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IND
READERS GUIDE
Title
Page
Intro
Historical
Development
11
17
33
- Demonstrate how the historical water features for both domestic and
irrigation purposes were connected through an ingenious network,
- Explain the change of the hydrological profile after the construction of
the Dam and the threats in terms of flood,
- Highlight the contemporary challenges to ensure the physical
preservation of water bodies, to maintain water resources and visual
quality
57
75
83
Terrain &
Hydrology
Water
Resources
Agriculture
Biodiversity
Spatial
Organisation
Chapter
Objectives
GUIDELINES INDEX
Chapter 1
Topography and
Hydrology
Improve
Watershed
Management
Use the
Geographical
Information
System for
Landscape
management
Chapter 2
Water
Resources
Chapter 3
Agriculture
Regulate
Maintain
development
Water
along river
Bodies
bank
Ensure
Prevent
compatibility
scattered
Make
between
development
agriculture
agricultural
from
sustainable
practices
fragmenting
and heritage agriculture
Chapter 4
Biodiversity
Citizens /
Civil Society
Panchayats
and Town
Municipality
Districts
(Bellary /
Koppal)
HWHAMA
ASI / DAM
State
Department
of Tourism
State
department
of Town and
Country
Planning
Chapter 5
Spatial Organisation
Preserve
Preserve
Integrate
Plan new
Structure
Plan and
the
the site
landscape development
Locate
Preserve
edges
Anticipate
ecologically
from
components in coherence resettlement
visual
and
tourism
sensitive
non-native in heritage
with the
area
quality
boundaries movements
areas
species preservation environment
Preserve
the area
from
waste
dumping
Raise
awareness
on
environment
challenges
Foreword
Characteristics that define the landscape of Hampi
World Heritage Site impart the area its specific and very
unique nature. Interconnected components of both the
natural and the physical - including hydrology, geology,
topography, vegetation, hills and boulders areas,
water features, views and vistas, etc form an integral
part of the scenery which has influenced the historical
development of the site.
While large volumes of architectural and archaeological
documentation is available, a comprehensive and
consolidated study of the landscape components of Hampi
WHS are quite critically missing. Most of the scholarly and
professional work in the realm of landscape conservation in
the country has been done in and around individual historical
sites with distinct remains of past heritage; whether in the
form of palaces, churches, temples or even entire cities, but
invariably driven more by architectural rather than the natural
frameworks.
The real challenge of landscape documentation,
interpretation and analysis at Hampi is compounded
on several fronts; Hampi being an integral part of a living
landscape with villages, agricultural fields and pilgrimage
centers means that any intervention will not only have to
be faithful to the past but also remain equally sensitive to
contemporary demands. In addition, one has to contend with
the relatively new but increasignly important characteristic
that tourism has brought to the region.
The seemingly contradictory issues for preservation of the
physical environment, conservation of the cultural & visual
landscape, restoration of authentic setting of the site and
contemporary challenges need to be addressed in an
equitable and balanced manner.
Limitations
The landscape study has been conducted with its
own set of limitations - of both time and resources. It
assesses the main landscape forces that have shaped
the site and whose characteristics present specific
challenges in conjunction with the imperatives of
environment preservation, heritage conservation and
development needs. Due to the lack of primary data,
the following natural factors have been excluded from
the study (groundwater hydrology, climate, geology and
soil, fauna and flora patterns). The analysis of terrain
and watershed has been limited to the area where
contours lines were available.
The last section of the report suggest further research
with the intention of addressing the identified knowledge
gaps of the Vijayanagara Empire or issues related
to contemporary development issues which has not
attracted enough academic / policy attention.
Implementation process
Besides the assessment of the existing situation, the
landscape study should be considered as an essential
tool for long-term management of the area.
It is important to note that the landscape study is not a
statutory document but a sectoral analysis and as such
should be integrated and reflected in the revised Master
Plan and other statutory documents, so as to ensure
its legal recognition and thereby the implementation of
guidelines and measures.This is one way to ensure that
decisions made through planning process will minimize
the otherwise negative impacts on the landscape
characteristics of the region.
By integrating the conclusions of this study into the
revised Master Plan, landscape will no longer be
envisaged as a collection of random patterns but as an
inclusive field that physically and socially shapes the
site. It strongly implies the establishment of specific
guidelines to ensure a continuity between the past and
present landscapes, respecting the intrinsic qualities of
the site.
Protected Areas
Hampi WHS
Villages Boundaries
Hampi WHS
River Tungabhadra
Virupaksha Temple
Anjanadri Hill
Krishna Temple
Achyutapura Bazaar
Virupaksha Bazaar
10
Historical Development
Sacred center
12
Urban Core
13
14
Rocky hillocks
Mandapa
Tungabhadra River
Coracle
17
Section 4: Biodiversity
75
Hills Areas
Quarrying Activities
Zoom Sacred Centre: Relief and Watershed Analysis
18
20
22
77
78
26
79
28
83
33
Water Network
Zoom Vitthala Precint
Irrigation system and canal performance
Flood risk
Development along the river bank & contemporary challenges
34
36
42
46
48
50
52
Section 3: Agriculture
57
59
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
84
86
90
94
96
98
100
102
104
105
106
107
Landscape Characteristics
O1
Terrain & Hydrology
Understanding the relationship between natural
environment and historical development of Hampi requires
a detailed assessment of the relief characteristics of the
larger landscape.
The first section aims at highlighting the topographic
and hydrologic profile of the area. With this intention,
the hills have been mapped at the Hampi World
Heritage Area level to ensure their preservation from
non-compatible development. Also, quarries and
mining areas are identified and located to assess the
threats for the world heritage area in terms of land
degradation, pollution and negative impacts to the
larger landscape character.
