of concrete placement [2]

g) Dynamic load from lateral pressures due to impact of falling concrete during
placement:
- for a capacity of the transport equipment: 0.2 m3 .2000 N/m2
0.2 0.7 m3 ..4000 N/m2
0.7 m3 .6000 N/m2
- for placement with chutes and hoppers: 2000 N/m3
- for placement with concrete pumps: 6000 N/m2
h) Wind forces on wall forms that will be taken into account only for bracings, scaffolds,
and centers.
7000 N/m2.
For the design of the size and deflections of component elements of the formwork, the loads
will be taken into account differently, according to Table 4-3.

Table 4-3. Combination of loads according to member [3, 5]

The design of formwork components will be made according to the following characteristics:
type of material used, nature of the load, number of reuses, moisture conditions and deflection
limitations.

4.3 Formwork removal (stripping or strike-off forms) [2]

Stripping forms is the removal of forms after the concrete has set and achieved its required
design strength. The concrete must also be hard enough to ensure that its surface will not be
damaged when stripping the forms.
Stripping and removal schedules. On many building projects, the forms must be stripped
and removed as soon as possible in order to reuse the form materials. The period of time
required before form removal on heavy construction projects may require the approval of an
engineer or architect.
The rate of hardening is temperature dependent and affects the timed removal of formwork,
which will be more than double in winter conditions. A special attention should be given,
after the form removal, to the construction member because it will bear the whole design load,
which is very important especially for long-span members in flexure.
The following values of concrete hardening levels are recommended for striking off:
-

2.5 N/mm2 for the lateral parts of the formwork;

70% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a
span of maximum 6.0 m;
85% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a
span of minimum 6.0 m

The shores will be removed when the following values of concrete strength percentage is
achieved:
-

95% for members with maximum spans of 6.0 m;

112% for members with spans of 6.0 12.0 m;
115% for members with spans greater than 12.0 m.

Forms shall be designed so that the removal may be made in the following order: side of
beams and girders, slab and joist forms and beam and girders bottoms.
Some rules must be followed during form stripping:
-

The parts and connections of the forms shall be so arranged that removal will be
simple, protecting the concrete from damage and the form panel so that it may be
reused without extensive repair;
The procedure will be supervised by the engineer, when casting defects are seen
(honeycombing, caverns, etc) that can influence the stability of the structure the works
will be stopped until repair and rehabilitation;
When forms adhere to concrete, separation should be achieved by inserting wooden
wedges and not by forcing rebars against the concrete;
Beam and joist bottoms shall remain in place until final removal of all shoring under
them;
Formwork shall not be removed until the concrete maturity level has developed
sufficiently to support the loads placed upon it. The time varies depending on the
structural function of the member and the rate of strength gain of the concrete
(concrete class, type of cement, w/c ratio, temperature during curing);

Joist forms shall be designed and removed so that the shores may be removed
temporarily to permit removal of joist forms but must be replaced at once. The shores
and joists will be dismantled beginning from the middle of the members span,
continuing symmetrically to the supports;
When stripping a wall form, the tie clamps or wedges are removed and the walers are
pried off. In a panel system, the panel section and studs can be removed as a unit. In a
built in place form, the studs and/or walers are pried off, followed by the removal of
the plywood sheathing;
Column forms should be constructed so the sides can be pried off and removed
without disturbing the adjoining beam or girder forms. Beam or girder forms should
be constructed so the side panels can be stripped before the beam bottoms;
Cranes, using two lines, are used to strip larger panel forms. One line is attached at the
top of the form for the upward pull. The second line is attached at a lower point to
exert an outward pull. A few ties should remain connected until the crane lines are
securely attached;
The engineer shall approve the sequence and pattern for removal of shores and for
reshoring before any other work is done. Shores and reshores shall be in the same
position on each floor to provide a continuous support from floor to floor; at no time
shall large areas of new construction be required to support their own weight even
temporarily;
The unfastening of the accessories will be done steadily, without shocks.

