Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Oscuras las plantas de hoja verde contienen slo un poco de aceite, pero lo que hay consiste en ms
del 50% de ALA. Wild verdolaga es la ms rica fuente de planta verde frondosa.
EPA y / o DHA se encuentran casi exclusivamente en las plantas acuticas y el pescado azul. Los
niveles ms altos proceden de salmn, atn, sardinas, trucha y corvina, si comen fitoplancton.
Suplementos de EPA y DHA son tambin fcilmente disponibles, pero la advertencia es que estos
dos cidos grasos esenciales preformados se oxidan fcilmente, lo que provoca ms problemas de
salud de los que solucionan, la adicin de un antioxidante, la vitamina E, ayudarn a compensar este
problema hasta cierto punto - tal vez.
SDA se encuentra principalmente en las semillas de aceite negro en curso y es el percursor
bioqumica a la EPA y DHA. Si bien no se ha estudiado tanto como las otras dos, lo que se ha hecho
es mostrar la salud-beneficio potencial. SDA y GLA trabajar juntos para aliviar diversas
enfermedades de la piel.
Los Angeles, omega-6, se encuentra en la mayora de los aceites, especialmente los de crtamo,
girasol, camo, soja, nuez, calabaza, ssamo y lino. La fuente ms rica de Los ngeles es un aceite
de crtamo, sin transformar, - que es difcil de obtener (vase el procesamiento de petrleo ). Las
nuevas variedades genticas de crtamo alto oleico y aceite de girasol contienen ahora slo
pequeas cantidades de Los ngeles, mientras que antes, que alguna vez fueron las fuentes ms
ricas.
GLA se dice que es la nica "buena" forma de cidos grasos para salir de cidos grasos omega-6
cidos grasos, ya que es casi idntica a la ALA. La nica diferencia entre los dos es donde un doble
enlace se coloca en la cadena. Esto puede parecer una diferencia pequea, pero con el cuerpo, es un
importante factor diferenciador que afecta a varias Funciones. Puesto que hay muchas razones por
qu GLA no se pueden convertir de Los ngeles en el cuerpo, es sabio para obtenerla a partir de
aceites en los que est ya presente.
Adems de ser formado a partir de Los Angeles, el GLA tambin se encuentran en los aceites de
borraja tales como [borraja alias] (20-26%), grosellero negro (14-19%), la onagra (7-10%) 11, las
Referencias
1.
Referencias
Un
GPA (Programa de Accin Mundial). "Cmo pueden los COP Entra y acumularse en
peces y otros organismos marinos que viven?"
http://pops.gpa.unep.org/032marin.htm
2 OCA (Organic Consumers Association). "130 de las Naciones Eliminar 12 peores del
mundo pesticidas y qumicos industriales."
http://www.organicconsumers.org/foodsafety/pesticides050405.cfm
3 USGS (Servicio Geolgico de EE.UU.). Octubre 2000. Hoja de datos. "El mercurio en el
medio ambiente". http://www.usgs.gov/themes/factsheet/146-00/
4 Eilperin. Washington Post, Sept.23, 2005. "Las mujeres en las zonas costeras se
encuentran para tener mayores niveles de mercurio."
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/09/22/AR2005092201899.html
5 FDA y la EPA. De 2004. "Aviso al Consumidor: Lo que usted necesita saber sobre el
mercurio en el pescado y el marisco".
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fishadvice/advice.html
6 Hu, Bronner, Willett, Stampfer, Rexrode, Albert, Hunter, y Manson. De 2002. "El
pescado y omega-3 cidos grasos y el riesgo de enfermedad coronaria en las mujeres."
Journal of the American Medical Association 287:1815-21.
7 Jacobs, Ferrario, y Byrne. 2002. "Investigacin de la dibenzo-p-dioxinx, dibenzo-p-y
furanos policlorados coplanares seleccionados en escocs salmn del Atlntico (Salmo
salar)." Chemosphere 47 (2) :183-91.
