Module1:GoalsandCurriculumFrameworksforMediaLiteracyInstruction

Thiscourseisdesignedtohelpyouteachmedialiteracyinyourclassroom.Itis
designedtohelpyouachievethefollowingobjectives,objectivesthatwillbeaddressedinthe
differentmodulesinthiscourse.
understanddifferenttheoreticaljustificationsoffilm,television,mediastudy.Becausemedia
studiesisoftenmarginalizedinschoolcurriculum,youwillneedtobeabletojustifyteaching
mediastudiesintheclassroom,thefocusofthisfirstmodule.
useofamedialab/webbasedapproachtofilm,television,mediastudy.Oneapproachto
learningtocriticallyanalyzethemediaistotransformtheclassroomintoamedialabinwhich,
asinachemistrylab,dissectandcriticallyanalyzemediatextsads,filmclips,TVprogram
clips,websites,magazines,newspapers,etc.Bybringinginandworkingwiththesetextsinto
theclassroom,theylearntoemployvariouspracticesinvolvedincriticallyanalyzingtexts.
understandandcritiquetheusesandimpactofdigitalmedialiteracies,particularlytheInternet.
OneofthemostimportantnewmediatoolsistheInternet.Studentsneedtobeabletostand
backandcriticallyexaminetheirownparticipationontheInternet,aswellashowvariousdigital
literaciesarechangingsociety,forexample,howonlinechatisshapingsocialrelationships.
Throughhavingstudentsparticipateintheirownonlineexchangesaspartofyourcourse,you
canthenusethatparticipationtohavethemreflectontheidentities,socialrelationships,stances,
andattitudestheyadoptthroughtheirparticipation.
understandthepurposefortheuseofdifferentfilm/videotechniquesandtechniquesfor
teachingthesetechniquestostudents;criticallyanalyzetheaestheticaspectsof
film/television/videoproduction.Inordertocriticallyanalyzemediarepresentations,students
needtohavesomeunderstandingofeffectiveusesofproductiontechniquestoexamine,for
example,theusesoffastcuttingintelevisionads,asameansofassigningcertainmeaningstoa
product.Studentscanbestlearnfilm/videotechniquesthroughtheirownproductions
employingnewdigitalproductiontechniques.
understandandapplydifferentcriticalapproachestostudyingmedia:aesthetic,semiotic,genre,
mythic,poststructuralist,psychological,discourseanalysis,culturalstudies,Marxist,feminist,
andpostcolonial.Students,particularlythoseatthehighschoollevel,needtolearndifferent
approachestocriticallyanalyzingmediatexts.Thesedifferentcriticalapproachesprovide
studentswithinsightsintohowmediatextsreflectandinfluencesocialandculturalpractices.
Forexample,applyingapostcolonialperspectivehelpsstudentsunderstandtheWesternbias
inherentinmediarepresentationsofAfrica,theMideast,andAsia.
demonstratetheabilitytoconductcriticalanalysesofmediarepresentation,invitedstances,

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valueassignments,andgenrecharacteristics.Mediarepresentssocialandculturalpracticesin
waysthatreflectideologicalandculturalorientations.Representationsofgender,class,and
raceinthemediaoftenreflecttraditionalwhite,maleideologicalconstructionsofgender,class,
andrace.WesternmediarepresentationsofAfrican,Mideastern,andAsiansocietiesportray
thesesocietiesasbackward,uncivilized,andunsophisticatedrelativetoEuropeanorAmerican
valuesystems.Unpackingtheideologicalassumptionsandbiasesbehindtheserepresentations
providesstudentswithamorecomplexunderstandingoftheirworld.
understandvariousgenreconventionsconstitutingfilmandtelevisiongenresconstituting
prototypicalroles,settings,storylines,conflicts,themes,andvalueassumptions.Understanding
thegenreconventionshelpsstudentslearntocritiquetheeffectivenessinemployinggenre
features,aswellastheideologicalperspectivesunderlyinggenres,forexample,thewaysin
whichcrime/detectivegenresreflectaneyeforaneyeconservativeperspectiveoncrime.
understandandstudywaysinwhichaudiencesconstructthemeaningofmediatextsthrough
specificsocialpracticeswithinspecificculturalcontexts,forexample,thewaysinwhich
participantsinonlinechatroomsconstructtheiridentitiesandstatusthroughtheirlanguageuse
andknowledgeofthenormsoperatinginthechatroom.
understandthewaysinwhichpopularmusicandmusiciansachieveemotionalandcultural
appealandpopularity,particularlyintermsofaudiencesownmusictastes,knowledgeof
specificmusicgenresandthehistoryofthosegenres,andautobiographicalexperienceswith
music.
understandandcritiqueprintandtelevisionnewspresentationandanalysisofnews,
particularlyintermsoftheirobjectivity,depthofcoverage,andcontextualizingofnewsevents
intermsofbackgroundhistorical,economic,andpoliticalperspectives.
understandandcritiquedocumentariesintermsoftheirobjectivity,accuracy,multiple
perspectives,useofinterviews,andediting;recognizesdifferencesbetweentraditionaland
cinemaveritedocumentaryconventionsandphilosophy.
understandtheeconomicandconsumerforcesshapingcommercialmediaandtheimpactofthe
increasingconsolidationofmediaownershipbycorporateconglomeratesonthecontentand
distributionofmediatexts.
developinstructionalactivitiesandcurriculumthatinvolvestudentsinrespondingtoand
criticallyanalyzingmediatexts;developmethodsforhelpingstudentsdefinesimilaritiesand
differencesbetweentheexperiencesofdifferenttypesofmedia,aswellasintertextual
connectionsbetweenmedia.Developcurriculumbasedonstrategiesrelatedtounderstanding
andproducingmedia.

Whatdoesitmeantoteachmedialiteracy?
Teachingmedialiteracymeanshelpingstudents:
Objectives:Fromparticipatinginthisfirstmodule,youshouldbeabletodothefollowing:
-

Identifythetypesofmedia/visualliteraciesemployedinprintandnonprintmediatexts
describedinthismodulethatyouwantstudentstolearninyourclassroom.

Identifythevalueofacquiringtheseliteraciesintermsofstudentsdevelopmentas
criticalviewers.

Foreachoftheseliteracies,definehowyouwouldteachtheseliteraciestostudents.
-

Identifyeachoffourdifferentapproachestoteachingmediastudiesdescribedinthis
module:interventionist/control,criticalthinking,criticalpedagogy,art/aesthetic.

Defineyourownbeliefsaboutthevalueandbenefitsofthesedifferentapproaches.

Formulateaspecificrationaleforwhymediastudiesshouldbetaughtintheschoolsina
mannerthatisconvincingtobothadministratorsandparents.

JustifyingMedia/FilmStudyintheCurriculum
Inmanyschooldistricts,media/filmstudyisperceivedasperipheralorevenirrelevantto
teachingbasicskillsorsubjectcontent.Itisfurtherassumedthatclassroomtimeshouldnot
bedevotedtoviewingvideosorDVDswhenstudentsareorcanviewmediatextsoutsideof
theclassroomorifsuchviewingissimplybeingusedbyteacherstoentertainstudentsor
substituteviewingforinstructionalactivities.
Theproblemwithfocusingsimplyonbasicskillsorsubjectcontentisthatthese
aspectsofthecurriculumarenecessary,butnotsufficienttopreparestudentsforparticipationin
socialcontextsmediatedbynewmediaanddigitaltechnologiesrelatedtoICT(informational
andcommunicationtechnologies).Giventheiractiveuseofvariousmediaanddigital
technologies,adolescentshavegonebeyondsimplyconsumingmediatextstobecomingactively
engagedinparticipatinginandwithtechnologytoolssuchasvideo/computergames,online
chats,websites,PowerPointpresentations,andImovieproductions.Inbothconsumingand
producingmediatexts,studentsalsoneedtobeabletocriticallyexaminedifferencesintheir
abilitytocommunicateexperiencesandideastointendedaudiences.Indoingso,theyare
learningthatvariousICTtoolsareparticularlyeffectiveforachievingcertainpurposes,for
example,thattheycanenhancetheiraudiencesengagementthroughmultimediapresentation
usingPowerPointorwebsites.
However,oneofthechallengesfacingschoolsisthatgiventheirhighlevelof
participationwithICTsoutsideofschool,manyadolescentsperceivethetraditionalschool
curriculumandstructureasnolongermeetingtheirneeds.Manyadolescentshavedeveloped
sophisticatedmedialiteraciesthroughuseofmediatextsoutsideofschool.Mediatextsafford
adolescentswithvariouspleasuresthroughnotonlyrespondingtoengagingmediatexts,butin
alsoproducingthesetexts.(Foradiscussionofadolescentsusesofmedia:
http://www.ci.appstate.edu/programs/edmedia/medialit/ml_adolescents.html
InalargestudyofBritishadolescentsmediausesbySoniaLivingstone(2002)(foran
earlierreportofthedata:http://psych.lse.ac.uk/young_people)foundthatinteractivecomputer
technologiesarebecomingpartoftheinfrastructureofthehomealthoughnewmediahavenot
displacedchildrenscurrentleisureactivitiesandtheuseofmediaisahighlyindividualized
matter.
Adolescentsinthestudyspend41/25hoursdailyonaverageonthecomputer,playing
computer/videogames,watchingTV/videos/DVD's,listeningtomusic,readingmagazines,etc.
Thepercentagesof617yearoldsuseofmedia:99%TV,86%Music,81%video,64%
computergames,57%readnonschoolbook,36%nongamecomputer,28%comics,and19%
Web.
However,therearedifferenttypesofmediausers:
Traditionalistsaretypically1214andfocustheirusesprimarilyonTV,books,magazines

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Lowmediausersaretypicallyunder12,andhavefewmediaintheirbedrooms
Screenentertainmentfansaretypicallymalesages1214andfocusprimarilyonTV,video,
andcomputergames
Specialistsareprimarilybooklovers
PCfansfocusmoreonusesofthecomputerandtendtobelivinginmediarichhomes
Musicloversaretypically1517yearoldfemales
Adolescentsmediauseinthestudyalsovariedbythetypeofdayintermsoftheirmedia
usesoutsideversusinsidethehome.Onareallygoodday,41%gotomovie,39%seefriends,
35%playsports,and23%dohomeworkand/orgoonthecomputer.Onareallyboringday,
41%watchTV,28%readabook,and22%playtapesorwatchvideo.
Theirmediausearevariedaccordingtothetypesoffamilyinteractions.Low
interactionfamilieshadlowmediause,whilehighinteractionfamiliessharedmediauses.
Intimatefamiliesfocusedmoreonscreenentertainment,whiletalkativefamiliesweremore
likelytodiscussthenews.
AnotherstudybyKnowledgeNetworks/SRIfoundthatclosetotwothirds(61%)ofkids
nowhaveaTVsetintheirbedrooms,17%alsohavetheirownPC,35%ofkidshavevideogame
systems,14%havetheirownDVDplayer,and9%haveinternetaccessintheirownbedrooms.
Thestudyalsofoundthat46%ofkidswithTVsintheirroomsdoatleasthalfoftheirTV
viewingonthatset;75%reportmultitaskingwhilewatchingTV;43%havevisitedawebsiteas
theresultofaTVadwithinthepastweek;and50%ofthosesurveyedsaytheyhaveparental
rulesfortheirTVuse(vs.61%ofkidswithouttheirownsets).Kidswiththeirowninroom
InternetaccessreporteddoingamajorityoftheirInternetvisits(57%)intheirrooms,with61%
havingparentalrulesrestrictingtheirwebuse,comparedto69%ofInternetusingkidswhodo
nothaveownroomInternetconnections.
http://www.knowledgenetworks.com/sri/
And,a2003surveybyGrunwaldAssociates,foundthatmorethan2millionAmerican
childrenages617havetheirownpersonalwebsites(44%ofthosewereages1317)that23
millionkidshaveInternetaccessfromhome.
http://www.grunwald.com/surveys/cfi/overview.html
Thehomeisthereforechangingasaresultofmediaandthemediarichhomeisreplacing
streetcultureinchildrensexperiencesandthebedroommediacultureisreplacingsharedfamily
spaces.Asadolescentsareusingmediaintheownbedroom,theymaybelesslikelyto
participateinshared,communitymediauseswiththefamily.Theirincreasedparticipationin
virtualcommunities,chatrooms,IMbuddychat,andcomputergameshasresultedinthe
creationofasegregated,adolescentnicheaudiencebuiltonadolescentconsumerpowerand
demand.
AstheygainexpertiseandagencythroughusesoftheseICTs,theyacquirethemindset
ofinsidersincommunitiesorganizedaroundICTs,whilemanyteachersandpeersstillhave

