A CASE STUDY OF EMOTIONS IN SPANISH-GALICIAN AND

GALICIAN-SPANISH BILINGUALS

Abstract
Native speakers of Galician and Spanish were compared in terms of the emotions they
experience when using either one or the other language and of the feelings they experience
towards them. They were divided into two groups, those who acknowledged Spanish as their
dominant language, on the one side, and those who had a preference for Galician, on the other.
The study is based on the answers they gave to an adapted version of the Dewaele & Pavlenko
questionnaire (2001). Results suggest that education and the more prominent cultural presence
of Spanish affect individuals’ skills, pointing at specific procedures in dealing with the four
skills. On the other hand, this study supports the findings of previous studies in relationship with
the greater emotional attachment to L1 for Galician-dominant speakers and does also so for
Spanish L1 speaker in a closer examination. It also contributes to the debate of whether a
bilingual has two emotional worlds. Precisely, the majority of positive answers to the question
of whether they feel like a different person when they speak their different languages backs this
thesis. Especially, the fact that many perceive differences even when the utterance coincides in
both languages, possible due to the fact that they are very closely related. This study calls into
question the necessity for more planning with the objective of achieving a balance between
languages in the individual and also appears to provide positive evidence for the existence of
two separate lexicons.

Keywords: Bilingualism; emotions; linguistic skills, bilingual education; bilingual lexicon.

1. INTRODUCTION
On 10th November 2007, the Spanish King, Juan Carlos I, reacted quite violent
to Hugo Chávez comments in a summit. His “¿Por qué no te callas?” (lit. “Why don´t
you shut up?”) was heard all over the world.1 The question a Galician comedian asked
himself some time later about how a Galician person would express that.2 His answer
was something like: “Pero cala un pouquiño, ho” (the intentionality would translate as
something of this kind: “Would you shut up a little bit, man?”). Despite the humorous
purposes of the video, there is something underlying which indicates a distinctive way
1
Available online at: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%BFPor_qu%C3%A9_no_te_callas%3F.
Accessed: 8/5/2010.
2
Available online at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jR04d2VVCj0. Accessed: 8/5/2010.

1
of reacting to the same stimuli. In fact, it is usually assumed that, like Eskimos
distinguish more shades of white, Galician also offers more words to talk about rain.
This differences in the divisions of the continuum and their matching with are not the
same in the different languages, given that this also happens with words referring to
emotions (Wierzbicka, 1992: 119-135), what if the continuum of emotions were also
different? What would be the implications for our day-to-day lives?
A study conducted by Dewaele about the emotional force of swear words
suggests that the expression of emotion is more difficult in the L2, learned later in life
that in the L1 and that the perception of emotion in a second language depends on the
typological similarity with this as well on the cultural similarities (2004: 208).
According to this, the perception of a speaker who has been exposed to Galician and
Spanish since the very beginning and, having into account that they are both very
similar languages.
Therefore, this study will try to get an insight into a very specific group of
bilinguals. Thus although some general statements will be made, it is necessary to bear
in mind that it applies to a very specific context.

2. METHOD
Participants
Nineteen participants took part in this investigation. They all came from Galicia,
a bilingual region in the north-west of Spain. Due to the sociolinguistic conditions in
this area, all of them are fully proficient in both languages. In fact, they are both
compulsory subjects at school and the rest of the subjects are taught in either one or the
other in accordance with legal requirements. On the other hand, the presence of both
languages in the media, although unbalanced in favour of Spanish, help people are
raised bilingually. Nonetheless, the most common situation is that one language
dominates over the other. Among the 19 participants this was the case of everybody
except for one person, who was finally not included for practical reasons.
The study was conducted finally based on groups: 11 participants whose
dominant language was Galician, 10 females and one male, and 7 participants who have
Spanish as a dominant language, all of them females. The age mean was of 21 for both
groups, ranging from 19 to twenty-seven. This is intentional, as having such an
homogeneous group, avoids the complication that different generations would create as
the relationship between both languages and their presence in education and public live

2
has quickly changed. On the other hands, all the participants have enjoyed university
education, most of them are still working towards a degree, while some have started
working recently or have decided to continue their studies at post-graduate level.
Notably, most of the participants come from the fields of philology or translation, which
might have affected the results. On the other hand, there were other participants who
considered their profession as related to bilingualism because they need to switch
languages at work

