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Introduction To AC Drive
Drive and its Definition
The power required by the machines for its working is generally provided by electric
motors.
The electric motors take electrical energy input and convert it into rotational mechanical
energy output. This mechanical energy drives the machine.
The electrical power made available by State Electricity Boards, at times for certain
applications need to be modified and controlled in a specific manner before giving it to
the motor to get the desired performance from the motor.
Drive is nothing but the product-that takes the available electrical power, converts it into
the required form and then gives it to the motor and in addition, provides required
protection to the motor and the system.
Example - 1
Fixed V, fixed f
AC supply
(S. E. B. Supply)
DRIVE
Example - 2
Fixed V, fixed f
AC supply
(S. E. 8. Supply)
DRIVE
Variable DC Supply
variable, f,
variable V,
AC Supply
Classification of Motor
There are various ways of classifying the motor. One way is to classify motors on the
basis of type of electric supply it needs. On this basis we can have two types - DC motors
needing DC supply and AC motors needing AC supply.
x 100
Ns
The percentage slip value depends upon the load on the motor but one can assume it to be
around 4 - 5 % at full load.
Step-less Variation
Stepped Variation
There is a limitation with regard to the possible number of steps using pole changing
Method. Generally 2 to 4 speeds are feasible.
Ns1
Ns2
Ns3
Speed
The above curves are true only if the flux in the motor is kept constant irrespective of
frequency.
The Conventional methods Used To Obtain Variable Speed At The Machine Shaft
By using belt and pulley or using gears one can make the machine shaft to rotate at
different speeds although the driving motor runs more or less at constant speed This
conventional method does not give step-less variation of speed; it makes the machine
bulky and heavy, needs maintenance and is NOT energy efficient.
3 different speeds
Constant speeds
Machine Shaft
Motor
And if we increase frequency the flux will reduce. Also keep in mind that the torque level
is decided by the flux.
If we are unable to maintain the flux constant then torque level will also vary with
frequency and the motor will not be able to provide the rated torque at all speeds.
There is also another danger at low speeds. At low frequency the inductive opposition of
the winding will be very low (XL = 2fL) and will therefore result in motor winding
drawing excessively high current which may result in burning of motor winding.
The benefit we (let if we vary the voltage in the same proportion as frequency
To understand the necessity, we need to look at the torque equation of induction motor.
We expect that the motor should be able to provide required torque, maximum up to its
rated torque at all the speeds.
.
The torque produced by the motor depends upon the square of motor" flux and slip
frequency.
Further, the relationship between e.m.f. Induced in the rotor and motor flux is as follows.
E = 4.44 x f x x Z
or
E
=
4.44 x f x Z
Where f is the frequency of supply and Z are number of conductors.
Converter
Inverter
-
variable V1
variable
AC Supply
Conversion of AC in to DC
We can convert AC into DC by using electronic component called diode. This diode has
this peculiar characteristic that it allows the current to flow only in one direction i.e. from
its anode terminal to cathode. When current tries to flow in the reverse direction it
opposes the flow.
The circuits called as rectifier circuit use this property to convert AC supply into DC. The
rectifier circuit shown below using 4 diodes is used for converting 1 phase AC into DC
and the one where 6 diodes are used is for converting 3 phases AC supplies into DC.
120 f1
(1-S)
P
Thus in order to vary the speed, any one of the above three parameters f1, P and S should
be altered.
The rotor speed of a three-phase slip-ring motor can be controlled either by varying the
frequency of the supply keeping the voltage-to-frequency ratio constant or by controlling
the power flow in the rotor circuit. The rotor-circuit power flow can be controlled by the
following methods:
1.
2.
4.
However, the speed of a squirrel-cage motor can be controlled either by varying the stator
supply voltage or by varying the supply frequency. The pole-changing method is also
adopted in this case.
R22
R21
Slip
Torque slip or speed characteristic of an induction motor for a different value of
rotor resistance
Speed Control by Change of Number of Poles
It is clear that the speed of the induction motor may be changed by altering the number of
poles. The number of poles can be changed only in steps by changeover switches. The
number of steps is limited to two, three or a maximum of four because of the complexity
of switch-connection. The pole-changing is done by dividing the stator phase winding
into two, three or four equal parts.
This kind of SPRS system is very much useful in power saving. Study at Vikram cement
during 1992-94 says by incorporating this drive in High Tension fans at Bag house,
Preheater, Coal Mill there is tremendous saving , which has resulted in approximately Rs.
10 per Bag (50 Kg) in Manufacturing cost.