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themindsetofnewcomerstothesecommunities(Lankshear&Knobel,2003).Thissuggests
theneedtorevisetraditionalschoolcommunitiesinwaysthatbuildontheseadolescents
expertisesothattheycanberecognizedfortheircompetenceinschools,enhancingtheirsenseof
agencyinschools.
Manyteachersremainnewcomersbecausetheyhavenotreceivedtrainingoncurrent
aspectsofmediaeducationandtechnologyuse.ArecentreportbytheHenryJ.KaiserFamily
foundationonteachingofmediaeducationinschools
http://kff.org/entmedia/MediaLiteracy.cfm
indicatedthatwhileteachereducationprogramsareincludingmoremedialiteracyintheir
programs,trainingforinserviceteachersisoftenlimitedtoworkshopsandconferences.
Oneoftencitedreasonforthelackoftraininginmediaeducationisthatteachers,given
theneedtoaddressthemandatesofNoChildLeftBehindOne,needtofocusonthebasicsof
readingandwritingsothatstudentstestscoreswillimprove.However,onestudycitedinThe
KaiserFamilyreportindicatedthatincorporatingmediaeducationintothecurriculumcan
enhancethedevelopmentofreadingandwritingskills(Hobbs&Frost,1999;2003).11thgrade
studentsinanEnglishclassreceivedmedialiteracyinstructionoveraoneyearperiodthatwas
designedbyEnglishteachersandintegratedintotheircurriculum.Studentsinthiscourse
improvedintheirreading,viewingandlisteningcomprehensionofprint,audioandvideotexts,
messageanalysisandinterpretation,andwritingskillstoagreaterdegreethandidstudentsina
controlgroup.
http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/mlr/readings/articles/hobbs/instpractice.html
http://www.mpls.k12.mn.us/departments/media/curriculum/COW/hobbsandfrost%20.pdf
Thisresearchsuggeststhatwhenstudentsareactivelyengagedinmedialiteracyactivities
thatincludeusesofreadingandwritingfordefinitepurposes,thatstudentscanimproveinbasic
skills.TheresearchalsopointstotheimportanceofintegratingmedialiteracyandICT
activitiesintothecurriculum,asopposedtoperceivingitasanextraaddon.Allofthispoints
tothecentralityofmedialiteracyinthecurriculum.
Thecentralityofmedialiteracyinothercountries.Mediaeducationistakenfarmoreseriously
inothercountriesthanintheUnitedStates.InAustralia,studentsstudymediafromK12th
grade.OnekeyfactorisAustraliaisthatthecurriculumitselfhas,incertainprovinces,been
redefinedtofocusontheimportanceofmedialiteracy.Forexample,TheQueenslandNew
BasicsProjectformulatesaneworganizationoftheK12curriculumaroundtherealitiesof
studentslivesincontemporarysociety.
http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/html/library.html#nbdesign
TheNewBasicscurriculumisorganizedaroundfourbasictopics:
Lifepathwaysandsocialfutures
WhoamIandwhereamIgoing?
Livinginandpreparingfordiversefamilyrelationships

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Collaboratingwithpeersandothers
Maintaininghealthandcareofself
Learningaboutandpreparingfornewworldsofwork
Developinginitiativeandenterprise
Multiliteraciesandcommunicationsmedia
HowdoImakesenseofandcommunicatewiththeworld?
Blendingtraditionalandnewcommunicationsmedia
Makingcreativejudgmentsandengaginginperformance
Communicatingusinglanguagesandinterculturalunderstandings
Masteringliteracyandnumeracy
Activecitizenship
Whataremyrightsandresponsibilitiesincommunities,culturesandeconomies?
Interactingwithinlocalandglobalcommunities
Operatingwithinshiftingculturalidentities
Understandinglocalandglobaleconomicforces
Understandingthehistoricalfoundationofsocialmovementsandcivicinstitutions
Environmentsandtechnologies
HowdoIdescribe,analyze,andshapetheworldaroundme?
Developingascientificunderstandingoftheworld
Workingwithdesignandengineeringtechnologies
Buildingandsustainingenvironments
Toaddressthesefourareas,studentslearntoemployvariousintellectualactivities,
including:
inquiryandexpression
reflectionandthoughtfulness
persistence
organizationandtimemanagement
readingefficientlyandaccurately
usingbothwrittenandspokenEnglishclearly,economicallyandwithgrace
understanding,appreciatingandexpressingideasinotherlanguages
receivingnonverbalcommunicationaccuratelyanddeliveringitwithsensitivityand
color
organizing,siftingthrough,arrangingwiselyandmakingsenseofideasanddata
usingcomputers(includingwordprocessing),withanemphasisonthecapabilitiesof
thecomputerforcommunicatingandexpressinginmultiplemedia
studyingandmemorizing
civicbehavior
applyingknowledgewellbeyondtheconfinesoftheschool
figuringouthowtothinkandactinunpredictablesituations

Thisconceptofthenewbasicsstillretainssomeaspectsoftheoldbasicsassociated
withliterarylearningandnumeracy.However,itpositsthatgiventhedemandsoflifeinthe21st
century,studentsalsoneedtoacquirethenewbasics,particularlyintermsoflearningto
employandunderstandvariouscommunicationandmedialiteracytools.
InOntario,Canada,mediaeducationhasbeenrequiredingrades712since1987.Their
curriculumisavailableatTheCenterforMediaLiteracy:10ClassroomApproachestoMedia
Literacy,asummaryoftheMediaLiteracyResourceGuidepublishedbytheOntarioMinistryof
Education
http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article338.html
InBritain,thereisanationalmediastudiescurriculumstudentstakenationalexamsin
mediastudies,includingaportfoliowithwritingthatreflectstheirabilitytocriticallyanalyzethe
mediaandtheroleofmediaindustriesinshapingmediacontent.
http://www.wjec.co.uk/almedia04.pdf.
Studentsalsoneedtoexaminethespiritual,moral,ethical,socialandculturaldimensions
ofmediaproduction,particularlyrelatedtoculturalimperialism,globalization,and
environmentalissues.ThisincludestheirabilitytorecognizethelimitationsoftheBritishmedia
relativetoperspectivesprovidedbyotherglobalmediaoutlets.
IntheUnitedStates,inwhichstatecurriculumsprevail,accordingtoastudybyRobert
KubeyandFrankBaker,fewstateshaveanydistinctmediastudiescurriculumstrand,
http://www.med.sc.edu:1081/statelit.htm
Foramoreelaboratesetofmedialiteracystandards,seetheMCRELstudentsforgrades
612for:
Viewing:http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Benchmark.asp?SubjectID=7&StandardID=9
Media:http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Benchmark.asp?SubjectID=7&StandardID=10
Moststatesincludesomemedialiteracystandardswithintheirlargerstandards
framework,orintegratemedialiteracystandardsintothelanguageartscurriculum.For
example,Minnesotasmedialiteracystandardsforgrades912arepartofthelanguagearts
standards:
(Atthehighschoollevel,medialiteracyshouldbeaddressedacrosscontentareasand
integratedintothecurriculumatthediscretionofthelocaldistrict.)
Standard:Thestudentwillcriticallyanalyzeinformationfoundinelectronicandprint
media,andwilluseavarietyofthesesourcestolearnaboutatopicandrepresentideas.
Astudentwillbeableto:
1.EvaluatetheaccuracyandcredibilityofinformationfoundonInternetsites.
2.Evaluatethelogicofreasoninginbothprintandnonprintselections.
3.Evaluatethesourcespointofview,intendedaudienceandauthority.

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4.Determinewhethertheevidenceinaselectionisappropriate,adequateandaccurate.
5.Evaluatethecontentandeffectofpersuasivetechniquesusedinprintandbroadcast
media.
6.Makeinformedevaluationsabouttelevision,radio,filmproductions,newspapersand
magazineswithregardtoqualityofproduction,accuracyofinformation,bias,
purpose,messageandaudience.
7.Criticallyanalyzethemessagesandpointsofviewemployedindifferentmedia,
includingadvertising,newsprograms,websites,anddocumentaries.
8.Formulatecritical,evaluativequestionsrelevanttoaprintornonprintselection.
9.Criticallyanalyzeandevaluatethestrategiesemployedinnewsbroadcasts,
documentaries,andwebsitesrelatedtoclarity,accuracy,effectiveness,biasand
relevanceoffacts.
10.Demonstrateanunderstandingofethicsinmasscommunicationanddescribethe
characteristicsofethicalandunethicalbehavior.
TheyarealsointegratedintotheMinnesotaArtsStandards:
Astudentwillbeabletodemonstrate
1.howasynthesisofthecomponentsofmediaartsisusedtodefineaworkinmediaarts:
a.elements,includingimage,sound,space,time,motion,andsequence;
b.principles(forexample,repetition,unity,orcontrast);
c.vocabulary;
d.structures(forexample,chronologicalorspatial);
e.styles(forexample,documentary,narrative,orabstract);and
f.technicalskills(forexample,selectionanduseofthetoolsofthemedium);
2.thesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongthestructuresandstyleswithinmediaarts;
3.howtheselectionofcriteriaaffectscriticismofaworkinmediaarts;and
4.theconnectionsbetweenmediaartsandotherdisciplinesoutsidethearts(forexample,
mathematics,science,orhistory);
Astudentwillbeableto:
1.selectcriteriaforevaluatingworksinmediaarts;
2.analyzeandinterpretmediaartthroughitshistorical,cultural,orsocialcontext;
3.supportpersonalreactionstomediaartworksusingthecomponentsofmediaarts;and
4.articulateinformedevaluationsofmediaartworksusingselectedcriteria;
OnestatewithadistinctmedialiteracystrandisTexas.Inacurriculumframework,
ViewingandRepresenting:MediaLiteracyinTexasdevelopedbyReneeHobbsandothers,the
Texascurriculumrevolvesaroundcriticallyanalyzingmediarepresentationsfocusingontopics
suchasthefollowing:
http://www.med.sc.edu:1081/texas.htm
1.Askingcriticalquestions
Askquestionstodiscoverthepurpose,pointofview,targetaudience,andsubtextof