So as to demonstrate the process and by focusing
on a smaller area, analysis of the contour lines allows
us to outline the relief and its characters (elevation,
slopes, edges, etc). Such an assessment and
understanding of the terrain is critical in interpretation
of both the natural and the man-made heritage of the
region so as to better define effective conservation
measures.
Based on topographic features, hydrologic analysis
studies the natural movement of water. Watershed
and catchments are mapped to better understand the
water flows and its distribution.
The Digital Terrain Model of the area and its
3-dimension views clearly reveal how the builders
of Vijayanagara worked in tandem with the larger
landscape systems to sustain the city with minimal
impact on the natural environment.
17
Hills areas
The primary geographic phenomenon marking
peninsular India is the Deccan Plateau, deemed as one
of the most stable landmasses in the world and bound
by two mountain ranges the Western Ghats (also
known as Sahyadris) and the Eastern Ghats along its
western and
eastern edges respectively.
Management Plan)
Recommendations
Soil characters
The most prevalent soil in the area is reddish sandy loam
found on the banks of river Tungabhadra, while reddish brown
soil occurs at the fringes of hills due to the decomposition of
rocks. However black cotton soil also occurs in the area. The
black soils of the Tunghabadra region are 0.6 -1.2 metre deep,
heavy in texture with 45 to 50% clay and contain free calcium
carbonate throughout the profile. There is generally a zone of
salt concentration in the soil profile at a depth of 0.4 - 0.9 metre,
the principal salt being gypsum. Below the gypsum layer occurs
murrum which is practically impermeable to water.
When a land on a ridge is irrigated, the salt accumulates either
in the slope or in the valley. The salt consists largely of sulphate
which usually indicates that they arise from the gypsum layer of
the soil. As pointed out, the murrum below the gypsum layer
is impermeable so that the internal drainage of the soil is lateral
rather than vertically down within the profile.
(Gazetter-Bellary District)
18
Hills Areas
Hampi WHS
Core Zone
Other Roads
District Road
State Highway
Water
Monuments
Hills
Settlements
N
19
Quarrying Activities
The hills of the region around Hampi are rich in iron ore and
manganese and are now subject to intensive quarrying.
Some of these quarries are located well within the core zone
of the Hampi WHS (refer to the map). Environmental impacts
(water pollution, loss of biodiversity, air pollution, noise, etc)
due to these activities pose a major threat for the existing
natural landscape. Of special concern is the vibration from
these actitivites that poses a serious risk to the structural
stability of heritage structures.
Visual linkages to
Gejjala Mandapa
and Vitthala Bazaar
Extension of quarries
areas in the other side
of the road
Recommendations
Fig: View from Malyavanta Hill: Quarries area which are increasing and that compromise the
visual linkages to Gejjala Mandapa and Vitthala Bazaar
20
3
4
Quarries
Hampi WHS
Core Zone
Water
Monuments
Hills
Quarries
Settlements
N
21
Matanga Hill
Vitthala Precinct
Achyutapura Precinct
Achyutapura Precinct
Hampi
Tungabhadra River
Elevation with graduate colors ramp
Krishnapura Temple
Matanga Hill
22
23
Matanga Hill
Achyutapura Precinct
Matanga Hill
Pushkarani
Krishnapura Temple
Vitthala Temple
Pushkarani
Vitthala Bazaar
Monuments
Water tanks
Natural water movements
Heritage Precincts
Water tanks
Watershed
Contours lines
25
Guidelines
Recommendations
26
BEST PRACTICE
From Poverty to Plenty,
the village of Ralegan Siddhi
The region in which the village of Ralegan Siddhi in
Maharashtra was located was completely devastated
by the prolonged drought in the early 1970s. As most
of the farming in the region is rainfed, no rain meant no
work for farmers even as daily wage agricultural labour.
Degradation of the natural resource base resulted in
lack of fodder and loss of cattle. People lost faith in the
government beacuse the percolation tank built by the
concerned government department had failed to retain
water.
An attempt to initiate water conservation measure
was initiated by an NGO but remained unsuccessful
because the village was divided by conflict due to social
and political affiliations, made worse by the rampant
alcoholism.
The process of change was initiated by Anna Hazare
with a first step to eradicate alcoholism and unify the
village. He suggested that the villagers get together and
work towards getting the percolation tank repaired. The
villagers applied to the district authorities for additional
funding. The success of this venture restored faith in
villagerscapacities to help themselves.
Following the success of the percolation tank, farmers
decided to undetake watershed development and revive
the ecosystem through soil and water conservation
methods, pasture development and afforestation.
Four micro-watersheds have been regenerated , Local
committee have been set up to monitor and manage
each aspect of development, for management of
natural resources, as well as for social and educational
development. Collective decisions are taken for
management of water resources, the crops to be grown
and how the water is to be utilised.
Springs of life, Indias Water Resources
BEST PRACTICE
Paani Yaatra
(Water Pilgrimage)
Neembi, a village in the district of Jaipur, Rajasthan was
praised for its outstanding management of rainwater and
water conservation at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in Johannesburg in August 2002.
It all began when Rajendra Singh, the rainwater catcher
of India (Magsasay Award Winner) took the villagers on
a paani yaatra (water tour) to another village where the
villagers had built small traditional earthen check dams
called johads, which enabled re-charging of ground
water.
27
Guidelines
Guidelines
Recommendations
The process undertaken to generate a DIgital Terrain Model requires a highcomputerized capacity. It would be diffilcult to apply the same process for the entire
WHS as a whole. Rather, the creation of a TIN and the Digital Terrain Model should be
used to focus on specific areas.
In this perspective, it is important, before impletmenting it, to assess in which area this
process shall be undertaken, what are the existing issues, what are the data looked
for, how these data will be used, etc.