20
San Francisco Chronicle 19 de junio 2003 el artculo sobre el mercurio en el atn enlatado
http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/06/19/MN257163.DTL
perjudiciales grasas trans, sino tambin una fuente pobre de los cidos grasos omega-3, sobre todo
porque el proceso de hidrogenacin todos, pero elimina cualquier contenido de EPA y DHA. 8, 9
Un informe publicado por 10 ConsumerLab hall que, de las 41 marcas de omega-3 cidos grasos
de aceite de pescado a prueba, ninguno de ellos tena niveles detectables de mercurio, es decir,
menos de 1,5 partes por billn (ppb) y no hay niveles peligrosos de bifenilos policlorados ( bifenilos
policlorados) - lo que se considera un nivel "seguro" no est determinado ya que la definicin
flucta entre las organizaciones 11 Por ejemplo, la mayor diferencia es con los niveles de PCB.. No
es de extraar, las normas de la FDA son los menos exigentes (2.000 partes por billn (ppb),
mientras que el Estado de California tiene la norma ms estricta (90 ppb).
El informe contina diciendo que una marca de suplemento de aceite de pescado se ech a perder y
algunos cayeron por debajo de la cantidad de EPA y DHA en la etiqueta con lo peor que contiene
slo el 53% de su contenido de EPA afirm. Aunque este producto se comercializ para el uso de
animales de compaa, que tambin fue vendida para el consumo humano.
Otro 12 estudio fue realizado por un grupo llamado la Defensa del Ambiente. Se pusieron en
contacto 75 empresas que producen los suplementos de aceite de pescado que se encuentran
comnmente en los supermercados, farmacias y tiendas de alimentos saludables y les pidi tres
preguntas.
1. Se purifica el aceite de pescado para reducir o eliminar los contaminantes del medio
ambiente?
2. Qu mtodos se utilizan para purificar el aceite de pescado?
3. Qu estndares a cumplir con respecto a los niveles aceptables de contaminantes?
Defensa del Medio Ambiente tambin pidi informacin sobre tres contaminantes: mercurio, los
PCB y las dioxinas ya que estos tres se encuentran en la mayora de las recomendaciones sobre el
consumo de pescado capturado en los Estados Unidos. Aunque la mayora de las empresas se
adhirieron a un estricto estndar de la remocin de contaminantes, algunos eran menos prxima con
su informacin. Por lo tanto, los consumidores estn advertidos de estar bien informado sobre las
marcas que estn utilizando - y no slo con suplementos de aceite de pescado.
Aceite de pescado farmacutico del grado es un trmino que se utiliza para separar inescrupulosos
fabricantes de suplementos de aceite de pescado de los que tratan de ofrecer un producto decente.
Sin embargo, puesto que no hay normas establecidas para este trmino, no pas mucho tiempo antes
de que fuera recogido y ampliamente utilizado. Para algunos, de grado farmacutico significa una
potencia concentrada de EPA y DHA en sus productos, mientras que para otros significa una falta de
impurezas y contaminantes. 13
Tran va a decir que la mayora de los suplementos de aceite de pescado que se encuentran en el
supermercado o la droga al parecer ni siquiera cumplen las normas de esta definicin abierta. Segn
algunos productores, se necesita aproximadamente 100 galones de petrleo de la salud de calidad
alimentaria de pescado para producir un galn de aceite de pescado de calidad farmacutica. 14 Pero
incluso esto no est escrito en piedra. Slo depende de la tica de ningn fabricante en particular. El
Dr. Barry Sears, quien supuestamente fue el primero en acuar el trmino de grado farmacutico, se
ha convertido en tan disgustado con todo, que le cambi el nombre de su grado farmacutico
producto ultra-refinado. 15
De acuerdo con un informe del consumidor por las Normas Internacionales de aceite de pescado, 16
de normas de calidad se han elevado a un sistema de calificacin de 5 estrellas que se muestran
mejores niveles de calidad y pureza. A pesar de este informe en particular se enumeran diversos
productos que satisfagan sus "listos para el consumo" las normas, nada se dijo acerca de si alguno o
todos recibieron la totalidad de las 5-star rating. Para ser justos, es que estos productos que tratan de
mantener altos estndares de calidad.
Referencias
Nettleton. De 1995. Omega-3 cidos grasos y la salud . Nueva York: Chapman and Hall.
Andrade, Rubira, Matsushita, y Souza. De 1995. "Omega-3 los cidos grasos en peces
de agua dulce del sur de Brasil." Diario de la Sociedad de los Qumicos de Aceite
americanos 72 (10) :1207-10.