AC
Line
Diode
Bridge
Rectifler
Invertor
Motor
Speed
Reference
Voltage and
Frequency
control
Figure
Assume that the optimum motor terminal voltage is at 460 volts when the motor is
operating at 60 Hz at full load. If the motor's full load current is 40 amps, and the internal
resistance is 1 ohm, the IR drop is 40 volts and the air gap voltage is 420 volts, or 7 volts
per hertz. If full torque is required when the motor is operating at 6 Hz, the motor current
will be 40 amps since current is proportional to torque. This means that the voltage drop
across the resistance will be 40 volts----- the same as for 60 Hz operation. The voltage
required at the air gap is 7 V/Hz, or 42 volts. The voltage required at the motor terminals
is the sum of the air gap voltage and the IR drop, or 82 volts (13.67 V/Hz).
This means that a significant V/Hz "boost" is required if the motor is to produce full
torque at low speed. Since the required boost voltage depends on individual motor and
load characteristics, an adjustment is usually pro-vided for setting the boost adjustment.
A high boost level can lead to an excessive motor current under light load conditions.
Table 1
Voltage
Frequency
Stator Current
Current/Voltage Phase
Speed
Torque
Soft Star
Torque vs. frequency and current vs. torque for various operating frequencies are shown
in Figure 22 for a NEMA B motor. Note that the curves show that motor current is
directly proportional to motor torque for operation on the normal operating portions of
the curves (solid lines). The dotted portions of the curves show operation where the
Any number of motors can be connected in parallel in parallel and controlled by a single
AFD. A closed loop vector controlled drive cannot be used with multiple motors.
Although the basic principles of multiple motor operations are not difficult to understand,
Application Engineering assistance should be requested to make certain that the
application is successful. Since the frequency of the power supplied by the AFD is the
same for all motors, the motors will always operate at relatively the same speed. With
NEMA design B motors, the speeds will be matched within 3 % or less, depending on the
load variation among the motors and their rated slip. Exact speed matching between
motors is not possible. If an adjustable speed ratio is required between motors, each
motor must be connected to its own individual AFD. The simplest multiple motor
application is one in which all the motors are permanently connected to the AFD. In
simplest multiple motor application is one in which all the motors are permanently
connected to the AFD, and always started and stopped simultaneously by starting and
stopping the AFD. In this case, the AFD is simply sized to provide an output current
Output Current
Center for Research & Industrial Staff Performance
23
Motor Protection
Motor overload protection must be provided as required by applicable codes. Direct
motor protection is not auto-atically provided as part of the AC drive. AFDs are equipped
with electronic protection circuits with an inverse time or I 2 T characteristics equivalent
to a conventional overload relay. Conventional overload relays are also used with AFDs
equipped with bypass. If these current sensing protective devices are used with motors
driving constant torque loads, the minimum speed should be adjusted to prevent motor
from running at speeds at which overheating could occur, unless the I 2 T circuit provides
a speed and load calibrated trip. The best means of AC drive motor protection is direct
winding over temperature sensing, such as an over-temperature switch or thermistor
imbedded in the motor windings. Over-temperature switches are more convenient
because they can normally be connected directly to the AC drive control circuit.
Thermistors generally require a special sensing relay. Direct over-temperature protection
is preferred over current sensing protective devices because motor overheating can occur
with normal operating current at low operating speeds.
Motor short circuit protection is not required since the AC drive protection circuits nearly
always adequately protect the motor in this respect. When a single AFD provides power
to multiple motors connected in parallel, special considerations must be given to motor
protection. Individual overload protection must be provided for each motor. Short circuit
protection may be required for some applications.
AC Drive Performance
Operator Control and Interface
Operator controls are often via the drive keypad. In other situations, an operator station or
remote control may be desired. If these requirements cannot be achieved by remotely
mounting the keypad, terminal blocks with digital and analog interface capability are
provided.
Speed Range
The characteristics of the motor usually determine the speed range or an AC drives. The
AFD output frequency range is usually wider than the range that can be effectively
utilized by the motor.
Speed Regulation
The open loop speed regulation of an AC drive is deter-mined by the motor slip. Since
NEMA design B motor usually have 3 % slip or less, at 60 Hz and rated load the speed
regulation of the drive is 3 %. AFDs equipped with slip compensation or flux or vector
control can provide speed regulation, which is better than the open loop regulation of the
motor. Slip compensation and flux or vector control improves speed regulation by
increasing and decreases. Further improvement in steady state speed regulation can be
obtained by using a tachometer generator to pro-vide speed feedback to a closed loop
speed regulator option, or an external device such as the Durant Strider.
Service Deviation
Speed regulation specifies only that portion of the drive speed change, which is directly
caused by a change in load. Several other factors can cause unintended changes in the
drive operating speed. These factors con-tribute to the drive's service deviation. Table 2
lists some of these factors and the typical effect they have on drive speed.
Influencing Factor
0.0 %
0.25 %
0.5 %
Current Limit
If an AC drive was not equipped with current limit, the over current trip circuits would
Regeneration limit prevents the motor from developing braking torque above a limit,
which corresponds to the normal losses, which are inherent in the motor and controller.