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differenttypesofmediamessages;andexplorethepowerofproductplacementasaform
ofhiddenpersuasion.
2.Whodoyoutrust?
Analyzedifferentstrategiesthatcanbeusedtojudgetherealism,authenticity,and
authorityofmediamessagesfoundontv,newspapers,theInternet,andinthelibrary.
3.Crimereporting
Examinehowthenewsmediascoverageofcrimeaffectsourperceptionsofrealityand
ourbeliefsaboutthecriminaljusticesystem.
4.Readingtheromance
Explorethestructureandcharacterscommontomediaromancesandhowtheyaffectour
perceptionsofromanticlove.
5.Thelanguageofpolitics
Analyzepoliticalcommunicationstrategiesandevaluatetheimpactofthemassmediaon
thepoliticalcampaignprocess.
6.Thecultureofcelebrity
Explorethepowerofcelebritiesincontemporarysocietyandhowcelebritiesshapeour
expectationsofourselvesandtheworldaroundus.
AcentralapproachintheTexascurriculumisthatstudentslearnto
worktogetheronsmallgroupinquirybasedprojectsinvolvingbothcriticalanalysisofmedia
texts,aswellasproductionoftheirowntexts.Italsoassumesthatteachers,ratherthan
demeaningortrivializingstudentsmediachoicesandusesasunsophisticated,recognizethat
adolescentsdifferintheirusesandchoicesofmediafromadultsandprovideaclassroomcontext
thatallowsstudentstosharetheirresponsestomediainasafe,supportivemanner.
Unfortunately,schoolsthemselvesareoftenstructuredinwaysthatforecloseorlimitnew
waysoflearningconsistentwithhowpeoplelearninactivitiesandcomputermediatedcontexts
outsideofschools.Aslaterillustratedbytheexampleofvideogames,videoplayersare
activelylearninginhighlyinteractivewaysthatarequitedifferentfromtheoftenpassivemodes
oflearninginschools.However,noneofthisshouldbeframedasaneither/oropposition
schoolsareentertainingnewwaysoffosteringlearningasmediatedbynewformsofmedia,as
evidentinworkbeingdoneattheMITMediaLabonnewformsoflearning:
http://www.media.mit.edu/research/ResearchPubWeb.pl?ID=22
Educatorsandmediaproducersinterestedinfosteringmediaeducationinschoolshave
formedtwonationalorganizationsthatservetopromoteinterestinmedialiteracyinstructionin
schools,theAllianceforaMediaLiterateAmerica(AMLA)http://www.amlainfo.org
andtheActionCoalitionforMediaEducation(ACME),http://www.acmecoalition.org
Otherimportantmediaeducationsitesinclude:
CenterforMediaLiteracy
http://www.medialit.org

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MediaLiteracyClearinghouse
http://www.med.sc.edu/medialit
MediaLiteracyOnlineProject
http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/mlr/home/
NationalTelemediaCouncil
http://www.nationaltelemediacouncil.org
TheNewMexicoMediaLiteracyProject
http://www.nmmlp.org/medialiteracy.htm
ProjectLookSharp
http://www.ithaca.edu/looksharp
Recognizingtheroleofadultsandparentsinmediaeducation.Becausemostofstudentsmedia
useoccursinhomecontexts,thereisastrongneedtoassistadultsorparentsinwaystocritically
engagestudentsinmediause(Hogan,2001;Strasburger&Wilson,2002).Thissuggeststhe
valueofteachersinvolvingparentsinassignmentsassociatedwithcriticallyrespondingtoor
producingmediatexts.Inaseriesofarticles(PDFfiles)basedonforgingtiesbetweenschool
andparentspublishedinanissueofCableintheClassroom,ThinkingCriticallyaboutMedia:
SchoolsandFamiliesinPartnership,
http://www.ciconline.com/Enrichment/MediaLiteracy/ThinkingCritically/default.htm
educatorsdescribewaysofhelpingparentsfosterdiscussionswithadolescentsthrough
respondingtothesamemediatexts,recognizingthatadultsandadolescentsoftendeliberately
choosedifferenttexts.Forexample,FolamiPrescottAdams,inherarticle,Empowered
Parents:RoleModelsEmpoweredParents:RoleModelsforTakingChargeofTVViewing,
surveyed222ofhercollegestudentswhoreportedlargelycounterproductiveparentalstrategies
relatedtotheirviewingoftelevision.Inmanycases,therewaslittleornoguidanceor
restrictions.Restrictionsthatwereadoptedoftentooktheformofregulationsaboutamountand
typeofviewing,restrictionsonviewingcertainprogramsornetworks,andviewingonlyafter
completionofhomeworkorchores.
PrescottAdamssparticipantsalsorecalledmoreconstructivestrategiesasinvolving:
Coviewingintentionalviewingbyparentandchildtogether
InstructivemediationtheuseofTVviewingtoreinforcevaluesandcriticalthinking
Constructiontheselectionofspecificprogramstoteachspecificlessonsandhistoryto
children
Activemediationcanbepositive,whencommentstendtoreinforcecontent,or
negative,whencommentsaredisapprovingoftelevisioncontent.Mostofthecoviewing
thatoccurredamongtherespondentsfamilieswasmorecoincidentalthanintentional.In
theearly90s,forexample,TheCosbyShowwasacoviewingmagnetbecauseit

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attractedbothadultandchildviewers.Whencoviewingdidelicitdiscussion,itwas
oftenlimitedtocommentsfromparentsaboutobjectionablecontent,suchasthese
reportedbyastudentfromEmoryUniversity:
Anytimetherewasacusswordmyfatherwouldsayagruntorgroan,andifthere
weretoomanyhewouldchangethechannel.Iftherewerethree[cusswords]
hedchangeit.Notanadultthemedprogrambutanyshowthathadcursinglike
getthehellout.
Inadditiontosidelinecommentary,manyparentsresortedtoineffectivemediation
strategiessuchascoveringchildrenseyesduringviolenceandsex.Butthechildren
couldstillhearthedialogue,sotheircuriosityandfascinationwiththishalfway
forbiddencontentincreasedwhiletheirunderstandingofitsmeaningremained
unchanged.Aslongasparentsareinvolvedindiscussionswiththeirchildrenwhileco
viewingwhethertheviewingisplannedorcoincidentaltheyareactivelymediating
theirchildrensviewing.
Sherecommendsthatparentsposeoneofmoreofthefollowingquestionstofoster
adolescentscriticalresponse:
1.Whatdoyousee/hear?
2.Tellmeaboutthemaincharacters(personality,lifestyle,motives,andrelationships).
Whichcharactersdoyouconnectwithandwhy?
3.Whatvaluesarerepresentedbythecontent?
4.Howdoyoufeelaboutthecontent?
5.Whocreatedthismessageandwhyaretheysendingit?
6.Whatproductiondecisionsweremadelongbeforetheprogramwasavailabletous?
7.Howwouldyouhavetoldthestorydifferently?
8.Howmightdifferentpeopleunderstandthismessagedifferentlyfromyou?
Teacherscanincludeparentsinmedialiteracyactivitiesbyinvitingthemtocoview/read
mediatextsandsharetheirreactions.Teacherscanalsosendhomeinstructionsorinformation
aboutclassroomactivitiesthatinvolvemediaproductionsothatparentscanassistwiththose
productionactivities.And,teacherscanprovideparentswithusefulresourcesavailableonthe
followingsites:
MediaLiteracy101(fromtheCableintheClassroomsite).
http://www.ciconline.com/Enrichment/MediaLiteracy/TakingCharge/MediaLiteracy101/default.
htm
CenterforMediaLiteracy:Parents,Kids,andtheMedia
http://www.medialit.org/focus/par_home.html
SmartTVViewingTips
http://school.dicvoersty.com/ontv/viewtips.html
AllianceforaMediaLiterateAmerica

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http://www.AMLAinfo.org
Activity:AddressingOppositiontoMediaEducation
However,therecontinuestobesomeoppositionfrommanyquarterstomediaeducation.
(SeeRobertKubey,ObstaclestotheDevelopmentofMediaEducationintheUnitedStates
http://www.amlainfo.org)Itisoftenassumedthatstudyingmediatextsdoesnotentailthe
intellectualrigorofhavingtorespondto,compose,anddiscussprinttexts,particularlyif
studentsareperceivedtolackliteracyskillsandarefailingthebasicskillstests.Asreported
intheMinneapolisStarTribune,aschoolboardmemberoftheEdenPrairieSchoolDistrict,
EdenPrairie,MinnesotacomplainedthatteachersinthedistrictwereusingvideosandDVDs
inappropriately:
Tome,showingmoviesisaprettylowskilllevel.Iwouldratherthatteachersusethe
skillstheyhavetogetstudentsinvolvedinreadinganddiscussingtopics....Ifwe're
showingalotofvideosintheclassroom,thenIviewitasaproblem.Wedogetparents
callingus,saying:WhyaretheyshowingSchindler'sList?WhyareweshowingPippi
Longstocking?
IfyouwereateacherintheEdenPrairiedistrict,howwouldyourespondtothisschool
boardmembersperceptionoftheproblem?Whataretheassumptionsheismakingaboutthe
roleofmedialiteracyinschools?

14

DefiningtheImportanceofMediaLiteracy
Whatthenaresomeargumentsthatcanbemadefortheinclusionorintegrationofmedia
educationinthecurriculum.Decisionsaboutschoolcurriculumareoftenbasedonthe
importanceoflearningcertainpracticestofunctionasactive,criticalparticipantsinsociety.
Certainly,learningtouseandcritiquethemediaiscentraltobeingacontributingmemberof
society.Tojustifyincludingmedialiteracyintheschools,youneedtoconsidertheimportance
ofmediainshapingparticipationincultureandsociety.Thefollowingaresomeofthe
importantfunctionsofmediainsociety.
Theroleofmediainconstructingmass,popularculture.Mediaplaysanimportantrolein
constructingmass,popularculture(Freccero,1999;Ogdon,2001;Simon,1999).
Withtheriseofamassmediaduringthe20thcenturyaccessibletomillionsofpeople,
peoplewereabletosharethesamemediatexts,resultinginashared,commonsetof
experiencesrelatedtotheconstructionofamasspopularculture.Forexample,during
the1950s,mostAmericanshadaccesstomasscirculationmagazinessuchasLife,
Look,TheSaturdayEveningPost,Colliers,Time,andReadersDigest.These
magazinescontainedarticlesandadsportrayingAmericansasactiveconsumers,
particularlyintermsofgenderroles.Menwereshowndrivingnewcarswithlarge
finsandalotofchrome;womenwereshowncookingintheirkitchenswithalotof
newappliances.Theseimagesfunctiontoconstructasharedsenseofamassculture
basedonsharedknowledgeandpracticesassociatedwithbeinganactiveAmerican
consumer.Membersofsocietysharethesamenewsbroadcasts,televisionprograms
andfilms,sportsbroadcasts,advertising,newspapers,magazines,andwebsites.This
cancreateaculturalsamenessthatstiflesalternativeordeviantperspectivesthat
challengethehomogenizationofsociety.Understandingthewaysinwhichmedia
functionsto.
Allofthiscreatesatensionaroundtheconceptofpopular.Theconstructionofmass,
popularAmericanconsumerculturecontrastswithlocalpopularorfolkcultureassociatedwith
specificregionalculturestheMainefishingvillageculture,theruralAppalachianculture,the
NativeAmericancultureoftheHopiIndian,theAfricanAmericancultureofHarlemandSouth
Chicago,whichhavetheirownuniqueculturepracticesandvalues,manyinoppositiontomass,
popularcultureportrayedinthemedia.LargemediaconglomeratessuchasDisney,Time
Warner,andtheMurdockNewsCorporationcreatemediatextsthathaveauniversalappeal
acrosstheglobe,butoftenmaskoverormisrepresentuniquefeaturesoflocalculturalpractices.
Forexample,Disneyworld
http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/wdw/index?bhcp=1
containsexhibitsportrayingdifferentglobalculturesandregionalculturepractices.However,
theserepresentationshomogenizeandmaskuniqueculturalfeaturesoftheseregionsinwaysthat
donotchallengeWesternvaluesofDisneyworldvisitors.Theresultisalossofalocal,popular
cultureassociatedwithlocalorregionalvaluesthatdefinepeoplesidentitiesandworth.For