Contour lines
Elevation
Slopes
29
Guidelines
30
Vitthala Bazaar
Ceremonial Pavilion
32
O2
Water Resources
Habitation in a semi-arid environment like the Hampi
HWA would not have been possible without the
development of a perennial source of water. The
present analysis which encompasses the issues of
availability, accessibility and sustainability constitutes
a critical step towards a better management of water
resources.
The main issues of concern in the area include the
conservation of existing water features by rejuvenating
and preserving traditional water bodies as well as
irrigation systems. Prevention of degradation and
depletion and enhancement of water availability
through rainwater management constitutes an
additional challenge.
From this perspective, location and contextual
importance of surface water features such as river,
lakes, reservoirs, canals, etc are identified. Traditional
water systems bear ample testimony to the excellent
engineering skills and geographical knowledge of the
builders of Vijayanagara. For instance, the analysis
of Vittala Precinct and its water systems clearly
demonstrates the ingenious networks implemented
over 500 years ago.
The study of irrigation systems, both ancient and
modern, forms a critical part of this section in order to
understand and articulate the pattern of contemporary
demands.Impacts of construction of the Tunghabadra
Dam on the hydrological profile of the area have been
included in the irrigation assessment.
Even though the area is characterised as a semiarid environment, it is also prone to floods. By
concentrating the analysis on the floods of 2007 and
2009, the issue of vulnerability has been examined so
as to better address and mitigate flood risk.
Example of the Water Canals developed during the Vijayanagar Period connecting different sources of water
Queens Bath
Queens Bath
Laxmi Narasimha
33
Lotus Mahal
Saraswati
Temple
Mahanavami Dibba
Octagonal
Bath
Water Network
34
Modern canals
Ancient canals
(Kaluve)
River
Monuments
Hills
University
Developed
35
36
37
38
39
The detention pond, behind the western Bazaar Street, located at the foothills towards the North-East of the Pushkarani
The minor detention ponds and channels act as recharge structures for the constructed wells
Water performance A
Well
Pushkarani
40
41
42
Kamalapura
Tank
Dam
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hiriya Anicut
44
Irrigation Supply
Hampi WHS
Modern canals
Ancient canals
Water
Monuments
Hills
University
Developed
45
Flood risk
In the State of Karnataka, more than 70% of the
annual rainfall happens during the South-West
Monsoon within a short period. Flood risk has
also increased as climate changes accelerate.
While the pictures show the impact of floods in
2007, the map highlights the river area after the
flood occurence in 2009. During the 2009 flood,
the river area has increased by 81%, affecting
more than 277 survey numbers in 14 different
villages in the Hampi WHS (HWHAMA source).
August 2007
46
Core Zone
River after
flood
River before
flood
Monuments
Developed
Areas
University
47
Traditional profile of the river bank where boulders drive and contain water flow
Boulders
River
Boulders
River
Boulders
River
1. Section of the river at Hampi Bazaar highlighting the impact of the recent steps on the natural profile of the river
2. View from the Virupapura Island towards the recent ghats and Virupaksha Temple
S.Settar
4. View from Anegundi: the river bank should be kept in its original form without any construction and development
48
Contemporary challenges
The level of ground water in the town of Kamalapura has
been observed by the State Department of Mining and
Geology, Ground Water Division. Though not critical, the
level of ground water in Kamalapura has shown a variation of
close to two metre between 1997 and 2005.
3.11 3.05
3.70
3.56
Lack of
recharge &
rainwater
harvesting
Depletion of Ground
Water Ressources
Over
Exploitation
of ground
water
Inequity in water
distribution
Lack of
maintenance &
restoration of
water bodies
Causes
Lack of efficient
municipal
sewage
Massive use
of chemical
fertilizers &
pesticides
Waste/
Garbage
Dumping
Environmental Pressures
Reduction of water
availability for
irrigation
Obstruction and
Degradation of traditional
water bodies and systems
Deterioration of
surface and ground
water quality
Impacts
Failure of wells
Floods along
downstream
49
Water-borne
diseases
Vulnerability of
livestok
Land degration
Discharge of
(e.g. due to mining
industrial
activities)
effluents
Pollution
Decline in
agriculture
productivity
Siltation of
water bodies
Biodiversity
loss
Guidelines
Prevent pollution
Recommendations
All water features like rivers, reservoirs, lakes, seasonal
stream beds and wetlands should be protected,
maintained and enhanced in capacity. This is critical
from the long-term ecological well-being of the region
as also to address the infrastructural needs for
development.
Most water features in the Hampi Region are severely
threatened due to a combination of encroachment,
catchment alteration, eutrophication and bad
management practices. An integrated management
strategy is urgently needed to ensure survival of
these critical natural resources in order to sustain the
development in the region in both short and long term.
- Integrate power lines, pylons and antennas in a manner that is non-obtrusive so as to preserve the authenticity of the heritage site and the visual quality of landscape
For reference, the main national and state waterrelated legislation includes the national Environment
(protection) Act-1996, the Karnakata Water (prevention
and control of pollution) Act-1974, Karnataka Ground
Water Act-1999, Karnataka Irrigation Act-1965, National
Water Policy and Karnataka State Water Policy, etc.
- All tourism related developments both public and private such as hotels, guest houses, resorts, restaurants,
etc should strictly adhere to the highest standards of
water conservation including recycling, waste water
treatment, disposal and drainage.
- Water conservation mechanisms should be retrofitted
in existing developments to the extent possible.
51
Guidelines
Guidelines
Recommendations
By focusing on the river bank within the core zone, it is
recommended tthat the folllowing are integrated within
the Hampi Master Plan:
- All new developments shall be planned in continuity
with existing settlements to pre-empt urban sprawl and
scattered urbanisation. While detailed land use plans
are defined at the village level, a consolidation of the
overall land use and its conservation policies needs to
be compiled at the Hampi WHS level to ensure clarity
and minimize opportunities for wrongful interpretation.
