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I. I NTRODUCTION
NSURING an efficient and sustainable use of natural
resources is one of the most critical challenges that
Europe is facing today [1]. The renovation of the actual energy
infrastructure should reflect this thinking, as envisaged by the
Smart Grid concept. A Smart Grid is an electricity network
that can cost efficiently integrate the behaviour and actions
of all users connected to it (e.g., generators, consumers and
those that do both) in order to ensure economically efficient,
sustainable power system with low losses and high levels of
quality and security of supply and safety [2].
(1+r)t
Electrt
t (1+r)t
(2)
METHODOLOGY
Ew + EP V + ECHP +
fw
hy
Estorage
+ Estorage
+ Egrid =
+E
1
2
3
E
+
E
+
E
+
ECL
UL
CL
CL
E w Ew E w
E P V EP V E P V
subject to
fw
w
fw
E fstorage
Estorage
E storage
hy
hy
E hy
i
0 < ECL
< E CL ,
i = 1, 2, 3
(3)
In the optimisation problem (3), E indicates energies, while
p stands for prices; prices and energies change every 30
minutes, but dependence on the time step has been dropped
for simplicity; the unknowns have been represented with
bold terms to improve readability; in practice, energies
are the unknowns, and as time steps are fixed, this is
equivalent to saying that powers are the unknowns; the
known terms are however known only at the same time step
the optimisation problem is solved (prices are not predicted);
the terms w, P V , CHP , CL, U L, f w and hy refer to
wind, photovoltaic, Combined Heat and Power, Controllable
Loads, Uncontrollable Loads, flywheel and pumped hydro
respectively; the utility function is a direct costing function:
therefore energy production terms appear with a positive
sign; the sign of the storage systems can be positive (energy
is released) or negative (energy is stored); the sign of the
energy exchanged with the grid (Egrid ) is positive if energy
is bought and negative if sold; controllable loads have a
negative sign to make it attractive for the EMS to drive them
(if possible). The equality constraint is given by the power
balance (energy produced, released from storage systems or
bought from the grid must equal to that used to drive all
loads plus eventual energy that might be stored or sold to the
grid).
The first three inequality constraints represent the minimum
and maximum production of energy from each distributed
resource, upper/lower bounds indicated with upper/lower bars.
Fig. 3. The storage is not used when the electricity prices are included
between the two horizontal lines. Storage can be released when prices are
high (above the upper line) and can be stored when prices are low (below the
bottom line). The example depicted in the figure refers to the pumped hydro
storage.
E hy
E hy
if pgrid > p or full storage
storage = 0M W h
hy
E storage = 5M W h
E hy
storage = 0M W h
STUDY SIMULATION
The previous scenario is now simulated using Matlab software. At the beginning, we assume to have a half-full pumpedhydro storage and empty flywheels; results are summarised in
Table I and in Figure 4. We remark that the negative values of
the energy in the table and in the figure should be interpreted as
energy sold (in contraposition to energy bought) and energy
stored (in contraposition to energy released). The following
results are extracted from the simulation:
renewable resources are always 100% exploited, because
they are convenient as they do not require carbon/fuel
costs;
at some particular moments (i.e., night time), the EMS
buys (or sells less) energy from (to) the grid as it is
cheaper than using the CHP; CHP production is thus
reduced during off-peak hours and is fully restored during on-peak hours, always according to its modulating
capabilities;
controllable loads are connected/disconnected according
to their priority, i.e., it never happens that the EMS
satisfies less relevant loads and disconnects the important
ones; moreover controllable loads are correctly connected
approximately 3/4, 1/2 and 1/4 of the day, according to
their priorities;
flywheels provide a limited quantity of energy, as they
work for a short time; in the proposed scenario they
are not fully exploited, as decisions are taken every 30
minutes, which is a large time scale compared to their
discharge cycle. It is known that flywheels should be
used for peak shaving purposes, but in the simulation the
EMS found it convenient to use them also to have small
incomes. The flywheels are not used in the afternoon
as they have been completely discharged and electricity
prices are not low enough to spend money to recharge
them again.