IR Compensation
A V/Hz AC drive can provide improved starting torque and low speed overload
capability if the lower speed voltage boost is changed automatically to compensate for
changing load conditions. This feature is called IR compensation. Without IR
compensation, it is difficult to achieve the maximum possible motor torque because the
voltage boost required for maximum torque can cause the motor to saturate and draw
excessive current when it is lightly loaded. The IR compensation circuit senses the motor
load and reduced the voltage boost when the motor is lightly loaded.
A flux control AC drive can provide a similar result by modifying its instantaneous
voltage and frequency to allow the motor to develop the torque for the load.
Installation Compatibility
The successful application of an AC drive requires the assurance that the drive will be
compatible with the environment in which it will be installed. The following are some of
the aspects of compatibility, which should be considered.
Cooling Air
Even though AFDs are very efficient, the heat produced in the controller cabinet can be
substantial. The electronic circuitry is subject to immediate failure if its operating
temperature limits are exceeded. Junction temperatures of transistors, SCRs and IGBTs
typically can only increase 20 250 C from full load to failure. It is important to remove
heat through the usual mechanisms of radiation, conduction (heat sinks) or convection
(fans). The enclosure must be located away from direct sunlight and hot surfaces. The
room temperature must be kept within the specified limits and adequate cooling air must
be prevented from entering the enclosure.
Acoustical Noise
In
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electromagnetic Compatibility may be of concern both from the standpoint of outside
sources interfering with the AC drive and from the standpoint of the drive interfering
with other equipment. Modern drives are designed to avoid problems of either type.
These drives have been installed in a wide variety of environments with very little
difficulty. Electromagnetic compatibility is by no means assured by the product alone.
Installation methods and power distribution system design are also very important. Even
the most extensive protection design into the drive will be defeated if the drive is not
properly installed. Typical means of reducing the radio frequency effects on the drive on
other equipment include the use of an input EMC filter and shielded output power wiring.
The EMC filter will reduce the high frequencies, which can be, transmitted the input
power wiring. The use of shielded wire, wiring run in a well bonded, grounded metallic
conduit and continuous armored cable, will help prevent high frequency radiation from
the three-phase power output wiring. Single leads should be isolated from 120 V control
leads and both should be isolated from the input and out-put power leads.
If cable trays are used, there should be 1 foot of separation between the drive input and
motor power leads for every 10 feet of length. Output leads from multiple units must be
Isolation Transformers
Drive isolation transformers are some time recommended or specified by other for
various reasons. Some drive dose not required the use of isolation transformers because
these drives are design to operate directly from plant power distribution system without
using isolation transformers. The benefits sought through the use of isolation
transformers are generally provided more economically, efficiently and reliably by
features which are designed into the drive and power options such as line reactors.
However, in some situation isolation transformers may be required to provide suitable
input
protection circuits fully protect the drives from output short circuits and ground faults
regardless of available fault current without requiring isolation and external impedance.
Isolation transformers are generally not recommended as a preventative or curative
measure for suspected difficulties of these types.
Efficiency
Figure 25 shown typical efficiency curves for an IGBT AFD. The efficiency of an AC
drive can be accurately determined only for a particular set of operating conditions. The
characteristics of the motor and controller are interrelated in such a way that a change the
characteristics of either component will cause a change in the efficiency of the other. The
efficiency of the total AC drive system cannot be accurately determined from just the
controller efficiency curves and the manufacturer's published motor data. Table 3
provides adjustment factors which can be used to estimate the total drive system
efficiency. The adjustment factors take into account efficiency variations due to a typical
range of different motor characteristics and operating conditions. The factors include data
from the controller efficiency curves and adjust for motor characteristics at various speed
and load points.To calculate total AC drive system efficiency, multiply the published
motor efficiency by the adjustment factors listed in Table 3. Use the published motor
efficiency for full load 60 Hz operation only. The adjustment factors accounts for
changes in motor efficiency due to changing the speed and load.
Power factor
The power factor typically specified for AFDs is displacement power factor, which is
defined as the cosine of the angle between the fundamental voltage and current. Many
instruments used for utility billing purposes give readings equivalent to displacement
power factor.
Another definition and measurement method combines the effects of power and harmonic
content to define total power factor. Newer utility instrumentation is capable of recording
total power factor, resulting in potential power factor penalty billing. Displacement
power factor for a PWM drive is approximately 0.95 at all operating points. The
displacement power factor is not significantly affected by the motor speed the motor load
or the motor power factor. Total power factor will vary with line voltage utility feeder
size and total system and drive load. Power factor correction capacitors should not be
connected at the AC drive power input. Correction should be done on a plant wide basis.
If capacitors are located too close to the drive, or if drives represent a high percentage of
the total plant electrical load, there may be an undesirable interaction between the
capacitors and the drives, leading to a failure of either or both. If the capacitors must be
located near the drive, a line reactor should be used on the drive input to reduce the
possibility of interaction. Note that adding this reactor does not eliminate the potential for
harmonic resonance.