15
example,adolescentsraisedinasmalltownmaynolongervaluethelocalpracticesofthesmall
townrelativetothosepracticesassociatedwithglamorizedversionsofthebigcityportrayedin
themedia.Moreover,argumentsbyenvironmentalistsabouttheneedtopreservelocalnatural
habitatsmaybedismissedasinconsistentwiththeconsumerismscelebratedinthemedia.This
suggeststhevalueofchallengingtherolesofmediaindustryinitsattempttohomogenize
unique,localdifferencesinitsmediarepresentations.Italsosuggeststheneedtovaluedeviant,
unusualvoicesinthemediathatareoftenmarginalized,suppressed,orcensoredbythemedia
industry,voicesthatservetochallengeprivilegestatusquoforces.
Anothertensionassociatedwiththepopularrevolvesarounddifferencesbetween
highversuslowartormediatexts.CertainclassicfilmssuchasGrandIllusion,Citizen
Kane,orNorthbyNorthwestcouldbeconsideredhighart,whileBmoviehorrorfilmsor
horrorfictioncouldbeconsideredlowart.Whileitiscertainpossibletojudgedifferencesin
thecinematicandaestheticqualityofmediatexts,thisdistinctionraisesquestionsaswho
assumesthepowerorstatustodefineconstituteshighversuslowartisticvalueinmedia
texts.Films,television,ormusicconsideredtobepopularisoftenassociatedwithcommercial
promotionanddistribution,whicharelargelycontrolledbylargermediaconglomerates.Asa
result,small,independentproductionsmaynotachievepopularstatussimplybecausetheyare
notsponsoredbyamediaconglomerateandthereforehavenotbeenpromoted,eventhoughthey
behighqualityproductions.
Mediaeducationplaysanimportantroleinhelpingstudentsunderstandingthewaysin
whichmediatextsbecomepopularandtheroleofthemediaindustryinshapingpopularity.
ProfessorT.V.Reed,WashingtonStateUniversity:PopularCulture:ResourcesforCritical
Analysis
http://www.wsu.edu/~amerstu/pop/tvrguide.html(resourcesforthecriticalanalysisofpopular
culture)

SarahZupkosCulturalStudiesCenter:Popcultures.com
http://www.popcultures.com/
PopularCultureMagazine
http://www.popcultmag.com/
CulturalAnalysis:AnInterdisciplinaryForumonFolkloreandPopularCulture
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/%7Ecaforum/
Images:ajournaloffilmandpopularculture
http://www.imagesjournal.com/
ManchesterInstituteforPopularCulture
http://www.mmu.ac.uk/hss/mipc/

16
UniversityofIowaDepartmentofCommunicationsStudies:PopularCulture
http://www.uiowa.edu/~commstud/resources/POPCulture.html
Popularculturelibrary:BowlingGreenUniversity
http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/pcl/pcl.html
RussellNyePopularCultureCollection:MichiganStateUniversityLibrary:PopularCulture
VerticalFile(PCVF)
http://www.lib.msu.edu/coll/main/spec_col/nye/pcvf.htm
Recognizingtherelationshipbetweenmediaandreality.Anotherimportantroleofmedia
educationisthatithelpsstudentsinterrogatetherelationshipbetweenthemediaandreality.It
helpsstudentsinterrogatethemediaasaconstructiontoolthatcanbeusedtoconstructrealities
basedoncertainideological,political,oreconomicperspectives.Allofthisrequiresstudentsto
learnhowthemediamediatesrealitybyconstructingthatrealityintermsofitsownparticular
purposesandagendas.Forexample,studyingmediarepresentationsofgender,class,andrace
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/MC30820/represent.html
helpsstudentsrecognizethatgender,class,andracearesocialandculturalconstructions,as
opposedtobiologicalgivens.Byunderstandingthatwhatitmeanstobemasculineorfeminine
areoftenconstructionsdrivenbycommercialintereststosellproductsassociatedwithbeingor
becomingwhatthecultureconsiderstobemasculineorfemininemeansthatstudentsrecognizes
theroleofthemediainmediatingreality.
http://www.mediaed.org/events/articles/AMforum
Theroleofthemediainprovidingentertainmentandpleasure.Muchofmediaeducationis
oftenwithadoptingcriticalstancesaboutmediaexperiences.Whileadoptingcriticalstancesis
centraltomediaeducation,itisalsoimportantforteacherstorecognizethewaysinwhich
studentsderivepleasurefromtheentertainmentprovidebythemedia.Thismeansthatthe
classroomshouldalsobecomeasiteforstudentstosharetheirpleasuresinusingthemediaand
reasonsforthosepleasurableexperiences.Inrespondingtofilms,studentsexperiencethe
pleasureofengaginginwelldevelopedstoriesandcharactersorfromtheaestheticqualityof
mediatextstheyperceiveashavinghighlevelsofcinematic,production,orsoundquality.

Studentsoftendefinetheiridentitiesthroughtheseusesofthemedia,sonegative
judgmentsofthatmediacanbereadasjudgmentsoftheiridentities.Amorepositiveapproach
istohelpstudentsrecognizethenatureofthosepleasuresandthereasonsforthosepleasures.
Onereasonforthehighappealof,forexample,horrorfiction,isthatthesetextsbringreadersof
bothprintandimagesintocontactwithculturallyforbiddenpractices.Readerscanimagine
themselvesboththevictimsandvictimizersinhorrorfictionsgeneratedtobringoutthemesof
repression.(Alvermann,Moon,andHagood,1999)
http://www.reading.org/store/content/book_245.html

17
Fosteringcriticalanalysisofmediaasanalternativetomediacensorship.Theincreased
exposureofadolescentstoarangeofdifferentmediatextsthatcontainviolentorsexualmaterial
hascalledforincreasingcensorshipofthemedia.Thesemoralcrisiscallsforcensorship
presupposeacauseandeffectrelationshipbetweenreadingorviewingthismaterialandadopting
violentbehaviorsorengaginginsexualactivity.Whilethereissomeresearchindicatingsome
cause/effectrelationshipbetweenchildrensviewingofviolenceincartoonsandviolentaction,
thatresearchisinconclusiveandappliesparticularlytochildrenwhoarealreadyviolently
orientated.Assumingthesecause/effectrelationshipsfailstoconsiderwhatreadersorviewers
bringtomediatextsascentraltotheconstructionofthemeaningofthattext.Moreover,
advocatingforcensorshipcanactuallyenhanceadolescentsinterestincertaintextsgiventheir
needtoresistmarkersofadultauthority.
Onealternativetocensorshipistofostercriticalanalysisofmediatextssothat
adolescentsarerespondingcriticallytoportrayalsofviolenceandsexualityinthemedia.
MarjorieHeinsandChristinaChoinMediaLiteracy:AnAlternativetoCensorship
http://www.fepproject.org/policyreports/medialiteracyfull.html
positthevalueofhavingstudentsexaminetheassumptionsandbeliefsinherentinmedia
portrayalsofviolenceandsexuality,forexample,thedegreetowhichthecausesor
consequencesofportrayalsofviolenceandsexualityareshown.

18

WhatisLiteracy?:TheNeedforANew,BroaderDefinitionofLiteracyandTexts
Thereareanumberofproblemswiththisschoolboardmembersassumptionsabout
literacy,problemsrelatedtolimitednotionsofliteracyandtexts.Thisschoolboardmember
assumesthatreadingisahighlevelskill,whileviewingisalowlevelskillunrelatedto
teachingreading.Heispresupposingthatreadingofprinttextsisnotrelatedtoviewing
mediatexts.However,inreadingtexts,readersareemployingarangeofreadingpractices
comprehendingmessages,defininglinks,critiquingassumptions,etc.,thatviewersalsoemploy
inviewingmediatexts.
Thereisalsotheassumptionthattherescleardistinctionbetweenprintandnonprint
textsandthatschoolingshouldbefocusedonteachingstudentstolearntoreadprinttexts.
However,manytextscouldnowbedescribedashybridtexts(Stroupe,2000).Manytexts
Webpages,magazinearticles,CNNnewsbroadcasts,computergames,etc.,combineimagesand
print,alongwithsoundanddigitalclips.Respondingtothesehybridtextsrequiresanewset
ofliteraciesassociatedwithlearningtorespondtoandcreatethesetexts.Foradiscussionof
multiple/hybridliteracies:
http://www.edc.org/spotlight/mosaic2/newmedia.htm
Abroaderdefinitionofliteracyrecognizesthatstudentsacquirearangeofdifferent
literaciesthroughtheiractiveparticipationwithinteractivemediathatinvolveacquiringarange
ofnewliteraciesordigitalliteracies,tobediscussedinmoredetailinModule2.
Visualliteracy.Onecentralsetofliteraciesrevolvesaroundtheabilitytounderstandthe
meaningofvisualimages.Visualimagesconsistofsigns,icon,orsymbolsthatassume
symbolicmeaningsoperatingincertaincultures,meaningsrelatingtopower,status,sexuality,
death,etc.Themeaningofsignsdependsontherelationshipsbetweenthesignifier(theimage,
word,object,orpractice),thesignified(theimpliedmeaning),andthereferent(whattheimage,
word,object,orpracticerefersto)(Scholes,1982).Ayellowyieldsignisasignifierthat
conveysthemeaningthesignified,toyieldtoothercars.Thereferentistheactionsreferredto,
inthiscase,yieldingtoothercars.Peoplelearnthatthecolorsredandgreenassignifiershave
certainsignifiedmeaningsstopandgo,withthereferentbeingstoppingandstartingacaronthe
streetbasedonasetofculturalcodesandconventions(Peim,1993).Themeaningofimagesof
beautyasportrayedinromancenovels,soapoperas,romanticcomedies,orsonglyricsare
constitutedbywhatLindaChristianSmith(1990)describesas"codesofbeautification"that
beingphysicallyattractivecontributestobuildingaloverelationshipwithamale.Thesecodes
specifywhatitmeanstobebeautifulasdefinedbythecosmetics,fashion,andhairproduct
"beautyindustry"andrepresentedinteenagemagazineadvicecolumnsandarticlesonwaysto
attractmales(McRobbie,1991).
Inrespondingtotexts,readersdrawontheirculturalknowledgeofcodestodefinethe
meaningsofsigns.Studentsmostreadilyunderstandthissign/coderelationshipbyconstructing
collagesofimagesfrommagazineadsandtheninferringthecodesystemconstitutingthe