3 Tornaritis, Peraki, Georgulli, Kafatos, Charalambbakis, Divanack, Kentouri,
Yiannopoulos, Frenaritou y Argyrides. De 1994. "Composicin de cidos grasos y el
contenido de grasa total de ocho especies de peces del Mediterrneo". Revista Internacional
de Ciencias de la Alimentacin y Nutricin 45:135-39.
4 "Defensa del Medio Ambiente". http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?
subnav=article&contentID=4362
5 Saldeen. De 2002. "Aceite de Pescado y la Salud. Salud Positiva".
http://www.positivehealth.com/permit/Articles/Nutrition/sald19.htm
6 "La EPA mtodos de procesamiento de pescado".
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s13-1.pdf~~HEAD=NNS
7 Adaptado de USDA el Laboratorio de Datos de Nutrientes
http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
8 Molketin y Precht. De 1995. "Determinacin de los cidos trans-octadecenoicos alemanes
en las margarinas, mantecas y grasas para cocinar la dieta" por Ag. TLC / GC.
Ernhrungswiss 34:314-17.
9 Innis y el Rey. De 1999. "Los cidos grasos trans en la leche materna se asoci
inversamente con las concentraciones de todos los esenciales-cis-6 y n-3 cidos grasos en
los lpidos del plasma de los lactantes." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70:383-90.
10 ConsumerLab.
http://www.consumerlab.com/results/omega3.asp
11 Defensa del medio ambiente ". Son seguros los suplementos de aceite de pescado?"
http://www.environmentaldefense.org/article.cfm?contentid=4362
12 Defensa del medio ambiente el aceite de pescado: Es la marca que est tomando
segura? http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?subnav=fishoil&sort=Rating~~V
13 Tran. Mar, 2005. Los suplementos de aceite de pescado: de encontrar el que sea adecuado
para usted. Una mejor nutricin.
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FKA/is_3_67/ai_n11832856
14. Almacenista de aceite de pescado farmacutico del grado - Por qu es diferente?
15 Dr. Barry Sears.
http://www.omega3zone.biz/ultra-refined-fish-oil.htm
16 IFOS (normas internacionales del aceite de pescado). De la Universidad de Guelph,
Canad. http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos_new/index.cfm?section=ifosconsumer>
2
Referencias
Un
Erasmus.
http://udoerasmus.com/firstscreen.htm
2. Erasmus Grasas que curan, grasas que matan: La gua completa a las grasas, los
aceites, el colesterol y la salud humana . Libros Alive, 1993.
3. Ayerza y Coates Chia: Redescubriendo un cultivo olvidado de los aztecas. U of Arizona
Press, 2005.
4 Taga, Miller, y Pratt. De 1984. "Chia semillas como fuente de lpidos antioxidantes
naturales." Revista de la Sociedad de los Qumicos de Aceite americanos 61:928-31.
5 Erasmus.
http://www.udoerasmus.com/articles/udo/fish_oil.htm
6 Defensa del Medio Ambiente.
http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?subnav=shouldiworry
7 USDA preocupaciones de seguridad alimentaria.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ ~ ear / FLRECSAF.html
8 canciones, Fujimoto, y Miyazawa. 2000. "Poliinsaturados (n-3) Los cidos grasos
susceptibles a la peroxidacin se incrementan en los lpidos del plasma y el tejido de las
ratas alimentadas que contienen cido docosahexaenoico aceites." Journal of Nutrition
130:3028-33.
9 Engstrom, Alving, Wallin, y Saldeen. De 1996. "El aceite de pescado estable tiene un
mejor efecto sobre el colesterol y la rigidez de las articulaciones que el aceite de pescado
ordinario". (Suecia) Hygeia 105:373.
10 Revisin de Nutricin de la Salud, la primavera de 1991. "El aceite de pescado plantea
problemas, los investigadores de carga - Centro de Investigacin Agrcola de Nutricin
Humana sobre Envejecimiento en la Universidad de Tufts, Food and Drug Administration
convencidos de los beneficios de salud."
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0876/is_n58/ai_10843695
11 de USDA. De 2004. "Base de Datos de Nutrientes para Referencia Estndar."
http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
12 Repblica Democrtica Popular de Salud. "Vitamina E"
. http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/vit_0266.shtml
Referencias
Una
cancin y Miyazawa. De 2001. "Mejora del nivel de n-3 cidos grasos en los
fosfolpidos de membrana induce peroxidaciones de lpidos en ratas alimentadas con la dieta
aceite de cido docosahexaenoico." La aterosclerosis 155:9-18.
