Problems in Differential Equations

book.

Section 1

ISOCLINES. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR A FAMILY OF CURVES ISOGONAL TRAJECTORIES

If the differential equation y′ = f(x, y), is satisfied by a curve going through the point (x, y), then the tangent line to the curve at the point in question must have slope y′, that is the angle α which this line makes with the x axis must satisfy α = arctan f(x, y). The geometric locus of those points for which y′ = f(x, y) has a constant value k is called an isocline. Thus the equations of the isoclines are f(x, y) = k, where k is constant on each isocline.

To solve the differential equation y′ = f(x, y) geometrically, it is sufficient to draw a number of isoclines and to sketch a curve which crosses each isocline with the correct slope. Examples of this construction are given in any elementary text on differential equations.

The loci which intersect every curve of a given family of curves at a constant preassigned angle ϕ are called isogonal trajectories. The angle β which the trajectory makes with the x axis is thus ϕ units greater or less than the angle α which the intersected trajectory makes with the same axis: β = α ± ϕ. Suppose

is the differential equation corresponding to a particular family of curves and suppose

is the differential equation of a family of isogonal trajectories. In other words, tan α = f(x, y), tan β = f1(x, y). Thus when equation (1) and the angle ϕ are given it is easy to write down the formula for tan β, and thus to set up the differential equation (2) from which the isogonal trajectories are to be found.

If the equation of the given family is written in the form F (x, y, y ′) = 0, then only slight changes are needed in the above method to write down the differential equation of the isogonal trajectories. The formulas needed for the above work are

Suppose the equation

of a family of curves is given. To construct the differential equation of this family, we differentiate equation (3) n times, and eliminate the constants C1, …, Cn from the equations so obtained.

Example.Let the given family have equation

This equation contains two parameters so we differentiate it twice as follows:

Let us eliminate C1. From equation (5) we obtain C1 = −2(y − C2)y′; putting this into equation (4) we get

Now we eliminate C2. From ; substituting this in (7), we obtain finally the differential equation we need y′ + 2xy″ = 0.

In problems 1-14 use the method of isoclines to solve the differential equation given.

1.y′ = y − x².

2.2(y + y′) = x + 3.

3. .

4.(x² + 1) y′ = y − 2x.

5.yy′ + x = 0.

6.xy′ = 2y.

7.xy′ + y = 0.

8.y′ + 1 = 2(y − x)(y′ − 1).

9.y′(y² + 1) + x = 0.

10. .

11. .

12. .

13.x² + y²y′ = 1.

14.(x² + y²) y′ = 4x.

15.Give the equation of the locus of points which are maximum or minimum points of solutions of the equation y′ = f(x, y). What is the analytic description of a maximum or minimum point?

16.Give a method for finding the locus of the inflection points of the solutions of the equation y′ = f(x, y).

In problems 17–29 find the differential equations which correspond to the following families of curves.

17.y = eCx.

18.y = (x − C)³.

19.y = Cx³.

20.y = sin (x + C).

21.x² + Cy² = 2y.

22.y² + Cx = x³.

23.y = C(x − C)²

24.Cy = sin Cx.

25.y = ax² + bex.

26.(x − a)² + by² = 1.

27.y = a sin x + bx.

28.y = ax³ + bx² + cx.

29.x = ay² + by + c.

30.Write the differential equation of circles of radius 1 which have centers on the line y = 2x.

31.Find the differential equation of the parabolas that have axis parallel to the y axis and that are tangent to the two lines y = 0, y = x.

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33.Write the differential equation of all parabolas which have axis parallel to the y axis and pass through the origin.

34.Write the differential equation of all circles which are tangent to the x axis.

In problems 35 and 36 find the system of differential equations which is satisfied by the given family of curves.

35.ax + z = b, y² + z² = b².

36.x² + y² = z² − 2bz; y = ax + b.

In problems 37–50 find the differential equations of the trajectories which intersect the given family isogonally at the angle ϕ:

37.y = Cx⁴,φ = 90°.

38.y² = x + C,φ = 90°.

39.x² = y + Cx,φ = 90°.

40.x² + y² = a²,φ = 45°.

41.y = kx,φ = 60°.

42.3x² + y² = C,φ = 30°.

43.y² = 2px,φ = 60°.

44.r = a + cos θ,φ = 90°.

45.r = a cos² θ,φ = 90°.

46.r = a sin θ,φ = 45°.

47.y = x ln x + Cx,φ = arctg 2.

48.x² + y² = 2ax,φ = 45°.

49.x² + C² = 2Cy,φ = 90°.

50.y = Cx + C³,φ = 90°.

Section 2

EQUATIONS IN WHICH THE VARIABLES ARE SEPARABLE

A differential equation in which the variables are separable will take one of the forms

To solve such an equation it is only necessary to rewrite it so that one of the variables and its differential is missing from one side and the other variable and its differential is missing from the other side.

Example.Solve the differential equation

This can be written in the form above as follows

If we divide this last equation by x² (y − 1), we obtain

The variables are separated. Integrating each side separately we obtain

Since we have divided x²(y − 1) we must try separately each of the solutions x = 0, y − 1 = 0. It is clear that y = 1 is a solution of equation (3), while x = 0 is not.

An equation of the form y′ = f(ax + by) can be transformed into an equation with separable variables by making the substitution z = ax + by, or z = ax + by + c, where c is an arbitrary constant.

In problems 51-65, solve the given equations and draw some integral curves in each case. State which solutions satisfy the initial conditions prescribed in those cases where initial conditions are given.

51.xydx + (x + 1) dy = 0.

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53.(x² − 1) y′ + 2xy² = 0; y(0) = 1.

54.y′ ctg x + y = 2; y(0) = −1.

; y(2) = 0.

56.xy′ + y = y²; y(1) = 0.5.

57.2x²yy′ + y² = 2.

58.y′ − xy² = 2xy.

.

60.z′ = 10x + z.

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62.y′ = cos(y − x).

63.y′ − y = 2x − 3.

64.(x + 2y)y′ = 1; y(0) = −1.

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In problems 66-67 find the solution of the equations which satisfies the given conditions for x → +∞.

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67.3y²y′ + 16x = 2xy³; y(x) is bounded for x → +∞

68.Find the orthogonal trajectories which correspond to the following families:

a) y = Cx²; b) y = Cex; c) Cx² + y² = 1.

In problems 69* and 70* the variables can be separated but the resulting equations cannot be integrated by elementary functions. Thus answers to the questions posed must be obtained by a limiting process.

69*.Show that every interval curve of the equation

has two horizontal asymptotes.

70*.Discuss the behaviour of the integral curves of the equation

in the neighborhood of the origin. Show that from every point on the boundary of the first quadrant there is an integral curve which points into this quadrant.

Section 3

GEOMETRICAL AND PHYSICAL PROBLEMS

Note: All the problems in this paragraph lead to equations in which variables can be separated. Other exercises involving physical problems are in Section 17.

The first step in solving the geometrical problems in this section is to think of the required curve as having the equation y = y(x) if cartesian coordinates are to be used, and to find the analytical form of the properties the curve is required to have. In all problems the