Materials
The data for this study was gathered via questionnaire. The web questionnaire
Bilingualism and Emotions designed by J. M. Dewaele and A. Pavlenko in 2001 was
taken as a model, but it was modified in order to produce better results in this particular
case (See Appendix 1 for full questionnaire). The initial questions included some
background information, including name (or random initials and a number for those
who did not wish to identify themselves), contact address, sex, age, education level,
ethnic group, occupation and whether this is related to bilingualism or not. By giving
their details, which will be kept confidential, they give permission to use their answers
for research purposes. There are a certain number of questions for which they only have
to answer by ticking where appropriate but, there is also a number of open questions.
From question 9 to 17, linguistic information was requested, identification of L1 and L2,
which one is the dominant, language spoken by parents, level of comfort according to
the different skills, frequency of use, in which language they do calculations and
translation and whether they switch or not when talking about certain matters or to
certain people. Question number 17, just before the questions related to emotions, asks
participants if they think their conceptions about languages might be biased by their
political views. Finally, there are 15 questions which deal with emotions: rating
subjective statements, expressing anger, swearing and taboo words, deepest feelings,
anxiety in different contexts, inner speech, talking about emotional topics, feeling like a
different person, switching with humoristic purposes... The last question allows them to
include any additional information they think it might be relevant.

Procedure
A social network was used to ask Spanish-Galician bilinguals if they were
willing to fill out a questionnaire about their relationship with the languages they spoke.

3
Those whose answer was positive were required to send their e-mail address and, later
on, the questionnaire was e-mailed to them. It was designed in Word format so that they
could answer without problems and send them back. Participants completed the test on
their own and were asked to get in contact if they had any difficulty with the language
or the questions. Conversely, it was me who needed to contact some of them when their
answers were not so clear. They were also asked to specify the time it took them to
complete the task. The answers of those who did, ranged from 40 minutes to 1 hour.

3. RESULTS
It is frequent and expected that when talking about bilingualism the relationship
between those two languages focuses the attention. In this case, however, given the fact
that the speakers are supposed to be proficient in both, as they have been in contact with
them since birth, it would be interesting to explore the relationship of the different skills
within the same individual. In a sense, the question that this sets out is whether the skill
in use can affect the feelings of the individual. Question twelve in the questionnaire
addressed this issue by asking in which language speakers felt more comfortable in
relationship with the four skills. It is to be expected that these comfort appears in
correlation with their dominant language. However, as the graphs (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2)
show this premise does not work.

Comfortable: Galician dominant

120

100
Percentage

80 Speaking
Writing
60
Reading
40 Comprehension

20

0
Galician Spanish Same

Fig. 1

4
 Comfortable: Spanish dominant

90
80
70
Percentage 60 Speaking
50 Writing
40 Reading
30 Comprehension
20
10
0
Galician Spanish Same

Fig. 2

Logic tells that skills related to production, i. e. speaking and writing, should
obtain parallel results; whereas reading and comprehension, which only entail a passive
knowledge of the language would resemble more to each other. Surprisingly, results
show clearly that for Galician-dominant speakers Galician is always the preferred
language for speaking; while for writing almost 80% of them are equally comfortable
and the rest prefer Spanish. However, the percentages for writing are quite balanced,
only slightly favouring Galician and same. Spanish-dominant participants behave in a
more predictable way: more than 80% prime Spanish for speaking, whereas the rest
think it is the same; as for writing, about a 70% chooses same as an option but nobody
opts for Galician. Regarding, reading and comprehension neither group shows a
consistent preference for any language, but Galician-dominant speakers prefer to read in
Spanish rather than in Galician, which does not happen with comprehension. Spanish-
dominant speakers would never feel more comfortable in Galician.
A possible interpretation might come from education and cultural weight. So far,
speaking Spanish in class is not compulsory- although it was during the dictatorship-
but students are required to take some exams in this language. On the other hand, the
cultural industry of a language spoken by some 400 million speakers cannot be
compared with one which is spoken by about 2,5 million speakers, who can at the same
time speak Spanish, and that has traditionally based on an oral culture.
The following step is the comparison between the subjective perceptions of both
languages. This was 19 in the questionnaire and equally, both groups of participants
were considerate separately. In this case, three categories were made taking into account

5
the adjectives provided: useful, colourful/rich/poetic and emotional vs. cold.
Participants could rate the statement according to six categories: not at all (NAA),
somewhat (SW), more or less (MOL), to a large extent (TALE), absolutely (ABS) and
not applicable, which nobody used. A percentage was worked out based on the answers.
These are the results for “useful” (Fig. 3 and 4):