19
meaningoftheimages.Forexamples,advertisingimagesofSUVsinremote,openspacesare
basedonacodesystemofindividualismandfreedomfromconstraintsassociatedwithSUVs.
Studentscanthenidentitythecodesystemsoperatinginliterarytexts.
Theimagesemployedinadvertisingandthemediacanbeapowerfulforceinasociety.
J.FrancisDavisarguesthatimagesassumeapowerfulroleintheculturebyperpetuatingcertain
myths:http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article80.html
MYTH#1.Theworldisadangerousplaceandweneedguns,policeandmilitaryto
protectus.
Butgraphicreportsofcrimeandterroronthenewsprobablyhaveagreaterinfluencein
creatingourfeelingthattheworldisunsafe.
MYTH#2.Leaveittotheexperts(whoareusuallywhitemen).
Theauthorityfiguresweseepresentingthenationalnewsarewhite,middleagedmen
theviewsofwomen,personsofcolorandrepresentativesofalternatevoicesofallkinds
arecustomarilyabsent.
MYTH#3.Thegoodlifeconsistsofbuyingpossessionsthatcostlotsofmoney.
Livingwellissynonymouswithwealth,accordingtothepicturesandadvertisementswe
seeofhomesandyardsandcars.
MYTH#4.Happiness,satisfactionandsexappeal,justtonameafew,areimminentand
availablewiththenextconsumerpurchase.
Awholegroupofimagesimplythatweareonthevergeofbeinghappy.Theseimages
arelargelyadvertisements.Forexample,Hopeperfume.Joydishwashingdetergent,or
"OhwhatafeelingToyota!"Peopleintheseadvertisementsaregleefullyhappy,
surroundedbylovers,leapingintotheairinrapturousjoy.
MYTH#5.Yourbodyisnotgoodenough.
Manyifnotmostofthewomenandmenweseeinthemediaareslim,muscularand
goodlooking.We,ontheotherhand,arealwaystoofat,outofshapeandsmellythough
ourfriendsdon'talwaystellussoforthrightly.
MYTH#6.Businessesandcorporationsareconcernedforthepublicwelfare.
Giventhepowerofimagestoshapepeopleslives,itisimportant
thatstudentslearntocriticallyanalyzetheseimagesandhowtheyarebeingusedtoinfluence
perceptionsoftheworld.
Inthiscourse,wewillbeexaminingthedifferentliteraciesinvolvedinunderstandingand
producingthesedifferenttypesofmediatexts.Byunderstandingthesedifferentliteracies,you
canthendevelopinstructiontohelpstudentsacquiretheseliteracies(seeModule2onplanning
instruction).
Anotherimportantsetofliteraciesinvolvesusesofemailorcomputerchat.Thereare
twokindsofcomputerbasedexchangeformats:synchronouswhichischatinrealtime,and
asynchronouswhichinvolvesrespondingtobulletinboardmessages.

20
Anotheradvantageofcomputerexchangesisthatstudentscanexchangewithnotonlya
partner,butalsowithadifferentaudiences,includingstudentsinotherschools.Forexample,
studentsintheclassroomsofMelissaBorgmanofNorthHighSchoolinMinneapolis,andJoy
HansonofEastviewHighSchoolinAppleValley,Minnesota,werebothstudyingTheirEyes
WereWatchingGod.Becausethestudentsintheseschoolswerefromverydifferentworlds
thestudentsatNorthHighSchoolwerelargelyurbanAfricanAmericanstudentsandthe
studentsfromAppleValleywerelargelysuburbanwhitestudents,thesetwoteacherswanted
theirstudentstomutuallywrestlewithissuesofracismportrayedinthenovel.Studentsinitially
sharedbackgroundinformationaboutthemselvestheirinterests,hobbies,extracurricular
activities,family,friends,etc.Theythenexchangedresponsestothenovel,specifyingthetopic
inthesubjectline.Studentswereinstructedonwaysofreplyingtoresponses,perhapsoneof
themostimportantelementsoffosteringexchanges.Theyweretoldtofirstgreettheirpartners
andthentorespondtospecificlinesintheirpartnersmessagethattheycutandpasteintotheir
ownmessage.Theywerealsoaskedtonoteiftheyagreeordisagreewiththeirpartners
responsesandtogivereasonsfortheiragreementsordisagreements.
Throughengaginginonlinepeerinteractions,studentsareacquiringarangeofdifferent
literacies.AnalysisoftheseinteractionsbyChoiandHo(2003)
http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/choi/index.html
foundevidenceof:
*
Theirownthinking(ideas,opinions,andprocesses)
*
Theirownlearning(style,preferences,andprocesses)
*
Theirownpersonal,social,andprofessionalstoriesandexperiences,hopesandideas,and
reflectivethinking
*
Issuesofpersonalrelevancethatrangefrompersonaltosocialtoprofessional
*
Issuesconcerningallaspectsofteaching,andhowthesehaveaffected,wereaffecting,
andmightaffectthempersonallyandprofessionally
Writinginreadingonline.org,DavidOBrien(2003),arguesfortheneedtojuxtapose
moretraditionalschoolliteracieswithmedialiteraciestoaddresstheissueofadolescentswho
disengagefromprinttextsinschools:
http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/obrien2
Basedonhisresearchwithdisengagedhighschoolstudentshighlevelsofengagement
inahighschoolmedialiteracyproject,OBrienarguesthatadolescentsoftenusemediatexts
Internetchatrooms,webpages,computergames,film/video,musictoconstructtheirown
identitiesaspeoplewithhighlevelsofcompetenceinusingthesemediatexts:
Thecontentandformofpopularmediaculturealsoimplicitlycoachesusonhowtoact
andassumeroleidentitieshowtobehavelikeboysandgirls,forexample,ormenand
women(Luke,1997).Hence,oneofthekeyissuesinlookingatkidsuseofmediaisto
findoutwhattheyarelearningfrommediaoutsideofschool,tounderstandhowthey
viewtheiridentitiesasconstructionsofthisculturalpedagogyandhowthis
understandingrelatestotheirschoollives.Arelativelyunderdevelopedaspectofthis

21
identityworkishowtheuseofmediacanreframethewaystudentsusuallypositionedas
incompetentmodifytheiridentitiesofcompetencetheirabilitiestotacklechallenging
tasks,andtopersevereinengaginginfuturesimilartasks.
Hebeginswithliteraciesinvolvedinprintliteraciesandusesthosetomakethetransition
tomedia/digitalliteracies.
Printliteracies:
Criticalreading:
Evaluatingthesourceofinformationandjudgingauthorsmotivationsandpurposes.
Higherlevelcomprehensionskillsandstrategies:
Drawinginferencesfromtexts.
Evaluatingaudiences:
Thinkingabouthowreaders,aswriters,judgetheaudienceincomposingatext.
Levelsofreadingandtextstructure:
Readingthetextforliteralunderstandingvs.readingthesubtext(thetextthatisnt
explicitorthatholdsthemeaningbehindthetext).
Writingwithanaudienceinmind:
Targetinganaudienceoranticipatinganaudienceschoicesinpursuinganarrative
structureorselectingtypesofinformation.
MovingfromPrintLiteraciestoMedia/DigitalLiteracies:
Criticalliteracy:
Readingandwritingasculturalpractice.Theabilitytoexploresubculturalidentitiesas
portrayedinmedia,theabilitytocritiqueandrerepresenttherepresentation.
Mediacy,theabilitytocreatemediatexts(e.g.,Semali&WattsPailliotet,1999)
Awarenessandcritiqueofhowyouth,asusersandconsumersofmedia,contributetothe
constructionoftheirownidentitiesanddevelopagencyindecidingwhichpositionsto
assume(e.g.,Alvermannetal.,1999).
Mediastudies:
Theabilitytocritiquethemediabyengaginginliterateactivitiestomakesenseofmedia
textsand,hence,theworldwelivein(e.g.,Livingstone,2002);forexample,howdoTV
ortheWebportrayadolescents?Howdotherespectivemediasdeliverymethodsand
attentiongettingcapabilitiesworktoshapethewaytheaudienceresponds?Whatareour
rolesasaudienceandusersofdigitalmedia?

22
Globalization/marketing:
Theabilitytoengageinmultiliteraciesconnectedtonewcapitalism(Gee,2002)andthe
waysnewtechnologiesandnetworksworktoshapeglobaleconomic,political,and
culturallife;forexample,whattypesofimagesofyouthdotheglobalmediacreateto
commodifykidsvalues,beliefs,leisureactivities(e.g.,Nixon,1998)?Howdoes
marketingcauseyouthtoreshapetheirownimagesofthemselvestofeedtheglobal
market?
Promotingtheuseofprinttexttoexplainorsupporttheunderstandingofdigitalmedia
(e.g.,writingaboutpictures,writingaboutvideoclipstoexplainproducersintentions
andhowimagesworktoproducecertainresponses).
Exploringandcritiquingmultipletypesofrepresentation(juxtapositionofpictures,
video,print,usingbothprintandvisualrepresentationstoconveyanidea;e.g.,Semali&
WattsPailliotet,1999).
Inquiryprojects:
Producingpresentationsfromprojectsinwhichprinttextandmediatextsareusedto
explorepopularculturetopicsimportedintoschoolaspartofacademicwork.
Doingresearchinthelibraryormediacenter,doingresearchontheWeb.
Planning,storyboarding,andconstructingmultiplemediatextpresentationsthatuse
mediatocritiquemediaandtoshowhowmediaconstructswhoweare.
Opportunitiestoposition,spatiallyandintermsofrelativeculturalimportance,print
textsinrelationtoothermediatexts;forexample,promotingbookswithWebbased
advertisingcampaigns,promotingwritingthatresultsinWebbasedpublishing.
Ratherthanusingmedialiteraciesasanadditionaltackontothecurriculum,this
suggeststhevalueofintegratingmedia/digitalliteraciesintoallaspectsofthecurriculum.For
example,manyurbanyouthengageinliteraciesassociatedwithhiphopculture.ErnestMorrell
http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/9
02_column
demonstrateshowtoincorporatetheliteraciesofhiphopculturewiththestudyofpoetry:
Giventhesocial,cultural,andacademicrelevanceofhiphopmusic,acolleagueandI
designedaclassroomunitthatincorporatedhiphopmusicandcultureintoatraditional
highschoolseniorEnglishpoetryunit.Webegantheunitwithanoverviewofpoetryin
general,attemptingtoredefinepoetryandthepoet'srole.Weemphasizedtheimportance
ofunderstandingthehistoricalperiodinwhichapoemwaswritteninordertocometoa
deepinterpretation.Intheintroductorylecture,welaidoutallofthehistoricaland
literaryperiodsthatwouldbecoveredintheunit(e.g.,theElizabethanage,thePuritan
RevolutioninEngland,theCivilWar,andthePostIndustrialRevolutionintheUnited
States).WeplacedhiphopmusicandthePostIndustrialRevolutionrightalongsideother
historicalandliteraryperiodssothatstudentscoulduseaperiodandgenreofpoetrythey

23
werefamiliarwithasalenstoexaminetheotherliteraryworks.Wealsowantedto
encourageourstudentstoreevaluatehowtheyviewelementsoftheirpopularculture.
Thesecondmajorportionoftheunitwasthegrouppresentationofapoemandarap
song.Thegroupswereaskedtoprepareajustifiableinterpretationoftheirpoemandsong
withrelationtotheirspecifichistoricalandliteraryperiodsandtoanalyzethelinks
betweenthetwo.Afteraweekofpreparation,eachgroupwasgivenaclassperiodto
presentitsworkandhaveitsargumentscritiquedbypeers.Inadditiontothegroup
presentations,studentswereaskedtocompleteananthologyof10poems,5ofwhich
wouldbepresentedatapoetryreading.Finally,studentswereaskedtowriteafiveto
sevenpagecriticalessayonasongoftheirchoice.
learningtocriticallyexaminethenewmedia.Muchofthehyperboleaboutthenewdigital
mediaastransformingtheworldinpositivewaysneedstobecontinuallyexaminedand
interrogated.ThebeliefthattheWebwouldserveasaninformationportalhasnotbeenfulfilled
becausemuchoftheWeb,aswasthecasewithtelevision,whichwasoriginallynota
commercialmedium,hasbeenhighlycommercialized.Muchoftheinformationprovidedon
theWebismediatedbycommercialinterestswhoaremoreinterestedinfinancialgainsthanin
providingrelevant,validinformation.And,whenparticipationinvirtualconnectionsreplaces
actualfacetofacecontactmaynotnecessarilyfosterhealthysocialdevelopmentandpersonal
relationships.
Theseinformation,media,multicultural,andvisualliteraciesarefurtherdescribedinthe
nextModule2andonthe21stCenturyLiteraciessite:
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/21stcent/index.html
TheLearningforthe21stCenturyReport
http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/reports/
MediaLiteracyasLiteracyEducation(WinstonEmeryandLeeRother,ScreenEducation)
http://www.enhancetv.com.au/articles/article9_1.html
Activity:Listsomeofthedifferenttypesofprintandnonprintmediatextsthatyouemployona
regularbasis.Foreachofthesemediatexts,describethevariousliteraciesinvolvedinusing
thesemediatexts.Then,considerhowyouwouldteachstudentstoemployoneormoreofthese
literaciesbasedonyourownusesofthesemediatexts.