4.4 Precast concrete elements forms (Moulds) [1]

Precast concrete
The formwork used to make the precast concrete elements are called moulds.
Precast concrete construction is advantageous in many situations. Formwork costs are reduced
because fewer and simpler forms are required, less scaffolding is used to support the precast
members, and production schedules are not affected as much as schedules for cast-in-place
concrete. Additional advantages of precast concrete include the following:
-

Better quality control;

Less influence of weather on casting and erection;
Quicker construction of structures;
Greater control of concrete mix;
Finished surface without plastering;
More effective curing.

Precast structural members are fabricated in a factory and transported to the job site by truck,
or fabricated on the job site. The design and quantity of precast members, location of the
casting factory, and cost of transportation are considered when determining whether to cast
the precast members at a factory or on the job site. Structures that can be precast include the
following:

Floor and roof decks supported by cast-in-place girders and columns;

Wall panels supported by steel columns

Arches supporting cast-in-place concrete slabs

Exterior masonry walls and partitions with precast floor and roof decks.

A concrete beam supports a load and is the most common precast member. Concrete walls
and partitions are also commonly made from precast concrete rather than cast-in-place
concrete. Almost every concrete structure can be precast. See Fig. 4-15.

Fig. 4-16. Precast members for precast concrete structures include walls, floor slabs and
beams
Precast members are fabricated by placing reinforcement and concrete into forms constructed
over casting beds. Reinforcement includes rebar or prestressed steel cables. Prestressed steel
cables are used to reinforce precast concrete members by pretensioning or post-tensioning.
When the concrete has set, the precast members are raised and positioned by crane. The
precast members are braced in position and tied together using steel dowels and/or welding
plates.

Casting beds and forms. A casting bed is a system of forms and supports used for producing
concrete members. The surface of a casting bed should be smooth, level, and free from
defects. Casting beds must be rigidly supported to prevent deflection from the weight of the
concrete. A casting bed is constructed of steel or plywood panels supported by timbers or a
concrete slab. Precast wall and floor panels require edge forms around the perimeter of the
casting bed. Wood casting bed forms are commonly lined with plastic or hardboard to
facilitate stripping and increase the life of the form (mould). See Fig. 4-17.

Fig. 4-18. Prefabricated casting beds are commonly used to form precast concrete members.
Reinforcement is placed in the beds prior to the concrete placement
Prefabricated metal or plastic forms are also available for standard structural units such as
columns and beams. The forms can be a predetermined size, custom-made to specific
dimensions, or adjustable for different applications. Prefabricated metal and plastic forms
have a long life expectancy and can be reused many times.

Job site precast construction. Job site precast construction lowers the costs and increase
productivity when producing multiple precast units of the same design. The time required for
precast formwork is considerably less than for cast-in-place concrete because the forms are
constructed on casting beds build at ground level. Positioning the rebar and placing,
consolidating (compacting), and finishing the concrete are easier. Precasting of structural
members is done during the construction of the foundation. Precast members can carry full
loads, thereby eliminating the need for temporary shoring.
Job site precasting is used when there is adequate space for a casting yard within or adjacent
to the jobsite, and when lifting equipment (cranes or hoists) is available. See Fig. 4-19. A
casting yard must be well organized for efficient assembly-line production. Materials used to
build the forms, the reinforcing steel, and an area for stockpiling completed precast members
should be nearby. If concrete is mixed on the job site, an adjacent area for storing cement,
aggregate and water is required.

Fig. 4-19. Precast wall panels, floor slabs, and columns may be constructed on the job site.
When the concrete has set, the components are raised into position with a crane

Precast concrete consolidation. Precast concrete must be thoroughly vibrated after being
placed into the form. External vibrator operation requires proper planning and deployment
(implementation) to achieve satisfactory concrete consolidation. An external form vibrator is
a vibrator that generates and transmits vibration waves from the exterior of a precast form to
the concrete contained in the form. External form vibrators must be properly positioned to
ensure even distribution of the vibration waves through the entire concrete mass. Precast
shapes, such as girders, inverted Ts, single Ts, and double Ts can be vibrated using external
form vibrators. See Figure 4-20. Inadequate vibration wave distribution reduces concrete
consolidation (compaction) and results in air pockets in the concrete.
Following are general guidelines for external form vibrator use on precast forms (moulds):
-

Reinforce the formwork to prevent distortion and to achieve the best distribution of
vibration waves;
Use metal formwork for optimum vibration distribution;
Set the formwork on rubber mats or wood beams to prevent transmission of vibration
waves to the surrounding area. Rubber mats or wood beams dampen the noise level
associated with vibrators;
Vibrate the concrete until the surface glistens and air no longer rises to the surface.