Useful: Galician dominant

50

40
Percentage

30
Galician

20 Spanish

10

0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 3

Useful: Spanish dominant

80
70
60
Percentage

50
Spanish
40
Galician
30
20
10
0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 4

The answers show that Galician-dominant speakers rate their dominant language
more positively than Spanish, even if the latter enables them to communicate with more
people. On the other hand, almost a 10% think that it is not useful at all and this does

6
not happen with Spanish. Spanish-dominant speakers rate their language more
positively than Galician, which gets a majority of “more or less”. This might because of
their emotional attachment but also the international impact of the language.
Nonetheless, the idea about Galician is undoubtedly more positive among young people.
Another factor which definitely has a role is the ideology of the speakers, in particular
nationalism. In fact, almost a 59% gave a positive reply to question number 17, which
means they think they might be somehow influenced.
The following graphs show the results for “Colourful/rich/poetic” (Fig. 5 and 6):

Colourful, rich, poetic: Galician dominant

70
60
50
Percentage

40 Galician
30 Spanish

20
10
0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 5

Colourful, rich, poetic: Spanish dominant

60

50
Percentage

40
Spanish
30
Galician
20

10

0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 6

7
 Both groups rate very positively these qualities in both languages, raging
basically from MOL to ABS. Galician-dominant speakers tend to give an ABS more
frequently to their first language, while the figure is the same for Spanish-dominant
speakers. They are even more positive towards Galician. There are two possible reasons
for these, which can be complementary. Galician literature is comprehensibly studied
nowadays at high schools and, having a look at the answers to question 26, “I love you”,
it appears that apart from answers of the kind “I feel more real”, there are others which
rely on the determined features of the languages: prosody, phonology. Galician uses
much more than Spanish diminutive suffixes, in particular –iño, which people tend to
associate with a sweet characteristic (See Appendix 2). Other prominent features are the
presence of /ſ/ and to have diphthongs where Spanish has a vowel alone. There are in
fact different studies about cultural phonology (Palmer, 1999: 272-289). However, as
Grosjean points out it is necessary to be careful because these ideas are frequently
extended and end up referring to the speakers as well (1982: 117). On the other hand,
half of the speakers of Spanish as a first language count Speakers of Galician among
their close relatives, parents and grandparents, which is not true of any of the Galician
speakers. In fact, this is ratified by the answers of Galician speakers who were brought
up in London (Pena Díez, 2004: 155): they describe someone reading in English as
“cold”, “perfectionist”..., while someone reading in Galician sounds “familiar” and
“warm”.
Closely linked to this is the perception of whether the language one speaks is
warm or cold. Similarly, Galician- dominant speakers consider Galician more emotional
and less cold, although Spanish is regarded positively as well. For Spanish- dominant
speakers, Galician is still more emotional and Galician less cold (Fig. 7, 8, 9 and 10).

Emotional: Galician dominant

50
40
Percentage

30 Galician
20 Spanish
10
0
NAA SW MOL TALE
ABS

Fig. 7

8
 Emotional: Spanish dominant

100

80

Percentage
60 Spanish
40 Galician

20

0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 8

Cold: Galician dominant

60
50
Percentage

40
Galician
30
Spanish
20
10
0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 9

Cold: Spanish dominant

100

80
Percentage

60 Spanish
40 Galician

20

0
NAA SW MOL TALE ABS

Fig. 10

According to this hypothesis, the expected results for the variable frequency of
code-switching according to people should show that it happens less often within
members of the same family, but it is on the contrary more common with strangers. A
graph was built with the data of the participants. It was question 16 and there they could

9
choose between: Never (N), Rarely (R), Sometimes (Som.), Frequently (Freq.), All the
Time (All T.) and Not Applicable (NA). Most students must have considered their
interactions at university as “at work”. Results show that in this case the prediction is
confirmed (Fig. 11). Furthermore, it appears that when there listener is unidentified, an
audience, switching is far less common.

Codeswitching depending on people

60
50
Family
Percentage

40
In public
30
At work
20 Strangers
10
0
N R Som. Freq. All T. NA

Fig. 11
This is ratified also by the second part of question sixteen. Once the natural
linguistic pact is made between two speakers, they start building up their relationship
with that person in a determined language and more than seventy per cent of the
participants would found switching with that same person very difficult.

Do you find it difficult to switch with the same person

when you are used to one language?

Negative answer
Positive answer

0 20 40 60 80
Percentage

Fig. 12
This leads us to the question of linguistic awareness. It seems that speakers are
quite self-conscious judging by the previous answers. Question 32 addresses this issue

10
directly and the results are positive, which seems quite surprising because even people
who learn a language late in life can reach the status of being able to switch without
being conscious at all.