24

MediaEducation:DifferentGoalsandApproaches
Allofthismakesitnecessarytoprovideastrongjustificationorrationaleforthe
inclusionofmediastudyintothecurriculumbethatEnglish/languagearts,socialstudies,
secondlanguages,science,math,art,music,orphysicaleducation.Informulatingsucha
justification,youneedtoconsidertheparticularcurriculumgoalsoperatinginyourschool
district,aswellastheculturalcontextoftheschoolandcommunity.

Informulatingarationaleformedia,youalsoneedtorecognizethatmediaeducatorsdo
notallagreeonsamegoalsandapproaches.Mediaeducatorsproposearangeofdifferent
purposesandgoals,differencesthatreflectdifferencesinthesetheoristsperceptionsofmedia
textsandtheirroleinsociety(Anderson,2002;Gitlin,2001;Kellner,2000).Throughoutthis
course,youwillencountereducatorsadvocatingforthesedifferentapproaches.SiriAnderson
(2002):describesthreedifferentgroupsofmediaeducationtheorists:
Mediacontrol/intervention:Thesetheoristsarguethatgiventheextensiveamountoftime
devotedtomediausedetractingfromreadingorsociallifeandgiventheportrayalofviolence,
sexuality,orantisocialbehaviors,thatthereisaneedforreducingtimedevotedtomediause
andgreaterscrutinyofmediacontent(Postman,1985;Walsh,1994).Theyfrequentlycite
statisticsofexcessiveusesofthemedia,forexample,thefollowingdataregardingusesof
television:
http://www.chamisamesa.net/tvoff.html
I.TVUnderminesFamilyLife
1)AmountoftelevisionthattheaverageAmericanwatchesperday:over4hours
2)PercentageofUShouseholdswithatleastonetelevision:98
3)PercentageofUShouseholdswithexactlytwoTVsets:35
4)PercentageofUShouseholdswiththreeormoreTVsets:41
5)TimeperdaythatTVisoninanaverageUShome:7hours,40minutes
6)PercentageofAmericanswhoalwaysoroftenwatchtelevisionwhileeatingdinner:40
7)ChancethatanAmericanfallsasleepwiththeTVonatleastthreenightsaweek:1in
4
8)PercentageofAmericanswhosaytheywatchtoomuchTV:49
9)PercentageofUShouseholdswithatleastoneVCR:85
10)NumberofvideosrenteddailyintheUS:6million
11)Numberofpubliclibraryitemscheckedoutdaily:3million
12)NumberofhoursofmediaconsumeddailybytheaverageAmericanin1998:11.8
II.TVHarmsChildrenandHampersEducation
1)AveragenumberofhoursperweekthatAmericanoneyearoldchildrenwatch
television:6

25
2)NumberofhoursrecommendedbytheAmericanPediatricAssociationforchildren
twoandunder:0
3)AveragetimeperweekthattheAmericanchildages217spendswatchingtelevision:
19hours,40minutes
4)Timeperweekthatparentsspendinmeaningfulconversationwiththeirchildren:38.5
minutes
5)HoursofTVwatchingperweekshowntonegativelyaffectacademicachievement:10
ormore
6)Percentageofchildrenages816whohaveaTVintheirbedroom:56
7)Percentageofthosechildrenwhousuallywatchtelevisionintheirbedroom:30
8)Percentageoftelevisiontimethatchildrenages27spendwatchingaloneand
unsupervised:81
9)Percentoftotaltelevisiontimethatchildrenolderthan7spendwithouttheirparents:
95
10)Percentageofchildrenages8andupwhohavenorulesaboutwatchingTV:61
11)PercentageofparentswhowouldliketolimittheirchildrensTVwatching:73
12)PercentageofdaycarecentersthatuseTVduringatypicalday:70
13)HoursperyeartheaverageAmericanyouthspendsinschool:900
14)HoursperyeartheaverageAmericanyouthwatchestelevision:1,023
15)PercentageofselfprofessededucationalTVthathaslittleornoeducationalvalue:21
16)ChancethatanAmericanparentrequireschildrentodotheirhomeworkbefore
watchingTV:1in12
17)Percentageofteenagers1317whocannamethecitywheretheUSConstitutionwas
written(Philadelphia):25
18)Percentageofteenagers1317whoknowwhereyoufindthezipcode90210(Beverly
Hills):75
19)AveragetimeperdayAmericanchildrenspendinfrontofascreenofsomekind:4
hours,41minutes
20)Percentageof46yearoldswho,whenasked,wouldratherwatchTVthanspend
timewiththeirfathers:54
21)PercentageofyoungadultswhoadmittopostponingtheirbedtimefortheInternetor
TV:55
Inhisbook,BowlingAlone,RobertPutnam(2000)arguesthatexcessivetelevision
viewingisrelatedtoadeclineincivicparticipationvoting,attendingpublicmeetings,or
servinginlocalorganizations.Putnamandothersarguefortheneedtoreducerelianceon
viewingthroughfosteringmorecriticalanalysis,presumablyleadingtoreducedtimeuseofthe
media.Othermediacontrollers/interventionalistspromotefilteringprograms,parental
monitoringofviewing,andratingvideo/computergames(Anderson,2002).
Theconcernsexpressedabouttheexcessive,evenadditiveusesofthemedia,are
certainlyimportantanddeserveeducatorsattention.Oneorganizationthatpromotesthese
concernsistheMinneapolisbasedNationalInstituteonMediaandtheFamily
http://www.mediafamily.org/index.shtml

26
Theyfocusonresearchrelatedtoportrayalofviolenceintelevisionandvideogames.
Oneoftheirstudies(2002)foundhighcorrelationsbetweentelevisionviewingandplayingof
videogamesandattitudestowards/displayofhostilebehaviors(WhatGoesInMustComeOut:
Children'sMediaViolenceConsumptionatHomeandAggressiveBehaviorsatSchool
http://www.mediafamily.org/research/report_issbd_2002.shtml):
Findingsrevealedthatchildrenwhowatchedmoretelevisionandplayedvideogames
moreoftenweremorelikelytoviewviolenceandexhibithostileattributionalbiases.
Perhapsthosespendingmoretimeengagedinthesemediaformshavelessparent
supervisionoftheiractivitiesandviewingmaterial,andthechildrenarelefttotheirown
devices.Secondarily,perhapsthesechildrenareinadvertentlyexposedtotelevision
violence,duetothesheernumberofhourstheyreportspendingwiththesemediaforms.
Hostileattributionswereassociatedwithmultipleindicesofexposuretoviolentmedia
andteacherandpeerratingsofviolentbehavior.Itappearsthatthosechildrenwho
engageinviolentmediaviewingandplaytendtoassumetheworstintheirinteractions
withothers.Whilethedirectionofeffectisnotclear,thisfindingmeritsadditional
investigation.
Interventionistscitestudiesthatdemonstratethatmedialiteracyactivitiescanreduce
potentiallyharmfuleffectsofTVviolenceonyoungviewers.Forexample,inonestudy,asa
resultofainstructioninmedialiteracy,3rdand4thgraderswatchedlesstelevisionandplayed
fewervideogamesaswellasreducedtheiruseofverbalandphysicalaggressionasjudgedby
theirpeers(Robinson,2001).Or,aprogramforjuvenileoffenderstohelpthemthinkcritically
abouttheconsequencesofriskybehaviorsasportrayedinthemediahelpedthemadoptmore
responsibledecisionmakingskillsintheirownlives.
Onelimitationofthisperspectiveisthat,insomeversions,itadoptsabehavioral
perspectiveonaudienceusesofthemedia(seeModule4)thatassumesacause/effect
relationshipbetweenviewingormediauseandcertainattitudesorbehaviorsthat,forexample,
viewingofviolencewillleadtoviolentbehavior.Italsoassumesthatitispossibletocontrol
adolescentsmediauses,whenoftenattemptstoincreasecontrolonlyservestoenhancethe
valueofmediaasameansofchallengingadultauthority.Intryingtoprotectadolescents
fromharmfuleffectsofthemedia,educatorsmaynotbeconsideringtheadolescents
extensiveusesofthemediatoforpleasureandasatoolfordefiningtheiridentities.(Fora
criticalanalysisoftheresearchontheeffectsofmediaviolenceonchildrenandadolescents,see
Kirsch,2004).
Ontheotherhand,itisalsoimportantforeducatorstoconsidersomeoftheadverse
effectsofexcessiveviewingormediause,particularlyofviolentcontent.Inusingvarioustypes
ofmediatexts,adolescentsaremakingchoicesabouttheseusesbasedonreasonswhytheychose
onetelevisionshoworDVDoveranother,choicesbasedonpeerrecommendations,advertising,
promotions,availability,reviews,etc.Makinginformedchoicesaboutmediause,asopposedto
simplywatchingwhateverson,involvesdefiningmodesofengagementwithandmaking