Immersion vibrators can be used to supplement external vibrators when the concrete mass is
too great. An immersion vibrator, also known as an internal vibrator, is a tool that consists of
a motor, flexible shaft, and an electrically or pneumatically powered metal vibrating head that
is dipped into and pulled through concrete.

Fig. 4-20. External form vibrators are positioned on precast forms to allow vibration waves to
be thoroughly transmitted through the concrete
Prestressed concrete
Most concrete structures are exposed to high compressive and tensile stresses. Unreinforced
concrete has very little tensile, or bending, strength and concrete structures that are erected
without reinforcement break down quickly. Prestressed concrete is concrete in which internal
stresses are introduced to such a degree that tensile stresses resulting from the service loads
are counteracted to the desired degree. Prestressed concrete is held in a state of compression
by stressing the concrete with high-tensile steel cables called tendons. When the steel tendons
are added and then prestressed in a precast member, the tendons carry the load, increasing the
compressive and tensile strength of the precast member. See Fig. 4-21. Prestressed concrete
members may be precast or cast-in-place. Two methods used to prestress concrete are
pretensioning and post-tensioning.

Fig. 4-21. Workers use hydraulic jacks to stretch prestressing tendons. Marks are made on
tendons before prestressing to verify that the tendons are stretched to the proper distance
Pretensioning. Pretensioning is a method of prestressing in which the steel cables are
tensioned before the concrete in placed in the casting bed. Prestressed concrete members are
commonly produced in the factory using the long-line process. See Fig. 4-22. The long-line
process allows multiple sections of identical precast members to be placed concurrently.
Precast form casting beds are set end to end, and the steel tendons are laid inside each bed.
One end of the steel tendon is anchored and the other end is attached to a hydraulic jack,
which stresses the tendons until they are under the required tension for a particular structural
member.

Fig. 4-22. The long-line process allows multiple sections of identical precast members to be
placed concurrently
Once the steel tendons are stressed, concrete is placed in the casting beds, surrounding the
tensioned steel tendons. As the concrete sets, it bonds to the steel tendons and holds them in
the prestressed position. When the concrete has set to its specified strength, tension from the
jack is released. The bonding between the concrete and the tendons add tensile strength to the
concrete. The steel tendons retain most of their prestressed set, which improves the strength of
the concrete. Prestressed concrete has greater compressive strength, and greater ability to
withstand lateral loads and pressures, than conventionally reinforced precast concrete.
Prestressed members require less concrete and are lighter than members reinforced with rebar.
Post-tensioning. Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which steel cables are
tensioned after the concrete has been placed. The post-tensioning process add internal stresses
of the appropriate degree to the tendons after the concrete has set. Post-tensioned concrete has
hollow openings cast throughout the length of the member through which the tendons are
placed. Some precast concrete members are produced by an extruder. Extruder hollow core
panels (Fig. 4-23) may be used for office buildings or commercial floors and ceiling panels.
The precast member is removed from the mould or the extruder and, if specified, steel tendons
are placed through the hollow openings.

Fig. 4-23. Extrusion hollow core panels

When the precast structural member is placed at the job site, the steel tendons are tensioned to
the specific level. Tension on the steel tendons can be released or removed if necessary. The
hollow openings in the precast members may be used to provide access for telephone and
electrical service.

[1] L. Koel, Concrete formwork, 4th edition, 2011

[2] George Ilinoiu. Construction Project Engineering
[3] Chudley R., Advanced construction technology, 1999
[4] G. Ilinoiu, Construction Project Engineering, 1999
[5] M. Teodorescu, Tsicura A. and Ilinoiu G., 1998
[6] C11 1974, Instructiuni tehnice privind alcatuirea si folosirea n constructii a panourilor din
placaj pentru cofraje