How self-conscious?

50
45
40
35
Percentage

Not al all
30
A little
25
Quite a lot
20
Exetremely
15
10
5
0

Fig. 13
Finally, I would like to consider question 34, about switching with very specific
purposes: humoristic. The results mirror those of the difficulty of switching when you
get used to using a certain language with the same person. More than 70% per cent
answered positively. Their answers include: “it emphasized a joke” or “some jokes are
less funny in other language”. This purpose is also attested between Catalan and
Spanish, another very closely related language (Heller, 1988: 53-77) or in Danish-
American written songs (Eastman, 1992: 215-228). This kind of intergroup humour is
considered pragmatic-semantic humour by Gombert (1992: 115-120). It is intentional,
but requires metalinguistic awareness, so although children at two-and-a-half years
might be able not to switch codes (Bel Gaya, 2008: 22), are presumably not ready for
this use.
As one participant points out “we are bilinguals so we should make the most of
it”. This alludes to the exploitative character that this feature can adopt. It seems
somehow the result of the duality of the bilingual (Wierzbicka, 2004: 99), in fact
55,55% of the participants reported they feel a different person in the different
languages. Surprisingly, even when the word a speaker utter happens to be the same in
both languages (in question 21) most of them actually perceive a difference, which
might be due to As Kramsch explains: “Language crossing enable speakers to change
footing within the same conversation [...]By crossing languages speakers perform acts

11
of identity.” (1998: 70). After all, it seems very interesting and surprising that even
when the word a speaker utter happens to be the same in both languages (in question 21)
most of them actually perceive a difference, which might be due to this word being
inserted in that language, that is surrounded by its prosody, vocabulary... or might make
us think if this words are retrieved from different storages.

4. DISCUSSION
This piece of research appears to confirm the finding Pavlenko made, the first
language has a greater emotional load, at least for speakers of Galician as an L1. The
fact that the results are a bit different for speakers of Spanish as L1 could be explained
on the basis that there are close members of their families with Galician as an L1 and,
according to Dewaele (2004: 207) the emotional attachment depends on “the
proliferation of neural connections in early and middle childhood”. On the other hand,
the fact that they are typologically very similar words and that the speakers live in a
bilingual context as well does not avoid an emotional preference for the L1.
The fact that speakers perceive the same word as belonging quite clearly to
different languages in a conversational context, is in itself interesting. It could have to
do with the context in which it appears but it also suggest that although it is apparently
the same word; the speaker might retrieve it from a different place.
Further studying taking into account specific relationships within bilingual
communities, but also looking at the relation of different dialects with the standard
variety and, at an individual level, how the different skills are dealt with could help
bringing to light more facts about the complex relationship between language and
emotions in the speaker.

12
APPENDIX 1

Dewaele, J.-M. & A. Pavlenko (2001) Web questionnaire Bilingualism and Emotions.

University of London. Adapted by Elma Barreiro Abad

Home | Thinking of applying? | Contact Information | Research

Bilingualism and Emotions
Background Information
All information will be kept confidential. If you would rather not identify yourself, please use
random initials and a number, e.g., AV38.
1. Name
2. Contact address (preferably e-mail)
3. Sex
4. Age
5. Education level (highest diploma or degree)
6. Which ethnic group/community do you belong to or most identify with
7. Occupation/Profession
8. Is your occupation related to your bilingualism or languages in any way
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Linguistic information: Galician/ Spanish
9. Which languages do you know and what order did you learn them in? How old were
you when you started learning each language? Was acquisition naturalistic (outside of school),
instructed (at school), or both?
1st LANGUAGE (L1)
2nd LANGUAGE (L2)

10. Which one do you consider to be your dominant language? Explain if necessary.
Galician:
Spanish:
Both:
11. What language do your parents speak?

------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. Which language do you feel more comfortable in in relation with the following skills?
Galician Spanish Same
Speaking
Writing
Reading
Comprehension

------------------------------------------------------------------------

13. How frequently do you use each of the languages and with whom? Never=0, every
year=1, every month=2, every week=3, every day=4, several hours a day=5)
With whom Frequency
Galician
Spanish

------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. Which language (s) do you use for mental calculations/arithmetic (tick where
appropriate)?
Never Sometimes All the time
Galician

13
Spanish

15. When you have to translate from a foreign language, which one comes automatically?
Which one did your foreign language teachers used mainly when they translated?