To be assured of a solution that will improved power factor and avoid resonance, a
system study must be performed to determine the optimum selection of capacitance and
inductive reactance. Power factor correction capacitors must never, under any
circumstances, be connected at the AC drive controller output. They would serve no
useful purpose, and they may damage the drive.
Braking
Braking provides a means of stopping an AC motor and can be accomplished in several
ways.
A. Dynamic Braking (AC Drives) Since AC motor do not have separate field
excitation, dynamic braking is accomplished by continuing to excite the motor from
the drive. This causes a regenerative current to the drive's DC intermediate bus
circuit. The dynamic brake resistors are then placed across the DC bus to dissipate the
power returned. The brake resistor is usually switched by a transistor or other power
switch controlled by the drive.
Enclosure
Enclosure refers to the housing in which the controller is mounted Enclosure are
available in designs for various environmental conditions.
D. NEMA Type 9 An enclosure designed for hazardous locations, Class II, Groups
E, F and G per the National Electrical Code. The atmosphere in which this control-ler
must operate may contain carbon black, coal or coke dust, flour, starch or grain dust.
E. NEMA Type 12 Designed for industrial use. This enclosure is intended for use
in applications where it is desirable to exclude such materials as cooling oil, seepage,
dust, lint, fibers and filings. This is a non-ventilated enclosure with an oil resistant,
synthetic gasket between the case and the cover. The cover is hinged to swing
horizontally and is help in place with suitable fasteners, which require the use of a
tool.
Drive Selection
Selection Considerations
When selecting a drive and associated equipment for an application, the following points
should be considered.
Environment
The environment in which the motor and power conversion equipment operates is of
prime concern. Conditions such as ambient temperature, cooling air supply and the
presence of gas, moisture, and dust should all be considered when choosing a drive, its
enclosures and protective features.
Speed Range
The minimum and maximum motor speeds for the application will determine the drive's
base speed.
Speed Regulation
When the operating cycle is such that the drive operates at idle, or a reduced load for
more than 25% of the time, the duty cycle becomes a factor in selecting the proper drive.
Heating
The temperature of a motor or controller is a function of ventilation and losses. Operating
self-ventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause above normal temperatures rises.
Derating or forced ventilation may be necessary to achieve the rated motor torque output
at reduced speed.
Drive Type
Does the applications require performance elements such as quick speed response or
torque control? These may require the use of a flux vector or closed loop vector drive,
instead of a volt per hertz drive.
characteristics developed at the motor's shaft must be considered, and low well these
characteristics suit the machine.
Four essential parameters are :
1.
Breakaway Torque
2.
Process Torque
3.
Accelerating Torque
4.
Running Torque
Breakaway Torque
This is the torque required to start the machine in motion. It is usually greater (except for
centrifugal pumps and fans) than the torque required to maintain motion (running torque).
Breakaway torque combined with process torque frequency determines drive selection.
Typical breakaway torques for various machine types are given in Table 5.
Process Torque
This is the torque required to pull, push, compress, stretch or otherwise process or act
upon the material being transported by or through the machine. On some machines,
process torque may be so significant. The process torque load is superimposed on all
other static and dynamic torque requirement of the machine. The allowable amount of
speed variation should be considered. Does the application require unvarying speed at all
torque values or will variations be tolerated?
Torque Requirements
The starting, peak and running torques should be considered when selecting a drive.
Starting torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of the full load to a value
several times full load torque. The peak torque varies because of a change in load
conditions or mechanical nature of the machine. The motor torque available to the
drive3n machine must be more than that required by the machine from start to full speed.
THE GREATER the excess torque, the more rapid the acceleration potential.
Acceleration
The
Duty Cycle
Selecting the proper drive depends on whether the load is steady, varies, follows a
repetitive cycle of variation or has pulsating torques. The duty cycle, which is defined as
a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time, is expressed as the ratio of ontime to the cycle period.
Accelerating Torque
This is the torque required to bring the machine to an operating speed within a given
time. With most machines, the load is largely friction and a standard drive rating may
have adequate torque for satisfactory acceleration. However, certain machines classified
as "high inertia" with flywheel, bull gears or other large rotating masses may require drie
selection based upon the power required to accelerate the load within a given time.
Running Torque
This is the torque required to maintain the drive process or machine after it accelerates to
the desired operating speed. The characteristics of the speed and torque curves of various
machines are very important to the proper drive selection. All machines generally can be
classified into load types as follows:
Constant Torque (e.g., conveyors)
Constant Horsepower (e.g., machine tools)
Squared Exponential Horsepower (e.g., mixers)
Cubed Exponential Horsepower (e.g., fans)
Additional load application information is given in Table 5.
Scale (No.)