- No development and construction of any sort (either
permanent or temporary) shall be allowed within a band
of 100 meters from the high flood line on either bank
of the river as per the legal regulations. This boundary
needs to be clearly highlighted within the Hampi
Master Plan, especially for along Hampi and Anegundi
settlements.
- No Development shall be allowed on flood plains to
ensure adequate margins for water during flood events
and water releases from the Tunghabadra Dram. While
the last flood episode has been mapped in 2009, it is
critical to document and demarcate 10, 50 and 100 year
flood level projections.
Guidelines
Anegundi
Vitthala Precinct
Achyutapura
Precinct
Hampi
River before
flood
Existing Settlement
Monuments
Protected Areas
Conservation Area
A set back of 100 metres from the river bank should be marked in
the Master Plan specifically for Anegundi and Hampi villages. While
Protected areas (shown in green) allows agricultural use, conversion
to any other use should be strictly prohibited to preserve the visual
quality and the natural drainage patterns.
53
54
Irrigated Valley
Kamalapura Tank
Krishnapura Temple
and its Bazaar
Hiriya Kaluve
Known as Turtha Canal
56
O3
Agriculture
Agriculture which includes the activities of
cultivating soil, producing crops and raising
livestock constitutes the main economic base of
the Hampi WHS. Almost 33 % of the area of Hampi
WHS is documented as being under agricultural
use.
Besides shaping the landscape, agricultural
patterns also reflect the socio-economic profile of
the area. Hence, the present analysis encompasses
both the physical and social characteristics of the
area formed or influenced by agriculture.
The various agricultural zones of the site have
been mapped at the larger level by identifying
irrigated area, plantation area and current fallows.
While focusing on a smaller area, an analysis of
the cropping patterns including harvesting period,
water requirements, irrigation systems, visual
impacts, etc has been undertaken.
A part of the socio-economic survey recently
conducted by the Hampi Authority has been
interpreted in this section to address the interface
of physical environment and livlihood that includes
social patterns related to farming activities (land
holding, employment, irrigation, etc).
Traditional and modern practices and their impacts
on the environment are highlighted, forming the
background for the definition of policy guidelines.
57
58
Outside the City are fields and places richly cultivated with
wheat and gram and rice and millet, for this last is the grain
which is most consumed in the land; and next to it betel, which
is a thing that in the greater part of the country they always eat
and carry in the mouth
Everything has to be sold alive so that each one may know what
he buys - this at least so far as concerns game - and there are
fish from the river in large quantities. The markets are always
overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapesm oranges, limes,
pomegranates, jack-fruit, and mangoes, all very cheap.
Fernao Nuniz, 1535
59
60
Lack of
agricultural
diversity
Loss of traditional
agricultural patterns
Monotony in the visual
landscape
Decline in land
productivity
Increased
Decreased
disease risk agricultural yield
Increase of
pesticides and
fertilizers use
Loss of
farming income
Risk of water
and soil
contamination
Agriculture Areas
Hampi WHS
River/Canals
Monuments
Irrigated
Agriculture
Agricultural
Plantation
Current Fallow
University
Settlements
61
Shaped Landscape
Ecological impacts of agriculture
Landscape shaped by agriculture is structured by a
mosaic of natural and man-made patches whose size,
shape and spatial organisation vary. These landscape
patterns directly influence larger ecological systems in
terms of water runoff, erosion, soil nutrients, animals
movements, etc.
Analyses of these agricultural practices and the
manner in which they shape landscapes are critical
in understanding ecological dynamics and anticipate
changes that may cause irreversible damage to the
environmental balance.
The interconnection between landscape ecological
systems and agricultural land-use thus needs to be
established.
The agricultural landscape of Hampi is characterised by
small land holdings cultivated based on the network of
channel streams. Due to availability of water througout
the year, the whole agricultural ecosystem has become
extremely water-dependent. Keeping in mind the
increased demand of water for agriculture, industries
and domestic consumption, water security is bound
to become an very real threat in the coming years.
Despite the current efficiency of the irrigation supply,
it is critical to raise awareness amongst farmers and
understand the limits of water resources. As proposed
in the guidelines, an improved watershed management
will ensure a sustainable use of natural resources while
enhancing land productivity.
View of the agricultural field along the road between Kadirampura and Hampi
62
BEST PRACTICE
Making farmers matter And monitor, budget, manage and prosper
For the first time in India, farmers in Andra Pradesh
are starting to deal with drought by reducing their
demand rather than by pumping more and more
from deeper and deeper. The idea behind this project
is to monitor, demystify and thus better manage
groundwater.
The first task was to map the locality and define its
hydrological units, each of which is an area drained by
a single stream with one inlet and one oulet.
The farmers taking part in the project measure and
record rainfall, the water table, withdrawals and other
data for their land. They calculate how much water
will be available if the table is not to fall, decide which
crops to grow and estimate how much water they
will use, bearing in mind that about half will go in
evapotranspiration. They then sit down together in a
group and draw up a water budget.
Details of the eventual agreement showing who should
grow what and how are displayed in the village and
updated over the year with information about rain,
harvests and even revenues.
The Economist - May 2010
Matanga Hill
Hampi
Hampi Bazzar
Matanga Hill
Krishnapura
temple
Agricultural fields in
the Irrigated Valley
63
64
Landscape transition
Hampi WHS
Anegundi
Hampi
Kaddirampur
Kamalapur
Landscape
transition
Kondanayakanahalli
Malapanagudi
University
Main valleys
Water
Monuments
Hills
Quarries
Settlements
65
Indebtedness of farmers
Among the total respondents in Kamalapuram, 19%
of the loans are contracted for agricultural purposes.