------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. Do you switch between languages within a conversation with certain people? (Tick
where appropriate)
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
With friends and family
With strangers
Speaking in public
At work

- Once you get used to speaking in a certain language with someone, do you find it difficult to
switch or does it happen without you realizing?

------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. Do you switch between languages when talking about certain matters? (Tick where
appropriate)
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
Neutral matters
Personal matters
Emotional matters

18. Do you think your political views, ideology... may affect your feelings towards these
languages?

------------------------------------------------------------------------
Languages and Emotions
19. Here are some subjective statements about the languages you know. Please mark to
what extent they correspond to your own perceptions. There are no right or wrong answers.
(Tick where appropriate)
Which is your first language?
Not at all Somewhat More or less To a large extent Absolutely Not
applicable
My L1 is useful
My L1 is colourful
My L1 is rich
My L1 is poetic
My L1 is emotional
My L1 is cold
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Which is your 2nd language?
Not at all Somewhat More or less To a large extent
Absolutely Not applicable
My L2 is useful
My L2 is colourful
My L2 is rich
My L2 is poetic
My L2 is emotional
My L2 is cold
------------------------------------------------------------------------

14
20. If you are angry, what language do you typically use to express your anger? (Tick where
appropriate)
a) When alone
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2

b) In letters and e-mail

Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2

c) When talking to friends

Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2

d) When talking to parents/partners

Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2

e) When talking to strangers

Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2
------------------------------------------------------------------------
21. If you swear in general, what language do you typically swear in? (Tick where appropriate)
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2

- Whenever these words are actually the same in both languages, are you aware of the
language you are speaking and do you perceive they sound different in some way?
------------------------------------------------------------------------
22. Do swear and taboo words in your different languages have the same emotional
weight for you? (Tick where appropriate)
Not strong Little Fairly Strong Very strong Not applicable
L1
L2
------------------------------------------------------------------------

23. What language do you express your deepest feelings in? (Tick where appropriate)
a) When alone
Never Maybe Probably Certainly Without any doubt Not applicable
L1
L2

b) In letters and e-mail

Never Maybe Probably Certainly Without any doubt Not applicable
L1
L2
c) When talking to friends
Never Maybe Probably Certainly Without any doubt Not applicable
L1

15
L2

d) When talking to parents/partners

Never Maybe Probably Certainly Without any doubt Not applicable
L1
L2

------------------------------------------------------------------------
24. How anxious are you when speaking your different languages with different people in
different situations? (Tick where appropriate)
Not at all A little Quite anxious Very anxious Extremely anxious
Not applicable
L1 with friends
L1 with colleagues
L1 with strangers
L1 on the telephone
L1 in public
Not at all A little Quite anxious Very anxious Extremely anxious Not
applicable
L2 with friends
L2 with colleagues
L2 with strangers
L2 on the telephone
L2 in public

------------------------------------------------------------------------
25. If you form sentences silently (inner speech), what language do you typically use?
(Tick where appropriate)
Never Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable
L1
L2
------------------------------------------------------------------------
26. Does the phrase "I love you" have the same emotional weight for you in your different
languages? Which language does it feel strongest in?

27. Do you have a preference for emotion terms and terms of endearment in one language
over all others? Which language is it and why?

28. Do your languages have different emotional significance for you? if yes, then how do
you see this significance for each language? Is one more appropriate as the language of your
emotions than others?

29. Is it easier or more difficult for you to talk about emotional topics in your second or third
language (if you have one)? If there is a difference, could you tell us about that and perhaps
provide some examples?

30. If you do write in a personal diary - or were to write in one - what language(s) do you
or would you use and why?

31. Do you feel like a different person sometimes when you use your different languages?

32. How self-conscious are you when you switch between languages? Tick where appropriate:
Not at all A little Quite a lot Extremely

16
33. Do you codeswitch when re-enacting a conversation which took place in the other
language?
Never Sometimes Frequently All the time Not applicable

34. Do you switch between languages with humoristic intentions? If so, in which
circumstances and why do you think it happens?

35. Do you have any other comments and/or suggestions for the authors of this
questionnaire?
------------------------------------------------------------------------

17
APPENDIX 23

My translation: - Xa, Xa!!!- I know, I know!!!

- Amijiños4 si... pero a vaquiña polo que vale!!- We might be friends…
but it needs to be a fair price.5

3
Available online at: http://obichero.blogspot.com/. accessed: 1/05/2010.
4
It tries to represent a dialectal feature, gheada. The standard form would be: “amiguiños”.
5
Literally he sais that the price of the cow has to be fair, not surprising for an agriculture-based
community. Both “cow” and “friends” take this diminutive suffix.

18
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