R
Torque: F & R
Pull gently on the scale until the shaft turns. Do not yank. The force in pounds or ounces,
indicated on the scale, multiplied by the radius of the pulley (measured from the
centerline of the machine shaft) in inches gives the torque value in lb-in or oz-in. On
some machines, this torque may vary as the shaft rotates. The highest value of torque
must be used when selecting a motor. Note that the torque requirement may be dependent
upon temperature and bad conditions. The running torque by a machine will be less than
the starting torque if the load is composed almost entirely of friction. If the load is
primarily inertia or wind-age, the characteristics of the inertia or wind-age producing
elements must be determined. Most machines require a higher torque value to break it
away, but once running, the torque requirement will decrease. Many drives have 150%
load capacity for 1 minute, which may allow the required additional break-away torque to
be obtained without increasing the drive horsepower rating. If the running torque is equal
to or less than the break-away torque divided by 1.5, use the breakaway torque divided by
1.5 as the full load torque required to determine the drive horsepower. Refer to specific
controller drive specifications in the product sections of the product guide to match the
AFD with the driven machine requirements.
TOPOLOGIES OF AC DRIVE
Three-phase supply
Voltage
controller
Firing
circuit
K5
Vc
K6
Three-Phase
Controlled
recitier
Vd
+
Delay angle
K3
1 +
K1
l s(ref)
+
Speed
controller
Frequency
l
K2
ls
K4
Current
controller
Le
Ce
s
Inverter
l/F
Converter
Current
limit
Speed
sensor
Rotor
Volts/hertz control
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
A small voltage V0 is added to voltage reference (V) to compensate for the stator
(v)
In case of PWW inverter, there is no need for the controlled rectifier and the
signal V d controls the inverter voltage directly by varying the modulation index
as shown in fig. below.
PWM Technique one come obtain variable voltage and variable frequency
at the output
The average voltage delivered to the load is controlled by ratio of total on time
and off time of voltage in half cycle. By varying this ratio we can vary the voltage from
zero to maximum. The figure on the following page illustrates how variable voltage is
obtained.
The frequency is determined by the rate at which the switch pairs in Inverter
Bridge are closed and opened. If this is rapid then frequency of supply will be more and if
the rate is low the frequency will be less. Refer to the figure on Page 9. The line duration
for which the switches are kept on is same, for all 4 switches use in the bridge.
If we keep this time less, we shall get higher frequency but keeping it on for longer time
will reduce the frequency of output voltage. Thus by controlling this line we can get
variable frequency at the output.
Half Cycle of output voltage, mean value of voltage = 500V
On Off proportion = 1:4, means value of voltage = 100V.
On Off proportion = 1:1, means value of voltage = 250V.
On Off proportion = 3:1, means value of voltage = 300V.
The above figures illustrate the principle of obtained variable voltage at the
output. The figures on the following pages illustrate the techniques of obtaining PWM
wave for wherein on time and off time can be varied.
The principle used is that of comparison i.e. a constant frequency triangular wave
V0
K4
Vc
+
Function
generator
1 +
K2
Delay angle
Le
Ce
Frequency
s1
s
s
+
Speed
Controlled
rectifier
K3
K1
m controller
K5
Slip speed
regulator
Inverter
Speed sensor
Rotor
Slip regulation
Center for Research & Industrial Staff Performance
43
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
controlling the frequency. Thus we get variable voltage & variable frequency
[with constant v/f] at motor terminals.
w1
wm
K1
Current
controller
Ld
K2
+
l2
K3
Three-phase supply
Controlled
rectifier
Firing
circuit
ld
Slip regulator
+
+
Current source
inverter
m
Rotor
Speed
sensor
(i)
(iii)
Slip regulator limits the speed controller output. This limited slip reference
(wsl) is added with motor speed wm to get synchronous speed reference (ws).
This reference controls the firing of current-source invert to get variable
frequency current at motor terminals.
With a step speed command, the machine accelerates with a high current,
which is proportional, the torque. In the steady state the motor current is low.
However, in these drive the air-gap flux fluctuates. Due to varying flux at different
operating points, the performance of this drive is poor.
Flux control
Function generator
ld
K3
K2
+
l2
K1
+
m
Three-phase supply
Current
controller
Controlled
rectifier
Firing
circuit
ld
sl
Slip
regulator
+
m
Current source
inverter
+
Rotor
lR Sin
In order to maximize the torque angle should be closed to 900. The challenge of
vector control in the face of changing torques & speed is to
Adjust the magnitude of magnetizing current lM to produce rated flux in the
(i)
air gap.
To keep angle close to 900 .
(ii)
(iii) To keep stator currents from exceeding its maximum permissible limits.