In agriculture, debt can be taken to increase the
productivity of farming activities (purchase of materials)
or also to purchase pesticides and fertilisers.
39.4 % of farmers respondents in Kamalapuram spent
between 25 and 50 % of their land income in pesticides
and chemicals fertilizers. The most alarming data is that
27.3 % of the farmers respondents in Kamalapuram
spent more than their total land income in pesticides.
Indebtedness and failure to pay can also become
one of the important causes for farmerssuicides.
Farm households shall be enabled to diversify their
llivelihood activities through the development of nonfarm activities to secure their income and decrease
their vulnerability.
66
Source of the data: Socio-economic study in the Hampi World Heritage Site(on-going)
BEST PRACTICE
Marketing of Apple Juice - Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh has varied agro-climatic conditions suitable for the
development of horticulture. With apple crop that accounts for about
45 percent of the total area under fruit crops, the State is recognized as
the Apple State of India.The Himachal Pradesh Horticultural Produce
Marketing and Processing Corporation Ltd (HPMC) under the State
Government has introduced reforms in the field of fruit produce
marketing, processing, cold storing and export of fresh fruit and
processed fruit products.
By facilitating the marketing of apple and apple products (apple juice,
cider, apple wine) within the State, the HPMC has been leader in the
promotion of the State Local Products. Apple Juice and others products
are now sold in all tourists shops and facilities under the HPMC brand.
http://hpmc.nic.in/
67
Guidelines
Making agriculture sustainable by reducing the use of Pesticides and Chemicals Fertilisers
Context
Issues
In Karnataka, the average use of fertilizer is about 1011 kilograms/hectare which is less than the national
average of 18 kilgrams/hectare. However, the district of
Bellary in particular consumes the maximum amount of
fertilizers as rice and sugar cane are the major crops
cultivated in this district.
Potassium
1.436 tonnes
Nitrogenous
3,121 tonnes
Pesticides cycle
1
2
3
Phosphorous
1,443 tonnes
68
Use of
Pesticides and
Chemicals
Fertilisers
Decrease of
Agricultural
Yield
Land Degradation
Water and Soil
Contamination
Pest
Resurgence
BEST PRACTICE
Timbaktu Organic - Anantapur District
Anantapur District of Andra Pradesh is infamous for its droughts and farmer suicides. Agriculture here is largely
rainfed and over the years the land has become degraded by the excessive use of chemicals and continuous
groundnut mono-cropping.
Timbaktu Organic is a collaborative venture of Timbaktu Collective, a non-profit organisation, and Adisakthi MACS,
a rural womens cooperative society. It aims at reversing the monocropped ground nut and chemical inputs based
farming system into a diversified organic inputs based system, simultaneously impacting the health of the soil,
environment and the farmers.
Village level farmer groups anchor the organic farming work including activities such as field selection, training,
organic inputs mobilisation, documentation of organic practices adopted, mid and end-season review, etc.
Farmers are now using neem, cow urine and dung, garlic and chilli extract, farmyard manure, compost, tank silt,
biofertilisers, mechanical picking, grow border and trap crops. They adopt mixed cropping and crop rotation as
methods to control, prevent pests and diseases and to enhance soil fertility. No chemicals are used anymore during
growing, procurement, storage, processing and packing of the produce.
Recommendations
While encouraging traditional agricultural practices, it
is equally important to increase awareness regarding
sustainable agricultural practices.
Related Authorities
* Make agriculture sustainable by using
bio-pesticides and organic fertilisers
Preventives measures need to be undertaken to
gradually decrease the use of chemicals fertilisers and
pesticides and promote the bio-pesticides and organic
fertilisers.
One of the great opportunity would be the use of
organics, farm yard manure, compost and biofertlizers
as nutrient. Up to 50% of the fertilizer use could be
replaced with the use of farm yard manure / compost
in a variety of soils. Use of organic manures not only
reduces the use of chemical fertilizers substantially but
also provides primary and secondary nutrients. The
use of compost and farm manure also improve the
soilsphysical condition and crop yields on a long-term
basis. It also improves the moisture holding capacity of
soils. It can also help to reduce the salinity of soil.
Compost of organic waste is usually organised at
the individual level but it could have greater impact if
planned at the Panchayat or Gram Panchayat level.
Such initiative could be partnered with tourism facilities.
hotels and restaurants which generate large quantities
of organic waste.
69
Guidelines
Guidelines
Recommendations
*Sustain farmerslivelihood
Heritage preservation should not, in any case, impact
farming livelihood by forbidding farmers to grow
crops. If an agricultural area is identified as impacting
heritage precint, negotiation and discussion should
be initiated with farmers to ensure they will continue
to be engaged in gainful employment in their
traditional sectors.
Context
Recommendations
Issues
Given tourism and development pressures, the existing
unity of landscape may be compromised by the
development of dispersed buildings. Indeed, much of
the scattered tourism development may be attracted
to agricultural lands whose physical characteristics are
generally excellent for building and benefit from nice
views and vistas. Allowing tourism facilities such as
hotels or guest houses in remote areas will disturb the
existing balance between agricultural and habitation
areas.
Existing settlment
Tourism facilities
Scattered farms and
individual houses
71
Guidelines
72
Mango Tree
Mantapa
River edge
74
O4
Biodiversity
Definition & Purposes
Habitat destruction
Recommendation
Recommendation
76
Environmental Pollution
Eutrophication
Recommendation
Recommendation
Recommendation
77
Guidelines
Preserve the ecological sensitive areas like the Virupapuragadda Island and the river
edge
Context
Issues
Due to its obvious aesthetic and natural values
(calmess, proximity with the river edge and the
monuments, visual quality, etc), Virupapuragadda
island has been hot-bed of uncontrolled tourism
development, specially so in the last five years.