V. C ONCLUSIONS
This paper proposed a new solution to the power scheduling
problem, through the optimisation algorithm (3). The optimisation problem can be solved easily using linear programming
techniques (e.g., it takes approximately 1 ms to solve the
problem using linprog command in Matlab), and convergence
issues are not a problem (all local minima are global minima).
After solving the optimisation problem, the EMS finds the
optimal power flow values, and decides
how much energy should be produced and by whom (e.g.,
by the CHP rather than by the PV plant);
TABLE I
E VERY HALF AN HOUR POWER SCHEDULING OF THE VPP.
Time
0.00
0.30
1.00
1.30
2.00
2.30
3.00
3.30
4.00
4.30
5.00
5.30
6.00
6.30
7.00
7.30
8.00
8.30
9.00
9.30
10.00
10.30
11.00
11.30
12.00
12.30
13.00
13.30
14.00
14.30
15.00
15.30
16.00
16.30
17.00
17.30
18.00
18.30
19.00
19.30
20.00
20.30
21.00
21.30
22.00
22.30
23.00
23.30
24.00
Wind
MW
19.04
21.47
20.97
19.17
17.45
17.37
17.43
17.44
16.86
16.90
17.11
16.50
15.79
16.15
16.69
16.36
15.50
15.30
15.23
14.60
14.17
14.35
14.67
13.73
12.37
11.28
10.54
10.93
10.33
8.97
7.75
6.78
5.62
5.44
5.01
4.85
5.26
6.24
6.93
7.25
7.79
7.42
7.12
6.97
6.96
7.45
8.18
8.42
8.60
PV
MW
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.27
0.54
0.81
1.06
1.29
1.51
1.72
1.89
2.05
2.19
2.29
2.36
2.41
2.43
2.42
2.36
2.28
2.18
2.05
1.89
1.71
1.51
1.29
1.05
0.80
0.54
0.27
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
CHP
MW
34.00
34.00
33.25
34.00
33.00
32.00
31.00
30.00
29.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
32.00
33.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
34.00
Grid
MW
-15.00
-14.02
-15.00
-9.77
-1.35
-5.34
-9.03
-11.38
-12.58
-5.55
-12.92
3.32
-5.35
-2.75
-0.88
0.88
-0.15
5.20
-7.16
-2.62
-1.93
-4.07
-6.97
-9.11
0.19
0.39
1.50
1.58
4.05
3.51
4.88
2.66
7.74
10.48
7.94
9.37
8.26
7.63
-1.12
4.65
4.91
0.83
6.95
3.58
8.00
3.90
10.69
1.30
-0.57
March 25
Pumped hydro storage
MW
0
0
0
0
-10
-10
-10
0
0
-10
0
-10
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
10
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The algorithm was presented in detail, and extensively illustrated through a case study; of course, it can be applied to
Flywheel storage
MW
0
0
0
0
-19.87
-9.06
-3.15
-0.44
-0.18
-0.19
-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
0
13.69
8.62
4.71
3.09
2.31
0.43
0.05
0.06
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
CL1
%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
0
100
100
100
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
CL2
%
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
100
100
100
CL3
%
100
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
30
40
CHP
35
Wind
25
PV
30
Energy [MWh]
Energy [MWh]
20
15
25
20
15
10
Uncontrollable Loads
Driven Controllable Loads, priority 1
Driven Controllable Loads, priority 2
Driven Controllable Loads, priority 3
Disconnected Controllable Loads
10
5
5
0
00.00
04.00
08.00
12.00
16.00
Hour of the day
20.00
0
00.00
00.00
04.00
08.00
12.00
16.00
Hour of the day
20.00
00.00
41
49
8
Energy bought from the grid
6
4
Energy [MWh]
2
0
2
2
Pumped hydro storage
4
6
00.00
Flywheel storage
04.00
08.00
12.00
16.00
Hour of the day
20.00
00.00
17
25
33
Hour of the day
Fig. 4. Graphic of the DER energy production (upper left), served (un-)controllable loads (upper right), storage cycle (bottom left) and grid exchange (bottom
right).
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