In AC motor the magnetizing current lM is a part of stator current (ls). Hence one of the
objective of vector control is to decompose the stator current into two parts; the
component that produces the flux and the component that produces the torque as
shown in per-phase eq. circuit given below :
R1
l1
jX1
jx2
lo
l1
lm
lw
V1
jXm
R2
S
RFW
In addition the instantaneous rotor parameters have to be inferred from the instantaneous
stator parameters [These rotor parameter changes with rotor position] To keep track of all
these variables the basis circuit parameter of the motor as given above must be known.
Vector control drives incorporate a feature that actually measures the rotor & stator
parameters when the drive is installed. When the motor is in operation, the stator-voltage,
stator current, stator frequency, rotor position and speed are sensed by sensor &
transducers. The drive control algorithm than determines the wave from for different
phases from instant to instant, so that overall speed & torque requirement are met.
IGBT devices are switched at high frequency [Carrier frequencies ranging from 1 KHZ to
16KHZ] so that instantaneous value of voltage/current in each phase of motor [Both stator
& rotor] are set such that optimum drive performance is obtained. [In transient condition
the voltage & current of three-phases of motor set by drive will not be in balance 3-phase
format, i.e., amplitude & phase angle will differ from normal balance condition.
In most vector drives, the 3-phase readings are converted into equivalent 2-phase values
since they are easy to manipulate. In effect, for purpose of computation, the 3-phase
motor is converted into an equivalent 2-phase machine. This approach permits expressing
all values in terms of direct & quadrature axes like in DC motor. By vector control, AC
motors are able to give performance equivalent to DC motor in steady-state as well as
dynamic conditions.
Im
F2 = s f 1 = 0
ROTOR FREQUENCY
Thus by controlling the slip of the motor, the stator current can be controlled and viceversa. The curve between slip-frequency can be calculated using the equivalent circuit of
L
Three-phase
Inverter
AC
Input
lref
Current
Controller
Firing circuit
Phase control
lf
The adjustable current source
section.
2. The DC link current is further maintained by close loop controls shown in fig
above.
2.
If motor fed from a current source inverter stalls owing to excessive load torque,
there will be no over current because the current is limited by the current source.
Therefore, the motor will not be overloaded.
3.
The direction of rotation of motor can be easily changed by reversing the phase
sequence of the inverter using the switching control circuit.
1.
Line power factor is poor due to phase angle control of thyristors at input rectifier
section.
2.
Current Source Inverter are suitable only for single motor operation. More than
one motor cannot be connected to single CSI inverter.
3.
CSI inverter have load dependent commutation. As the load circuit elements from
a part of the commutation circuit, the inverter and the motor must be matched
with each other.
The power circuit topology of this type of inverters is similar to that of a Conventional
Voltage Source-Inverter. The DC link works as a voltage-source. The inverted is made to
behave as a constant current AC source by the closed-loop switching control strategy.
Following are two commonly used switching control strategy.
1.
2.
Both the above type of control strategy is very much suited for Vector control of
induction motor. Typically in a vector-control drive, the controller determines the
instantaneous current needed in each phase of the motor and commands the inverter to
implement this current. Each phase current in a three phase motor can be independently
controlled by having separate Hysteresis at PWM controller for each phase.
la
lb
lc
la ref
+ -
+ -
+ -
lb ref
lc ref
Recent years have seen the evaluation of a new control strategy for AC motor called,
"Vector-Controlled", which has made a fundamental change in this picture of AC motor
drives, in regard to dynamic performance. Vector control of a separately excited DC
motor, and achieve the same quality of dynamic performance. Vector control recognizes
the fact that the inferior dynamic performance of AC motor drives is not because of a
basic limitation of the AC motor itself, but because of the manner in which power is fed
to the motor and the way this is controlled.
The high quality of dynamic performance of the separately excited DC motor is a
consequence of the fact that its armature circuit and the field circuit are magnetically
decoupled. In a DC motor, the mmf produced by the field current and mmf produced by
the armature current are spatially in quadrature. Therefore, there is no magnetic coupling
between the field circuit and the armature circuit. Because of the repetitive switching
action of the commentator on the rotor coils as the rotor rotates, this de-coupling
continues to exist irrespective of the angular position or speed of the rotor. This makes it
possible to effect fast current changes in the armature circuit, without being hampered in
this by the large inductance of the field circuit. Since the armature current can change
rapidly, the machine can develop torque and accelerate on decelerate very quickly when
speed changes are called for and attain the demanded speed in the fastest manner
possible.
As in the DC motors, in AC motors also, the torque production is the result of the
interaction of a current and a flux. But in the AC induction motor, in which the power is
fed on the stator side only, the current responsible for torque production and the current
responsible for producing the flux are not easily separable. The underlying principle of
vector control is to separate out about two component of motor current such that they are
magnetically de-coupled, and then control each independently, in the same way as is
done in a separately excited DC motor. The primary objective of vector control is to
achieve good performance when speed and torque conditions change.
2.
3.