For instance, as highlighted during the tourism survey
conducted by HCIC, TargetEuro in 2009, the island
houses now:
24 accomodations with 381 rooms and 702 beds,
35 restaurants,
26 shops.
Recommendations
Keeping in mind the above issues, it becomes critical to
ensure the development on the Virupapuragadda Island
does not overtake its natural carrying capacity.
In order to significantly reduce the rate of biodiversity
loss there is a critical imperative to address the
conservation challenges of Virupapuragadda
biodiversity.
In a more optimistic perspective, islands such as
the Virupapuragadda one, provide an opportunity to
enforce preservation and prevention programs relatively
easier due to its small size and isolation.
In this context, it is recommended to make sensitive
ecological areas like the Virupapuragadda island and
the river edge as reserve area non-suitable for any
kind of development, construction or activity. These
ecologically sensitive areas should be preserved for
posterity as natural and cultural treasures that would
otherwise be easily lost forever.
The identification of Viruppapugadda island as
a reserve area will help combat invasive species
introduced there and promote the natural regeneration
of endemic species.
The implementation of such regulation can succeed
only if the local needs are understood and addressed
adequately. It is critical that local communities who have
traditionally depended on the islands resources are not
deprived of their livelihood.
Besides addressing biodiversity, such regulation will be
efficient only if resettlement of inhabitants and activities
are enabled through an integrated consultation process.
Recommendations
Context
Issues
79
Guidelines
80
Purandara mantapa
Tungabhadra River
82
O5
Spatial Organisation
Spatial organisation refers to the arrangement of
physical objects and settlements within a specific
area. For the purpose of this study, the analysis
of spatial organisation focuses on the built fabric
and its relationship to the natural environment.
The analysis of the physical organisation of some
major precincts developed during Vijaynagar
Period provides us an opportunity to examine the
linkages between natural and built environment.
Understanding historical development and its
inter-dependence with the natural environment
is invaluable in arriving at a framework that
effectively addresses contemporary requirements
and challenges.
For instance, Pattabhirama Precinct which is
located on the East of Kamalapura town poses
several critical challenges that forces proposals
and solutions that addresses the issues of local
development and heritage preservation in a
comprehensive manner.
Royal Enclosure
Spatial Organisation
The fortified area had been the seat of power of the
Vijayanagara empire. Sprawling over many hundreds square
metres, this fortified area is scattered with a number of
interesting relics. The Royal Centre occupies the western end
of the Urban Core. The roughly ovoid zone, narrower to the
Southwest and opening to northeast is contained within its
own arc of fort walls, though these are no longer complete.
Large gateways leading into the Royal Centre stand to the
east, now forlorn in the middle of the fields. The Royal Centre
is where the Vijayanagara kings and their private households
lived and conducted the daily business of ceremony and
government. A good deal of the zone is subdivided into
irregular interlocking compounds by high slender walls built
of tightly fitted granite blocks that face a rubble core.
The Hazara Rama temple, which served as a royal chapel,
is the hub of the enclosures of the Royal Centre. One of the
principal roads of the city that runs to the northeast from the
temple, through a gateway in the enclosure wall, is lined with
lesser shrines.
The compound southeast of the Hazara Rama temple
is linked with the public and ceremonial life of the
Vijayanagara kings. Here can be seen the basement of an
extensive audience hall. There are 100 stone footings for
columns, presumably made of timber, than have long ago
disappeared. The nearby multi-storeyed Great Platform,
popularly associated with the Mahanavami festival stands
nearby. Its lowest granite stages are covered with animated
reliefs protraying the life of the Vijayanagar kings. A stepped
tank immediately to the south, and other nearby bathing
places, were probably used on particular festival occasions.
A short distance to the southeast of this enclosure stands the
queensbath, probably intended for the amusement of the
Vijayanagara king and his courtiers. Built in a quasi-islamic
style characteristic of Vijayanagara courtly architecture, it has
an ornate interior arcade with balconies running around a
sunken square pool.
Immediately outside this enclosure are the Elephant Stables.
These comprise a long line of eleven chambers roofed by
alternating vaults and domes in a distinct islamic style. These
face west onto an open ground where troops and animals
would have paraded. On the north side of the parade ground
is a building with a high arcaded porch and an interior court,
possibly used to view military displays in front and martial
entertainments such as wrestling and boxing matches inside
(Fritz and G. Michell)
.
Fig: Plan and picture of the spatial organisation of the Royal Enclosure
84
Fig: Plan of the spatial organisation Virupaksha, Krishnapura and Achyutraya Precincts /
Picture from Matanga Hill towards Krishnapura and Virupaksha complexes
85
Pattabhirama Precinct
Historical Linkages
View of the Domed Gateway with a minor irrigation channel on the left - The visual and physical linkages between the
gateway and the temple complex have been compromised by the wild vegetation
86
Pattabhirama Precinct
Modern disjunctions
Quarrying activities on hills in close proximity to the temple complex, which threaten the integrity of the site while
endangering the remains of the ancient fortification wall.
View of well in the fields between the Pushkarni and the Domed Gateway, expected to be part of the system of water
bodies of the complex
Despite the significance of the complex, unchecked
modern constructions close to the site, compromising
both the visual and historical linkages of the precincts.
The construction of the modern tank and canals after the
realisation of the Tunghabadra Dam has been followed
by development of the power colony to the North-East
of the site. Furthermore, the growth of Kamalapura town
leads to the development of new urban area towards the
East.
The most threatening issue is the activity of quarries at a
close proximity to the ancient wall and the precinct.