2. Simopoulos 2002. "Omega-3 los cidos grasos en las plantas silvestres, nueces y
semillas". Asia y el Pacfico Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
Http://www.healthyeatingclub.org/APJCN/Volume11/vol11sup6/abstracts11sup6.htm
3 canciones, Fujimoto, y Miyazawa. De 2002. "Poliinsaturados (n-3) Los cidos grasos
susceptibles a la peroxidacin se incrementan en los lpidos del plasma y el tejido de las
ratas alimentadas con cido docosahexaenoico DHA contienen aceites." American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition 130:3028-33.
4 Thies, Caron, Powel, Yagoob, Newsholme, y Calder. De 2001. "La suplementacin con
cido eiosapentaenoic, pero no con otra de cadena larga n-3 o n-6 cidos grasos
poliinsaturados, disminuye la actividad de las clulas asesinas naturales en sujetos sanos
mayores de 55 aos." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73:539-48.
5 "El aceite de pescado plantea problemas, los investigadores de carga - Centro de
Investigacin Agrcola de Nutricin Humana sobre Envejecimiento en la Universidad de
Tufts, Food and Drug Administration convencidos de los beneficios de salud." Examen de
Salud de Nutricin, la primavera de 1991.
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0876/is_n58/ai_10843695
6 "El aceite de pescado." UC Berkeley Wellness Letter, noviembre de 2003.
http://www.berkeleywellness.com/html/ds/dsFishOil.php
7 Friedberg, Janssen, Heine, y Grobbee. De 1998. "El aceite de pescado y el control
glucmico en la diabetes." Diabetes Care 21 (4) :494-500.
8 Montori, Agricultor, Wollan y Dinneen. De 2000. "El pescado suplementos de aceite de
la diabetes tipo 2." Diabetes Care 23 (9) :1407-15.
9 de Piedra. De 2000. "El Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto
Miocardio (GISSI)-Prevenzione prueba de aceite de pescado y suplementos de vitamina E
en los supervivientes de infarto de miocardio". Informes Actuales Cardiologa 2 (5) :445-51.
sin embargo, la semilla de camo o semillas de cha son mejores alternativas, ya que son los ms
cercanos a la relacin de las demandas del cuerpo humano-que es aproximadamente 3:1 (Omega-6
y omega-3). De semilla de camo y cha tienen esta relacin. Linaza tiene una relacin opuesta
de 1:3. Adems, la linaza no puede ser digerida a menos que se muelen, lo que aumenta el riesgo de
oxidacin. Esto tambin es cierto de semillas de camo y la razn por la cual tanto las semillas
necesitan ser refrigerados. La semilla de cha, sin embargo, no tiene este problema, ya que contiene
antioxidantes naturales que evitar que se echen a perder. 12
Cuando se utiliza la planta a base de aceites, las tasas de conversin aumentan cuando otros
nutrientes estn presentes. Si bien las recomendaciones varan en cuanto a que los nutrientes, la
mayora est de acuerdo en que sean necesarios para ayudar a aumentar la conversin de ALA a sus
derivados necesarios: zinc, selenio, magnesio, cido flico y las vitaminas B3 (niacina), B6 y C. 13,
14
Los investigadores han comparado los efectos del suministro de ALA de origen vegetal con las
fuentes marinas de DHA y EPA. Se determin que haba muy poca diferencia entre los dos en
cuanto a efecto en los seres humanos eran en cuestin. 15 Sin embargo, se ha encontrado que los
aceites vegetales que contienen SDA (caamn, semilla de grosella negro, y aceites Echium) podra
ser ms eficaz en el aumento de tejidos EPA concentraciones que los aceites vegetales que
contienen este momento, el ALA 16, 17.