The most convenient and commonly used choice of reference frame for the vector control
of an induction motor is the reference frame fixed to the space vector representing the
total flux linkage of the rotor, which includes the mutual flux (due to Im) and the rotor
leakage flux (represented by X1/2 in fig. Below):
X12
X
R1
I21
I1
Im
I1 = Stator Current
IM = Magnetizing Current
I12 = Rotor Current referred to Stator
I1
IM
I12
Fig. : Current Responsible for the different flux Linkages in induction motor.
Responsible for stator flux
Responsible for Rotor Flux
Responsible for Mutual Air gap Flux
This means that the reference zero direction, will be that of the maximum rotor flux
linkage, including the mutual flux linkage,
flux linkage of the rotor. This is a rotating reference frame, rotating with the total flux
linkage space vector of the rotor. It is also called the field-frame and the coordinates of
a space vector in this reference frame are called the field-coordinate. Vector control
implemented using the field frame is also known as Field-Orientation Control.
Direct Method
In this method, the flux linkage signal is acquired directly either by having special
sensors on the machine that sense the field [Flux sensors like coils or Hall effect
sensors], or by determining the flux linkage space vector directly by a so-called Fluxmodel.
Indirect Method
In this method the speed of the rotor flux linkage space vector with respect to the rotor
[the so called slip-speed] is determined and integrated and integrated to determine the
angle of movement of the field with respect to the rotor. This is added to the measured
angle moved by the rotor to obtain the angular orientation (R) of the field frame relative
to the stator frame at any instant of time.
Mounting of flux sensors requires specially built machines. These machines loose
robustness in comparison to normal squirrel-cage induction motor owing to additional
mounting arrangement of the sensors and their required maintenance. Hence this method
is limited for same specific applications.
Vector drives commonly used in industry employees flux-model or indirect methods
for acquisition of rotor-flux linkage vector. Vector control can be implemented by any of
the following methods.
1.
2.
The command speed is given as the speed reference signal (Wref.) to the error
detector block [labeled-1]. The actual speed is fed back from a tacho or other speedsensing device [labeled-16].
2.
The speed error (Wref. - Wr) is input to the speed control amplifier, which may be a
Pl Controller [labeled-2].
3.
Output of speed-controller serves as the reference input to the inner torque control
loop [same as Current-Controller in DC drive]. This reference input is labeled as
ls(qf)ref and is fed to the torque error detector, [Labelled-3]. Prevailing or actual value
of torque component ls(qf) is computed by flux model [labeled-10] and given to
torque error detector.
4.
Torque component error ls(qf)ref - ls(qf) is given to torque error amplifier [Labelled-4]
which can be Pl controller. The output of the torque controller is the input reference
for implementing the commanded value of the quadrature or torque component ls(qf)
of the stator current in the field reference frame.
5.
Field weakening block [Labelled-8] provides the field current reference lmr(qf)ref.
This value is compared in field error detector [Labelled-9] with actual value of field
current lmr obtained from flux model. The error (lmr(ref)-Imr) is input to field-error
amplifier [Labelled-5] which is also an Pl controller, Output of field controller is
the input reference for implementing the command value of the direct component or
field-component ls(df) of the stator current space-vector in the field frame.
6.
8.
The comparison blocks [Labelled-11, 12, 7, 13] and the Switching control block
[Labelled-14] serve to achieve the purpose of making the line current outputs from
the inverter conform to the reference values with negligible error.
9.
10.
Input to flux model block [Labelled-10] are the sensed values of the motor stator
current and the speed. The outputs of flux model block are:
ls(qf)
lmr
In the above control schematic speeds from zero to base speed are obtained by
maintaining field current at rated maximum value, corresponding to the field flux under
rated conditions of the motor. Thus below rated speeds there are no changes in the
demanded field component. Speed changes in this range are implemented by the torque
control loop. This speed range is called constant-torque range since machine develops
some maximum torque at all speeds.
Above the base speed, the controller reduces the field current reference, to enable the
speed to go up. This field-weakening speed range above base speed is called ConstantPower range since the maximum power the machine can develop is approximately.
This speed control strategy is identical to the case of the separately excited DC motor.
However, we find that vector control uses a number of computational blocks that have to
perform on-line computations for the satisfactory working of the controller. These
computations can be done by means of analog or digital circuits. With analog methods
circuits will be very exhaustive and it will be more difficult to achieve the required
accuracy. By using a dedicated microprocessor, it is possible to implement the required
computations reliably and with adequate speed and accuracy. This facility of
Junction structure
IGBT consists of four layers. A structural schematic of an n-channel IGBT is as shown in
figure below.
C
C
p
p
C
n
Polysilicon
metal
n
G
p
E
metal oxide
Fig.
(a)
p
n
Vge
Insulating layer of
+
+
+
+
+
+
E
(b)
n
p
G
n
E
E
Fig.
IGBT characteristics
Fig. Below shows the test-set up and I-V steady state characteristics of an IGBT.