87
Pattabhirama Precinct
Boundaries of Protection
As shown on the map, monuments which come under
the Archaoelogical Survey of India are protected by
a primary ring of 100 metres where development is
prohibited and a secondary ring of 300 metres where
development is regulated.
Despite the definition of protection boundaries,
evidence - as demostrated above - shows that
development surrounding the monuments cannot be
so easily regulated. Furthermore, if the conservation
is restricted to the perimeters of protected
monuments, it confines the work to the mere
protection and restoration of the historic building.
Such an approach results in a lack of integration of
the monument within its larger context.
If handled only as an object, the protected area is
disconnected from its spatial context, compromising
both the conservation and interpretation approach.
Indeed, the way temples are located in relation with
their natural environment and urban settlements
and the manner in which people engage with these
precincts is integral to the character of heritage.
The establishment of protection boundaries based
on monuments alone severely compromises the
visual and physical linkages which are not integrated
in the interpretation process. By distinguishing
between tangible and intangible components and by
disconnecting them from its spatial context, heritage
loses its real meaning.
View of the Northern edge of the Pattabhirama temple precinct, seen from the edge of the coconut farm. Also seen is the undulating grounds where the coconut plantation is
present. The short stone wall runs along the metal barbed wire fenced which is to be removed after establishing the linkage between the temple and the Pushkarni.
88
Proposed land use surrounding the Pattabhirama Precinct - Hampi Master Plan
Pattabhirama Precinct
Articulation between Heritage Preservation
and Development needs
The analysis of the Pattabhirama Precinct brings
to the fore the constant conflict between issues
and demands of conservation and development,
typically seen as being mutually exclusive.
As most interventions in terms of heritage
protection are centered on monument and its
dedicated perimeter of protection which has often
nothing to do with the monument in terms of
interpretation, it leads to the lack of recognition of
the site surrounding the monument.
To balance the imperative of heritage preservation
and development needs, heritage shall not be
interpreteted merely through a building reading
but also as system that can be adapted to suit and
inform contemporary conditions in the territory in
which its placed. If not, the process of conservation
results in creating enclaves of protection and
conservation of heritage leaving huge gaps in the
development fabric.
The challenge is therefore to articulate, in a
comprehensive manner, all aspects of heritage
within its spatial context. This would then require,
to begin with, a broader definition of heritage
(connecting aspects of the built, natural and living
history) to be appropriated within the local context.
View of the water channel running in front of the Domed Gateway, feeding into the stream which runs along the high
stone wall
89
Guidelines
Kamalapuram Tank
While being a living heritage site, regulations shall definitely not compromise
inhabitantsneeds and shall rather provide them with the sufficient facilities and
infrastructure. However, infrastructure such as new roads, building developments, farming
activities may obstruct physical and visual linkages and compromise the visual quality as
well as vistas / views.
The following map highlights the status of the main views around Kamalapura Tank and
Hampi. Some of them, as shown in the images, have already been disturbed. It is critical to
ensure that any manner of new development / interventions do not compromise the overall
visual quality of the site.
The following guidelines should be applied to maintain the vistas and long distance views in
the area:
Forbid all kind of development in the hills areas and protect boulders from destructions :
Traditionnally no construction happened on the top of hills. It is imperative to maintain the
hills as non buildable area, even for tourism and leisure purposes.
Kamalapuram
Tank
No quarrrying activities in the Hampi WHS: This includes minerals, ores, rocks, sand,
etc.
Protect the existing skyline by limiting the height of constructions for both old and new
constructions and for both permanent and temporary structures.
Preserve the river edge and water bodies with a non constructible buffer zone : no
construction shall be allowed along the river banks and water bodies and wild scenery
should be preserved to maintained visual quality and biodiversity,
Forbid constructions that will interfere with the historical visual linkages between two
monuments or two precincts.
Integrate electrical lines, pylons and antennas so as to not disturb the view of heritage
precincts,
Street lighting and lighting of monuments and heritage places should be designed in a
manner the enriches the visual appeal rather than as an exercise in powerful illumination,
rendering them harsh and insensitive, as several examples on site so amply demonstrate.
Locate tourism amenities in a manner to minimize / reduce their visual impacts (scale
and design shall be defined in order to limit their visual impacts)
90
3
Virupapuggada
Island
7
Virupaksha
Temple
Hemakuta
Hill
Hampi Bazaar
11
10
6
3
5
8 Krishnapura
Matanga
Hill
temple
91
Guidelines
New development
Construction
at the foothill
of Matanga,
whose scale
and design
obstruct the
visual linkage
between the
hill and the
Krishnapura
tank.
Towards Kaddirampur
10
Quarries
Quarrying activities happening in the site and its proximity which severely compromises the vistas
From Hemakuta Hill
92
Extensive quarrying
activities happening
between Bellary and
Hospet: monitoring
and regulations
must ensure such
extensive activities
are not allowed in the
Hampi WHS and its
immediate vicinity.
Seen either at the immediate proximity of the monuments or from a very long
distance, the presence of electrical lines and antennae are disturbing the overall
visual quality and obstructing the open landscape.
With an average height between 15 to 25 meters, the integration of the electrical
lines, pylons and antennae constitutes a critical issue to be resolved in a
comprehensive manner, to ensure both conservation of heritage as well as meeting
local needs.
On a medium and short-term perspective, infrastructure program should ensure that
the electrical lines are drawn underground.
11
Lighting
Signage
Tourism Amenities
Abuse
93
Guidelines
Guidelines
Context
Issues
94
Topography
Spatial Organisation
Physical Linkages
Drainage Pattern
* Identification and understanding of water movements
and drainage systems that supplement historical water
bodies,
* Identification of obstacles that obstruct the natural
water drainage and compromise the functioning of
historical water bodies,
* Watershed protection to prevent soil erosion, siltation
of water bodies, etc in order to regenerate historical
water bodies,
Visual Linkages
Water Network
* Identification and location of historical water bodies
and their connection with monuments and precincts,
* Understanding the role of water bodies in their
upstream and downstream context,
* Integration of the historical water systems with the
contemporary uses and demands,
* Prevention of pollution that may affect the water
bodies and the whole network.