27
judgmentsaboutthecharacteristicsofacertainmediatextthefactthatacomputergameis
welldesignedorthatatelevisionshowhasquirkycharacters.Helpingstudentsrecognizethe
waysinwhichtheyusethemedia(throughcompletingmedialogs)andreasonsformedia
choiceshelpstofosteranawarenessoftheirusesofmedia.ThePBSsite:GrowingwithMedia
designedprimarilyforparents,butusefulforteachers,providesinformationonstrategiesfor
helpingadolescentsexaminetheirownmediauses:
http://www.pbs.org/parents/issuesadvice/growingwithmedia/teen/index.html
Forfurtherreadingonissuesoftheinfluenceofthemediaonbehavior,seethe2003
YearbookfromtheInternationalClearinghouseonChildren,YouthandMedia,Promoteor
Protect?PerspectivesonMediaLiteracyandMediaRegulations,EditedbyCeciliavonFeilitzen
&UllaCarlsson(Eds),
http://www.nordicom.gu.se/unesco
TheNationalInstituteonMediaandtheFamily:advocatesformoreparentalcontrolof
televisionviewingpractices
http://www.mediafamily.org/
CRETV:CenterforResearchontheEffectsofTV
CRETVhastwocomponents:anarchiveoftelevisioncontentandaresearchlabconducting
studiesofthecontentoftelevisionanditseffectsonviewers.
http://www.ithaca.edu/cretv/
MediaScope:advocatesforconstructivedepictionsofhealthandsocialissuesinthemedia
http://www.mediascope.org/
TeenHealthandtheMedia
http://depts.washington.edu/thmedia/
TVTurnoffNetwork:advocateslessTVviewing
http://www.tvturnoff.org/
Lotsoflinksonthenegativeeffectsoftelevision
http://www2.localaccess.com/hardebeck/killtv4.htm
KillYourTelevision
http://www.turnoffyourtv.com/
WebsmartKids:focusesonchildrensusesoftheInternet
http://www.websmartkids.org/
Criticalthinking.AsecondgroupofidentifiedbyAndersonareinterestedinfosteringcritical
thinkingskills,particularlyintheEnglishclassroom,throughcriticalanalysis,interpretation,and
productionofmedia(Teasley&Wilder,1997).Thesetheoristsarguethatgivenadolescents

28
highlevelofknowledgeandinterestinmediaandfilm,thatmediatextscanserveasaplatform
forengagingthemincriticalanalysis,particularlyinwaysthattransfertoanalysisofliterary
texts.Thesetheoristsareskepticalofattemptseitherbymediacontrollers/interventioniststo
regulatemediause.
Theymaketheusefulargumentfortheneedtointegratemediastudiesthroughoutthe
languageartsorsocialstudiescurriculumaroundcriticalthinkingskillsandthematicissuesof
concerntoadolescents.TeasleyandWilder(1997)describevariouswaystointegratefilmsinto
thematicunitsinthecurriculum.Theypositthatthecriticalthinkingskillsinvolvedinteaching
analysisofliteraturealsoapplytoanalysisofmediatexts,suggestingthevalueoforganizingthe
curriculumintermsofthecriticalthinkingstrategiesinvolvedinanalysisofalltexts,strategies
suchasinferringperspectives,interrogatingbiases/valueassumptions,andexaminingauthorsor
producersagendasandmotives.Thisalsohasmorerecentlyinvolvedcriticalanalysisof
websites,whichoftencontainmisleadingormisinformationreflectingcertainbiasesor
ideologicalperspectives.
PopularCulture:ResourcesforCriticalAnalysis
http://www.wsu.edu/~amerstu/pop/tvrguide.html
TheNewMexicoMediaLiteracyProject
http://www.nmmlp.org/
MediaEducationOrganization:Europeanorganization
http://www.mediaeduc.org/html/en/default.htm
MediaLiteracyReview,UniversityofOregon:lotsofresources
http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/mlr/home/index.html
TheMediaLiteracyClearinghouse(FrankBaker,webmaster):lotsofresources
http://www.med.sc.edu:1081/default.htm
TheNationalTelemediaCouncil:Americasoldestmedialiteracyorganization
http://www.nationaltelemediacouncil.org/
AllianceforMediaLiterateAmerica:activemediaeducationorganization(alsodealswith
criticalpedagogyperspectives).
http://AMLAinfo.org/
ColumbiaJournalismReview:criticalanalysisofjournalism
http://www.cjr.org/
EvaluatinginformationfromtheWorldWideWeb
MontgomeryCollegeLibrary
http://www.mc.cc.md.us/library/webevalintro.htm

29

CornellLibrary
http://www.library.cornell.edu/okuref/research/skill26.htm
Criticalpedagogy.Acriticalpedagogyapproachbuildsonacriticalthinkingapproachbutgoes
beyondthatapproachtoaddressissuesofsocialjusticeportrayedinmediatextsorthroughuses
ofmediatextsthatleadtoimprovementsinsociety.
CriticalPedagogyontheWeb
http://mingo.infoscience.uiowa.edu/~stevens/critped/page1.htm
DefinitionsofCriticalMediaLiteracy
http://www.21stcenturyschools.com/critical_pedagogy.htm
CriticalPedagogy:Whohaspowerandwhy?
http://www.loretonh.nsw.edu.au/Curriculum/pedagogy/critical.html
DouglasKellner,MediaLiteraciesandCriticalPedagogyinaMulticulturalSociety
http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/newDK/medlit.htm
MartinRyder:criticaltheorists:lotsoflinks
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/postmodern.html#resources
CulturalStudiesdatabase
http://eserver.org/theory/
GuerrillaMedia:mediaprojectsbasedonsocialjustice
http://www.guerrillamedia.org/
MediaReform:criticalanalysisofissuesofmediaownership
http://www.mediareform.net/
ActionCoalitionforMediaEducation:lotsofusefulresources
http://www.acmecoalition.org/resources.html
TheCenterforPublicIntegrity:watchdogorganizationonthemedia
http://www.publicintegrity.org/default.aspx
FAIR:FairnessandAccuracyinReporting
http://www.fair.org/
FreedomForum:Focusonfreespeech/1stAmendmentrights
http://www.freedomforum.org/

30

TheIndependentMediaCenter
http://www.indymedia.org/en/index.shtml
TheMediaChannel
http://www.mediachannel.org/
k.i.s.s.ofthepanopticon(Keepitsimplestupid):culturalstudies/criticaltheoryperspectiveson
themedia
http://www.geneseo.edu/~bicket/panop/home.htm
TheMediaMonopolyIndex
http://www.mediaspace.org/MMI/mmi_frame.html
JournalofCriticalPedagogy
http://www.coedu.usf.edu/chandler/Critical_Pedagogy/critical_pedagogy.html
RadicalTeacher
http://www.wpunj.edu/radteach/
RadicalPedagogy
http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/
RethinkingSchools
http://www.rethinkingschools.org/
Inthisapproach,theteachersroleistodemonstratewaystonotonlyinterrogatebeliefs
andideologiesassociatedwithinstitutionsportrayedintexts,buttoalsolinkthatinterrogationto
addressingandactingoninjusticesinherentintheseinstitutions.Studentsalsoneedto
understandhowvariouseconomic,institutional,andpoliticalforcesaredefiningthenatureand
varietyofcommercialmedia,particularlyintermsofcontemporarymediaconglomerationof
fewercorporationsowningmoremediaoutlets.Understandingtheeconomicsofownershipand
controlhelpsthemconsiderthedegreetowhichalternativepoliticalorideologicalperspectives
arebeingcommunicatedthroughcommercialmedia,forexampletheproWesternvalues
promotingbyDisneyfilms(Alvermann,Moon,&Hagood,1999;Giroux,1999;Hooks,1996).
Acriticalpedagogyapproacharguesthatsimplyanalyzingmediatextsthemselvesfails
toconsidertheinstitutionalforcesshapingtheproductionandaudiencereactiontotexts,
particularlyintermsofhowcommercialmediainstitutionspromoteandshapeaudiencereaction.
ForadiscussionbyJustinLewisandSutJhally,Textvs.ContextinMediaLiteracy:A
ContinuingDebateonhowmediaeducatorsshouldnotseparateoutmediatextsfromthe
politicalcontextsshapingtheproductionandreceptionofthesetexts:
http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article363.html

31

Onebasicapproachincriticalpedagogyistohavestudentsstudyhowtheyarepositioned
bymediatextstoadoptcertainstances.ElizabethEllsworth(1997)describeshowtextsemploy
modesofaddresstopositionreadersorviewerstoadoptcertaindesiredresponsesconsistent
withcertainstancesForexample,atextmaypositionaviewertoadoptasexistorraciststance
whichareaderorviewermayacceptorreject.Inthisapproach,youaskstudents,howareyou
beingpositionedtorespondbythetextorcontext?Doyouacceptorrejecthowyouarebeing
positionedtorespond?

Inaddressingthesequestions,youareencouragingstudentstoadoptanoppositional
stancethatresistsatextsimpliedpositions.StuartHall(1993)describesthreealternative
positionsreadersorviewersmayassumerelativetothetext:
1).Dominanthegemonicreading:studentsmaysimplyacceptoridentifywiththedominant
valuestancewithoutchallengingthatstance;thesestudentsareunlikelytointerrogatethetext.
StudentsmaysimplyacceptwhatBakhtin(1986)describedasexternallyauthoritative
discoursesorstancesbecausetheylacktheirowninternallypersuasivediscourseasenseof
theirownagencytochallengedominantstances.
2).Negotiatedreading:Studentsmaynegotiateorstrugglewiththedominantstance,applying
someoftheirownvaluestances.Studentsassumeamoreactiveroleinconsidertheimplied
stance,butmayalsoaccepttheimpliedvaluestances.Theyarethereforenegotiatingthe
disparitiesbetweentheirownandthetextsimpliedvaluestance.
3).Oppositionalreading:Studentsresist,challenge,disagreewith,orrejectthedominantvalue
stance.Readersandviewerscreateaspaceofdifference(Ellsworth,1997,p.84)inwhich
theyresistorrejecttheinvitedvaluestancebasedonallegiancestoopposingvaluestances.
Adoptingthiscriticalstanceinvolvestheabilitytoperceivethesocialworldsportrayedintexts
aslargerinstitutionalsystems.AsEdelskynotes,"Studyingsystemshowtheyworkandto
whatendfocusingonsystemsofinfluence,systemsofculture,systemsofgenderrelations
beingcriticalmeansquestioningagainsttheframeofsystem,seeingindividualsasalwayswithin
systems,asperpetuatingorresistingsystems.Beingnoncriticalmeansseeingindividualsas
outsideof[and]separatefromsystemsandthereforeseparatefromcultureandhistory
(Edelsky,1999,p.28).
Criticalpedagogyapproachesinmediaeducationareoftenbasedonstudyingissuesor
problemsportrayedinmediatextsoroperatinginthemediaindustry.Forexample,students
maystudytheissueofmediacoverageofcertainevents,contrasting,forexample,FoxNews
coverageofaneventwiththatofPBS,NationalPublicRadio,ortheNewYorkTimes.Inquiry
basedinstructionrevolvesaroundhelpingstudentslearntoposetoughquestionsbasedontheir
concerns,doubts,andinterests;forinformationoninquirybasedinstruction:
http://www.roanoke.edu/msci/linksInquiryInstruction.cfm