(a)
An IGBT requires a threshold value VGS (TH) for the state to change from ON
to OFF or vice versa. This threshold voltage is usually about 4V.
(ii)
When VGS is more than 4 volts, the IGBT conducts but still its has a voltage
drop VDS equal to about 2V across it. In order that the On-state voltage drop
remains low, the gate is driven hard up to about 15V.
(iii)
With no gate signal, there is a limit to the blocking voltage capability of the
IGBT. This blocking voltage has temperature coeff of about 0.7V/C, because
of which IGBT has to be derated.
(iv)
IGBT protection
Protection of IGBT is less complex than that for the thyristor, because of the
inherent nature of this switch being voltage controlled. However, consideration has to be
given to over voltages, over currents and transients, just like other semiconductor
switches.
Over voltages:
For protecting IGBT against forward break over voltages, supply voltage is
limited to no more than 80 % of the IGBT rated value. Auxiliary protection is obtained
by connecting across the IGBT a non-linear voltage arrester, which is a metal oxide
device whose resistance decreases rapidly with voltage increase. The arrester diverts
current from a blocking IGBT if the applied voltage rise to a value beyond that permitted,
either as a transient or as a steady state.
Theoretically, protection against reverse bias voltages across the drain to sink terminal of
the IGBT is the same as the forward bias protection.
Howe
Transients Protection
IGBT has as a pnpn junction structure owing to which it has on inherent parasiticthyristor. Hence the device can be turned on by high dv/dt. For protection IGBT against
dv/dt turn-on, snubber circuit is connected across IGBT. Gate resistance RG is also
increased so that parasitic thyristor does not gets ON owing to high main current (if
parasitic thyristor gets ON, then IGBT will not get commutate on removal of gate bias
thus leading to abnormal condition).
The high rate of rise of current [di/dt] (for example during starting of motor etc.) is
limited by reducing the gate voltage VGS. Series inductors are also used for limiting high
di/dt.
IGBT ratings
A single IGBT is available for any applications of power or voltage modulation where the
specification demand ratings of voltages in the 300V to 1600V range, current in the 10A
to 400A range and switching frequency in the 1 KHz to 20 KHz range. These rating put
the use of IGBT in the mid power range (less than 0.5 MW) and in the mid frequency
range. That is, the power range lies between that of the MOSFET at the low end and that
of thyristor at the high end.
There is competition between IGBT & BJT. However there is following difference
between them.
(i)
BJT is current controlled for switching ON & OFF, whereas the IGBT is
voltage controlled.
Gate control drives with voltage control like in IGBT are simpler and incur
lower power dissipation Isolation of gate from power circuit is one of the most
prominent feature of IGBT.
(iii)
Owing to above feature IGBT is fastly replacing BJT for motor drives, UPS,
transportation applications etc.
POWER MOSFET
The power MOSFET is the high power version of low power metal-oxide-semiconductor
field effect transistor (MOSFET) that is widely used in analog and digital signal
processing circuits.
Junction Structure
The MOSFET is a three terminal device. It has a source lead S a drain lead D and a
gate lead G. The flow of current between drain and source is controlled by the voltage
applied between gate and source terminals. Fig. Below shows an npn type of MOSFET in
which there connected to the source S and in between is a p-type semiconductor. The
gate is connected to a metallic conductor like polysilicon metal. This is insulated from the
bulk of the MOFSET by an insulator, which is generally an oxide of some metal like
silicon dioxide.
D
D
polysilicon
Metal
n
n
Substrate
p
n
Insulating layer
of metal oxide
eg. Silicon dioxide
+
+
+
+
+
+
p
n
Vgs
S
(a)
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. Below shows the circuit symbol of npn type MOSFET and a circuit with
MOSFET switch.
id
id
Ohmic
reglon
Active
region
VgsT
Vgs (a)
Fig.
(b)
Vds
Fig. (a) above shows the load current versus Vgs characteristic. It can be seen that there is
a threshold voltage Vgst below which the device is OFF. This Vgst is of the order of 3-4
volts in most Power MOSFETs.
As shown in fig (b) in active region, the drain current (id) is independent of drain-source
voltage and depends only on Vgs. The ohmic region corresponds to switching action of
MOSFET is ON or OFF depending upon magnitude of Vgs. If Vgs > Vgst MOSFET is
OFF.
2.
The switching time of MOSFET is very-very short and the gate driver is simple
and requires very less power. The maximum frequency of switching of
MOSFET is of the order of 100 KHz, which is higher than all other powerelectronic switches. This makes MOSFET very suitable for PWM power control
techniques.
MOSFET are mostly used in low voltage, low power and high switching
frequency circuits. Motor speed control using MOSFET is more accurate and
has a faster response owing to high switching frequency. MOSFET are also used
in Switch Mode Power Supplies, induction heating, high frequency fluorescent
lighting, welding etc.