Access
Vegetation
* Definition of the vegetative matrix to highlight non
native species,
* Identification of natural features that are related to
historical monuments or temples (e.g. trees),
* Redevelopment of vegetation characteristics and
species native to the region as per the ecological
setting and the historical records,
* Re-establishment of ancient gardens and groves
as per historical testimony.
95
Guidelines
Guidelines
Context
Recommendations
The Hampi Master Plan has to provide sitespecific locations earmarked for necessary urban
development while protecting natural resources, such
as rocky hillocks, water bodies, agricultural areas,
visual corridors, etc. If growth is properly directed,
development and natural resources will not come into
conflict. If it is not, neither goal (i.e. encouraging urban
development and conservation of natural resrouces)
can be achieved. Therefore, planning documents and
urban development policies should not be independent
of natural and landscape characters but in fact, should
reflect the terrain in all development plans.
Issues
Topography
Does the proposed development impact the rocky
terrain physically or visually?
Is it compatible with the topographic constraints?
What are the visual impacts?
Will the location / siting cause problems with
service lines, roads etc, due to difficult slopes?
Will the proposed development increase soil
erosion?
Heritage
Hydrology
Does the proposed development impact the
watershed ? Will it obstruct the natural water drainage
route ?
Will it efect the regional / local drainage patterns?
Is it located in a flood prone area ?
What are the proposed measures to manage /
harvest rain water?
Will it generate pollution that may contaminate
surface and ground water?
Infrastructure
How accessible is the proposed site /
development?
Will the generated traffic disturb the environment
in terms of pollution, noise, volume of traffic, etc?
Are parking places properly integrated?
How will solid waste be managed ?
Is the existing water supply sufficient for the
project ?
Is there an option to use renewable energy? What
is the visual impact of such options? (e.g. solar
panels)
Social integration
Urban Morphology
Is the new development compatible with existing
morphology ?
Does the proposed development follow local
architecture / building traditions?
Can local construction materials be encouraged?
What are the aesthetic / visual impacts of the
proposed development on the surrounding?
97
Guidelines
Guidelines
Urban Morphology
Visual Quality
Vegetation and Open-Spaces
- Open space networks should be designed to connect
natural corridors and existing green spaces
- Strict monitoring of invasive and non-native species,
- Vegetation should be proactively promoted for its
bioremediation properties including arresting silt,
absorbing pollutants and reducing run-off velocity
Heritage
Socio-economic aspects
98
To Hampi
Guidelines
Royal
Enclosure
Zone 1
Satellite image
Kaddirampura
Village
Zone 2
Mohammadan
Tombs
Topography
Guidelines
Recommendations
Guidelines
Kaddirampura as an illustration:
Three Tombs
Encroachment
Encroachment
Encroachment
Kaddirampura Village
Only the three main monuments are visited due to their accessibility and
better visibility. The rest of the area is not developed enough to attract tourists.
Development of connections between elements (e.g. stone paths between
monuments) would enhance the knowledge and exploration of the site while
respecting its authenticity and integrity. Gardens / plantations with traditional
vegetation remains to be developed despite evidences about ancient garden on
the inscription.
This large open area is difficult to manage without using strong barricades, since
encroachments are already rampent at the entry of the site. It will be important to
protect the site with some barriers to prevent misuse / abuse of the precint. The
protection with barriers does not aim at restricting the access to the precinct but
at demarcating the heritage area from its surrounding. It is equally important to
make thi heritage a part of the settlement, integrating the site with its surrounding
living areas. Articulation between heritage and development will ensure the right
balance is found between local requirements and conservation efforts.
101
Guidelines
Recommendations
Guidelines
Guidelines
Recommendations
It is critical to structure and streamline the process
of collection and disposal of all forms of wastes,
special attention being paid to sites in and around the
monuments as well as sensitive ecological and natural
areas.
Action plans should address both the regional level to
regulate the location of waste disposal and local level to
ensure that all individuals / user groups are well aware of
their environmental responsibility.
BEST PRACTICE
Himachal Pradesh,
A plastic bag free State
The Indian States of Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim,
which depend on tourism for revenue, strictly enforce
bans on plastic bags and even fine shopkeepers if any
are found on their premises.
KidsRgreen Website
Initiative from the Centre for Environment Education
Recommendations
105
Guidelines
BEST PRACTICE
Vijayanagara Metropolis
Biodiversity
106
Site Presentation
The manner and order that the visitors will access
different heritage precincts greatly influences the quality
and content as well as their understanding of the site.
With increasing tourist inflow, it is critical to create
and organise tourists circuits, arrival point of visitors,
their pause and stop points, etc, This is to ensure
the monuments are explored in the right hierarchy,
imparting the right understanding to the visitor without
compromising the authenticity of the site.
Visitor Management
Based on a Site Presentation Strategy, tourism
movement needs to be planned at a larger level in
close conjunction with the environment, heritage
preservation and the living settlements. Internal roads
and movements within and between precincts and the
relevant location of tourism facilities (toilets, drinking
water, etc) need to to be clearly defined and mapped.
Disaster Management
The recent floods in 2007 and 2009 have revealed
the flood vulnerability of the area. A proper Disaster
Management should be commissioned to address
flood risk (including the risk of water release from the
TB Dam), define mitigation measures for both living
settlements and monuments as well as integrate early
warning systems.
Bibliography
Related to the Vijayanagara Empire