De cadena media cidos grasos de los aceites de origen vegetal son ms fciles de digerir que la
larga cadena de cidos grasos de los peces, por ejemplo. Cuando larga cadena de cidos grasos se
comen, deben ser emulsionados por las sales biliares en el intestino delgado antes de que puedan ser
absorbidos por el cuerpo. Los cidos grasos de corto y mediano cadena son absorbidos directamente
a travs de la vena porta al hgado, donde estn disponibles de inmediato para el cuerpo. Los cidos
grasos de cadena media tambin ayudan a aumentar la absorcin de nutrientes como las vitaminas
liposolubles A, E, D y K, as como magnesio, calcio, carotenoides, flavonoides y los
complementarios de cadena larga de cidos grasos EPA, DHA, y GLA.18
Parece obvio que la adicin de aceite de pescado para una dieta que ya est mal, no es la respuesta
para la prevencin de enfermedades. Una buena dieta, con nutrientes esenciales, es la respuesta
general, as como la solucin ms inmediata que requiere la conversin de cidos grasos esenciales
precursores en los componentes del cuerpo requiere en una base diaria.
Referencias
Referencias
12
Li, Sinclair, Wilson, Nakkote, Kelly, Abedin, Mann, y Turner. De 1999. "Efecto de la
dieta cido alfa-linolnico en los factores de riesgo trombtico en hombres vegetarianos."
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69:872-82.
13 Hu, Stampfer, Manson, Rimm, Wolk, Colditz, Hennekens y Willet. De 1999. "La
ingesta de cido alfa-linolnico y el riesgo de padecer la enfermedad isqumica del corazn
entre las mujeres." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69:890-97.
14 Guallar, Aro, Jimnez, Martn-Moreno, Salminen, van't Veer, Kardinaal, Gmez
Aracena, Martn, Kohlmeier, Kark, Mazaev, Ringstad, Guilln, Riemersma, Huttunen,
Thamm, y Kok. De 1999. "Omega-3 los cidos grasos en el tejido adiposo y el riesgo de
infarto de miocardio: el estudio EURAMIC." Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular
Biology 19:1111-18.
15 Von Sharky, Angerer, Kothny, Theisen y Mudra. De 1999. "El efecto de la dieta de
cidos grasos omega-3 sobre la aterosclerosis coronaria." Anales de Medicina Interna
130:554-62.
16 GISSI (Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocrdico).
De 1999. "Los suplementos dietticos con n-3 cidos grasos poliinsaturados y vitamina E
despus de un infarto de miocardio: resultados del ensayo GISSI-Prevenzione" The Lancet
3554:447-55.
17 Mantzioris, Cleland, Gibson, Neumann, Demasi, y James. De 2000. "Los efectos
bioqumicos de la dieta con alimentos enriquecidos con omega-3 cidos grasos." American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72:42-48.
Iso 18, Raxrode, Stampfer, Manson, Colditz, Speizer, Hennekens y Willet. De 2001. "La
ingesta de aceite de pescado y cidos grasos omega-3 los cidos grasos y el riesgo de
accidente cerebrovascular en las mujeres." Journal of the American Medical Association 285
(3): 304.
19 crestas, Sunderland, Moerman, Meyer, Astheimer, y Howe. De 2001. "Bajar el
colesterol beneficios de la soya y semillas de lino alimentos enriquecidos." Asian Pacific
Journal of Nutrition 10 (3) :204-11.
20 Djousse, Folsom, en la provincia, la caza, y 2003, Curtis-Ellison.. "cido linolnico la
dieta y la aterosclerosis carotdea: el Instituto Nacional del Corazn, los Pulmones y la
Sangre de estudio de la familia del Instituto de la salud." American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition 77:819-25.
21 McLennan, Howe, Abeywardena, Muggli, Raederstorff, Mano, Rayner y la cabeza.
De 1996. "El papel protector cardiovascular de cido docosahexaenoico." European Journal
of Pharmacology 300 (1-2): 83-9.
22 Buckley, Shewring, Turner, Yaqoob, y Minihane. De 2004. "Circulantes de triglicridos
y los niveles de ApoE en la respuesta a la EPA y la suplementacin con cido
docosahexaenoico en sujetos humanos adultos." British Journal of Nutrition 92 (3) :477-83.
23 Paganelli, Maixent, Durn, Parhizgar, Pieroni, y Sennoune "Alteracin de los
eritrocitos n-3 cidos grasos en los pacientes del Mediterrneo con enfermedad arterial
coronaria." International Journal of Cardiology 78 (1):. 27-32.