32
Criticalanalysisofthemediaalsoexaminesthewaysinwhichmediatextsemploys
stereotypicalrepresentationsofcertaingroupsaccordingtorace,ethnicity,class,gender,size,
andage,institutions(thefamily,school,religion,government,business,thelaw,etc.),roles
(teachers,lawyers,lawenforcement,fathers/mothers,etc.),regions(theSouth,theWest,
etc.),environments(thecity,suburbia,smalltowns,etc.),andsocialpractices(gambling,
shopping,travel,dating,etc.)(seeModule5onMediaRepresentations).Incritiquingthese
representations,studentsbegintorecognizehowtheserepresentationsdomorethansimply
mirrorandshaperealitytheyservetocreatesocialorculturalrealities(Hall,1997).Media
representationsoffemininityasagenderedpracticeservetoconstructculturalnotionsofwhat
itmeanstobefemaleintheculture.Byunderstandingtheconstructednatureofreality,students
aremorelikelytocritiquetheoversimplificationsandreductionismintheserepresentations.
And,acriticalpedagogyapproachalsoinvolvescriticalanalysisofinstitutionsand
politicalforcesshapingthemedia.Forexample,studentsmayexaminetheideological
perspectivesreflectedontalkradioprograms.AnanalysisbyparticipantsonthePBSNews
Hourprogram
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/media/julydec03/righttalkradio_1013.html
indicatedthatonthe45topratedtalkradiostations,thereare310hoursofconservativetalk
versus5hoursoftalkfromaliberalperspective.TheprogramcitestheexampleofRush
Limbaughwithanaudienceof14millionon600stationsashavingastrongpoliticalinfluence.
SomeofthisconservativebiasreflectachangeinbytheFederalCommunicationsCommission
the1987whenitrepealedthesocalled"fairness"doctrinethatradiostationsneedtopresent
differingviewsoncontroversialissues,nolongerrequiringthemtoprovidebalancewithboth
conservativeandliberalperspectives.Acriticalpedagogyapproachnotesthewaysinwhich
largerinstitutions,inthiscase,theFCC,isinfluencedbypoliticalorganizationsandlobby
groups,tochangetheirpoliciestofittheagendasoftheseorganizationsandgroups,asopposed
tothelargerpublicgood.Itthereforeperceivedmediaasverymuchcontrolledbycommercial
andpoliticalinterests.
Art/aestheticapproaches.Afourthapproachinvolvesthestudyoffilm,television,ormediaas
artforms.Studentsalsoneedtobeabletorecognizeandappreciatetheartisticandaesthetic
aspectsoffilm,television,ormedia.Thisinvolvesknowinghowtoevaluatethequalityof
cinematography,directing,scriptwriting,acting,andcastingbasedoncertaincriteriafor
assessingmediatexts.Inmakingsuchjudgments,studentsneedtobeabletocitereasonsfor
theirassessmentbasedonknowledgeofthesecriteria.Forexample,iftheynotethatthedirector
madeeffectiveuseofcloseupshotstodisplaythecharactersfacesinahorrorfilm,astudent
needstoalsobeabletonotethatsuchdisplayoffacescontributedtounderstandingthe
charactersconflictsandanguish.Knowingthesecriteriaofteninvolvesknowingthenorms
operatinginaparticulargenreortypeofmedia;knowingthenormsofaneffectivehorrorgenre
helpsastudentjudgetheusesofcloseupshotsinthatgenre.
Studentsneedtoacquireknowledgeoftheseaspectsofproductionthroughunderstanding
theirpurposewhattheyarebeingusedtoportrayorcommunicate.Inferringtheintended
purposecanthenbeusedtojudgewhetherthatintentionhasbeenfulfilledornot(althoughthere

33
isconsiderabledebateastowhetherimputedintentioncanbeusedastheprimarybasisfor
judgingartisticquality.)Thissuggeststhathavingstudentsproducetheirownmediatextshelps
themunderstandtherelationshipbetweenpurposeandtext.Increatingtheirownads,students
assessthedegreetowhichtheirintendedmessagehasbeenconveyedinthead,judgmentsbased
ontheirintentions.Onestudyofpreserviceteachersuseofvideoproductionsfoundthatthese
productionsenhancedtheirunderstandingandenjoymentofproductiontechniques(The
PleasureofMovieMaking:ReflectingonIntegratingVideoProductionTechnologiesintoThe
TeacherEducationCurriculum,JournalofComputinginTeacherEducation,Spring2003)
http://www.iste.org/jcte/pdfs/te193082hay.pdf
Studentsaremostlikelytodevelopappreciationforcertainmedia/filmtypesorgenres
throughextensiveexposuretoexamplesofthattypeorgenresothattheycanexperiencethe
rangeofdifferenceinquality.Theyalsoneedtoacquireacriticalvocabularyforanalyzing
mediatextsinordertomakejudgmentsaboutthosetexts.Suchvocabularycanbetaught
throughyourmodelingyourapplicationofthevocabularytomediatextsandthenletting
studentsengageintheirownapplication.
Understandingtheartisticqualityofmediatextsalsoinvolvesstudyingthehistorical
developmentofdifferentmediaformsandgenres.Understandinghowtheseformsandgenres
weretransformedthroughthedevelopmentofnewtechniquesandtoolshelpsstudentsappreciate
thequalityofnew,transformingusesoftechniquesandtools.Itisalsoimportanttounderstand
howchangesinmediareflectdifferentculturalandhistoricalvalueshow,forexample,
televisioninthe1950sservedasaprimaryforceincreatingnewconsumermarkets.
Activity:Thesefourperspectivesdifferconsiderablyintheirbeliefsaboutandfocusoncertain
aspectsofmediaeducation.Whatareyourownbeliefsabouttheoverallpurposeorvalueof
mediaeducation?Tohelpclarifyyourownbeliefs,readReneeHobbssdiscussionofThe
SevenGreatDebatesintheMediaLiteracyMovement
http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article2.html
Then,formulateyourownbeliefsastowhatyoubelievetobethemostimportgoalsof
mediaeducation.

34

Whatstudentsreportaboutwhattheylearnfrommediaeducation
Oneapproachtoconsideringthevalueofmediaeducationistoaskstudentswhatthey
learnfrommedialiteracyactivities.Reportingonthemedial@nmsu.edulistserve,MikeGange
ofFredericton,NewBrunswick,Canadaaskedhishighschoolstudentsattheendofhismedia
literacycoursetoaddressthefollowingquestionsintheirjournals:"Howhaveyoubecomemore
medialiterate?Howhaveyouchangedsincethebeginningofthiscourse?Hequotedsomeof
hisstudentsjournalcomments:
WhatIlearnedinmediastudiesisthatthemediaportrayssomethingthateveryone
wishestheywere.NowIfindwhenIwatchTV,Iscanwhathappensandwhattheydoto
makethingsoreffectsbetter.IcantwatchTVwithoutcritiquingtosomeextent.APSA
wewatchedofVIAGRAwashot.Theycalleditthelittlebluepillandyouconstantly
sawblueinthevideo.Yousawsexuallysuggestivefeaturesinthevideothatallhad
somekindofsymbolismtoit.IcantjustzoneoutnowforafewhourslikeIusedto.
"Sincethebeginningoftheschoolyear,IhavechangedthewayIwatchtelevision.Inow
noticeallthelittlethingslikecamerashots,commercials,andjustlittlethingsIwouldnt
havethoughtofornoticed.IamnowbombardedwiththingswhenIamwatchingTV."
"Aftertakingthismediastudiesclass,IstillwatchthesamethingsIusedtowatch,but
nowIwatchthemdifferently.Inowwatchthingsmorecritically,anddeconstructthings
more.IdonotparticularlyenjoythisasIcannolongermindlesslywatchaprogram,I
findIamconstantlyanalysingwhatIsee.IblameyouforthisMr.Gange!"
"ThinkingbackIcantbelievehowmuchstuffIvelearnedin[Mr.Ganges]class.Ive
learnedthatwearecompletelyimmersedinadvertisingandthereisnowayofescaping
it.Iwasshockedtolearnthatwe,theaudience,aresoldtoadvertisersbutitkindof
makessensewhenIthinkaboutit.Itsamazingtothinkhowmuchmoneycompanies
willpayforjustonethirtysecondadd..IknowIvelearnedmanyotherthingsinthe
class.Evenstuffaboutclassictelevision,thatIthoughtIdneverremember.Wewere
havingsupperwithoneofmydadsfriendsandheaskedatriviaquestionaboutMASH.I
wastheonlyonewhoknewtheanswer."
"Ithinkwehavelearnedalotofvaluablethingsinthisclass,likehowtoexpressour
opinionsandthatisoktodoit.Imgladyouencouragedfreedomofspeechandaccept
opinionsofeveryone.Ilikethatwehavethechancetohaveclassdiscussionsanddiscuss
issuesintheworldaswellasthethingswelearn.Youusuallygaveusareasonforwhy
wearelearningwhatwearelearning.TheatmosphereisrelaxedandinvitingandIthink
thatsreallygreat."

35

FinalTask
Aschooldistricthasdecidedtoreviseitsentireoveralllanguageartscurriculum.The
districtisunderalotofpressuretogobacktothebasicsinordertoimprovetestsscoresin
readingandwriting.Theschoolboardisthereforeskepticalaboutfocusingonmediastudies
whichisperceivedtobeasoutsideoradeviationfromaneededfocusonreadingandwriting
basicskills.
Youneedtoformulatearationaleforteachingmediastudiesthatyouwouldpresentto
theschoolboardthatidentifiesspecificreasonsforwhymediastudiesshouldbetaughtinthe
district.Todoso,youfirstneedtoprovideasummarydescriptionofthenatureofyourdistricts
currentcurriculuminthesubjectmatteryouteachorare/plantostudentteachandwhenasthe
schools/communityspresumedattitudestowardsthevalueofmediastudies(Ifyouarenota
teacher,createafictionalsummaryoruseyourownhighschoolasanexample).
Inyourrationale,youmaywanttoprovidesomeformulationonhowyouwouldframe
yourcurriculumcontentinamannerthatservestobolsteryourargument.Thiswouldinclude:
formulatingthecurriculumintermsof4literaciesstudentswouldacquirethroughparticipating
inthecurriculum
thewaysinwhich2componentsofyourmediastudiescurriculumwouldhelpstudentsacquire
theseliteracies.
thevalueofacquiringeachoftheseliteraciesintermsoflargercurriculumgoalsandoutcomes
(criticalthinking,productionandunderstandingoftexts,etc,),particularlyinrelationshipto
thelanguageartscurriculum.
Youwillthenpresentyourrationaleonthechatroomtoyourpeers,who,basedonyour
descriptionoftheschoolscurriculumandcommunity,willprovidefeedbackintermsofwhether
yourrationaleisconvincingtoanaudienceofadministratorsand/orparents.
Informulatingyourrationale,youwillbeevaluatedintermsofyourabilityto:
specifyandelaborateonyourformulationofthe4typesofliteraciesthatstudentswould
acquirethroughparticipatinginyourcurriculum.
definespecificlinksbetweenthe2componentsofyourcurriculumwiththe4typesof
literacies.
specifyandclearlyconnectthecomponentsofyourmediastudiescurriculumtostudents
acquisitionoftheseliteracies.

36

References
Alvermann,D.,Moon,J.,&Hagood.M.(1999).Popularcultureintheclassroom:Teaching
andresearchingcriticalmedialiteracy.Newark,DE:InternationalReading
Association/NationalReadingConference.
Alvermann,D.,Young,J.,&Green,C.(1997).Adolescentsnegotiationsofoutofschool
readingdiscussions.Athens,GA:NationalReadingResearchCenter.
Anderson,S.S.(2002).Andthenwhat?Anautoethnographicinvestigationofcriticalmedia
literacyinanuncertainworld.Unpublisheddissertation,UniversityofSt.Thomas,
Minneapolis,MN.
Bakhtin,M.(1986).Speechgenresandotherlateessays.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexas
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Beach,R.,&Myers,J.(2001).InquirybasedEnglishinstruction:Engagingstudentsinlife
andliterature.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.
Choi,C.C.,&Ho,H.(2002,July/August).Exploringnewliteraciesinonlinepeerlearning
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ChristianSmith,L.(1990).Becomingawomenthroughromance.New
York:Routledge.
Edelsky,C.(1999).Oncriticalwholelanguagepractice:Why,what,andabitofhow.InC.
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Ellsworth,E.(1997).Teachingpositions:Difference,pedagogy,andthepowerofaddress.
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