24 Agricultura de Canad. "Alimentos funcionales y nutracuticos".
http://www2.agr.gc.ca/nutraceuticals/index_e.cfm?page=view_details&company_id=412
19
ORIGINAL EN INGLES
Introduction
There is much conflicting information today regarding nutrition -- and the consumption of fish oil
versus plant-based oils is no exception. Obtaining the already converted forms of omega-3 fatty
acids from fish is said to be the best source. Because of vested interests in the fish and fish oil
markets, half-truths, and almost exclusive testing on fish, fish oil has vaulted to the top of the
charts.
However, more research is being done on plant-based oils, bringing to light information not
previously known and showing why they will be the better sources in the future. This section will
provide some of the controversial problems that stem from consuming fish and fish oils as opposed
to plant-based oils in order to obtain the valuable Essential Fatty Acids.
The following is a condensed refresher, mainly from this page.
EFAs (essential fatty acids) are:
LA (linoleic acid) [n-6, Omega-6]
ALA or LNA (alpha linolenic acid) [n-3, Omega-3]
Essential because the body cannot make them; therefore, they must come into the body via the diet.
The value of EFAs in the body can be reviewed here.
Non-EFAs (non-essential fatty acids) include:
EPA (eicosapentanoic acid) necessary for the circulation system
DHA (docosahexanoic acid) necessary for the brain, heart, and eyes
SDA (stearidonic acid) necessary to increase EPA concentrations
Non-essential because the body can make them from omega-3 ALA
AA [ARA] (arachidonic acid) a necessary structural component and precursor that can have
antagonistic effects
GLA (gamma-linolenic acid) necessary to prevent certain skin conditions
Non-essential because the body can make them from omega-6 LA
Conversion Process1, 2
Omega-3 conversion process is as follows:
Marine sources (oily fish and algae) contain the converted or long-chain forms of DHA and/or
EPA.
Plant-based sources contain the parent (precursor) or medium-chain forms, ALA and LA.
However, land-based animals used to be good sources of these EFAs, which were concentrated in
the brain, eyeballs, adrenal glands, and testes. This explains one reason why primitive tribes prized
these organs and ate them raw immediately after a kill. Because of domestication, pollution, and
feed, this is no longer the case.3 Through processing and refining of oilseed plants, all but scant
amounts of the omega-3s (ALA) are lost, leaving only the omega-6 (LA) content. Because there is
too much LA in the average diet and too little ALA, health problems have skyrocketed.
ALA, omega-3, is found in such plant-based oils as:
Dark green leafy plants contain only a little oil, but what there is consists of over 50% ALA. Wild
purslane is the richest green leafy plant source.
EPA and/or DHA are found almost exclusively in aquatic plants and oily fish. The highest levels
come from salmon, tuna, sardines, trout, and corvina, if they eat phyto-plankton. EPA and DHA
supplements are also readily available, but the caution is that these two preformed EFAs are easily
oxidized, thereby causing more health problems than they fix; adding an antioxidant, as vitamin E,
will help to offset this problem to a certain extent maybe.
SDA is found mainly in black current seed oil and is the biochemical percursor to EPA and DHA.
While it has not been studied nearly as much as the other two, what has been done is to show
health-benefit potential. SDA and GLA work together to alleviate various skin diseases.
LA, omega-6, is found in most oils, especially those from safflower, sunflower, hemp, soybean,
walnut, pumpkin, sesame, and flax. The richest source of LA is a non-processed safflower oil -which is hard to obtain (see oil processing). New genetic varieties of high oleic safflower and
sunflower oils now contain only small quantities of LA, whereas before, they were once the richest
sources.
GLA is said to be the only good fatty acid form to come out of omega-6 fatty acid because it is
almost identical to ALA. The only difference between the two is where one double bond is placed
on the chain. This may seem like a small difference; but to the body, it is a major distinguishing
factor that impacts various funtions. Since there are many reasons why GLA cannot be converted
from LA in the body, it is wise to obtain it from oils where it is already present.
Besides being formed from LA, GLA is also found in such oils as borage [aka starflower] (20-26%),
black currant (14-19%), evening primrose (7-10%)11, hemp seed (4% plus 2% SDA and 9% omega9)12, as well as spirulina and walnuts.
AA is found only in animal fats and should not be confused with arachidic acid found in peanuts.
AA, as well as DHA, is crucial to the optimal development of the brain and eyes. Since these are
non-essential fatty acids, the body can make AA from LA and DHA from ALA.
References
1Vasquez.
Research found that, while an increased consumption of fish was associated with a decreased risk of
late age-related maculopathy (ARM), it did interfere with the absorption of vitamin E,10 one very
necessary in reducing risk of several disorders, including visual disturbances.11, 12, 13
To be sure, contaminants are also found in plant foods. This is why it is so important to obtain
organic foods14 whenever possible. While organic produce may not be available in all areas, it does
present reason enough for people to make every effort to have them grown in their communities and
brought into their stores. Until then, consume more foods that contain the least amount of
contaminants (found at the bottom of the page).
Aside from contaminants, fish is being recognized as a major food and occupational allergen.
Reactions to fish are among the most common food allergies found in adults and children.15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20, 21 But fish is not always obvious. Fish can be found in such items as Worcestershire sauce,
which may contain anchovies, Caesar salad, and imitation seafood.22
References
1GPA (Global
Programme of Action). "How can POPs Enter and Accumulate in Fish and
Other Living Marine Organisms?"
http://pops.gpa.unep.org/032marin.htm
2OCA (Organic Consumers Association). "130 Nations Will Eliminate World's 12 Worst
Pesticides and Industrial Chemicals."
http://www.organicconsumers.org/foodsafety/pesticides050405.cfm
3USGS (US Geological Survey). Oct. 2000. Fact sheet. "Mercury in the Environment."
http://www.usgs.gov/themes/factsheet/146-00/
4Eilperin. Washington Post, Sept.23, 2005. "Women in Coastal Areas Are Found to Have
Higher Mercury Levels."
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/09/22/AR2005092201899.html
5FDA and EPA. 2004. "Consumer Advisory: What you need to know about mercury in fish
and shellfish."
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fishadvice/advice.html
6Hu, Bronner, Willett, Stampfer, Rexrode, Albert, Hunter, and Manson. 2002. "Fish and
omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women." Journal of the
American Medical Association 287:1815-21.
7Jacobs, Ferrario, and Byrne. 2002. "Investigation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxinx,
dibenzo-p-furans and selected coplanar biphenyls in Scotish farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo
salar)." Chemosphere 47(2):183-91.
8Hites, Foran, Carpenter, Hamilton, Knuth, and Schwager. 2004. "Global assessment of
organic contaminants in farmed salmon." Science 303:226-29.
9Science Daily (from the American Chemical Society). 2004. "Fish Oil Supplements May
Contain Flame Retardants."
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/03/040317073605.htm
10Smith, Mitchel, and Leeder. 2000. "Dietary fat and fish intake and age-related
maculopathy". Archives of Ophthalmology 118:401-404.
11Duff. September, 2001. "Vitamin E."
http://www.innvista.com/health/nutrition/vitamins/e.htm
12Duff. June, 2004. "Eyes and Nutrition."
http://www.innvista.com/health/ailments/eyeail/eyesnutr.htm
13Delcourt, Cristol, Tessier, Lger, Descomps, Papoz, and the POLA Study Group.
1999. "Age-related macular degeneration and antioxidant status in the POLA study".
Archives of Opthalmology 117 (10):1384-90.
14Duff. August, 2005. "Organic Foods."
http://www.innvista.com/health/foods/organics/default.htm
15Hebling, McCants, Musmand, Schwartz, and Lehrer. 1996. "Immune-pathogenesis of
fish allergy: identification of fish-allergic adults by skin test and radioallergsorbent test."
Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 77:48-54.
16James, Helm, Burks, and Leherer. 1997. "Comparison of pediatric and adult IgE
antibody binding to fish proteins." Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 79:131-37.
17Hansen, Bindsley-Jensen, Skov, and Poulsen. 1997. "Cod-fish allergy in adults: IgE
cross-reactivity among fish species." Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 78:187-94.
18Madsen. 1997. "Prevalence of food allergy intolerance in Europe." Environmental
Taxicology and Pharmacology 4:163-67.
19FAAN - Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network. March, 2004. "Americans with Seafood Allergies More Than
Double Those with Peanut Allergies."
http://www.foodallergy.org/press_releases/seafoodpress.html
20Tidwell. About
Other References
Find Articles."Shattering a myth: fish and disease" a question and answer article
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0876/is_n58/ai_10843585#continue
Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation."Fishing for Facts"
http://www.vegetarian.org.uk/fish/index.htm
(While this article has good information, you do have to buy their references.)
Chicago Tribune Dec.13, 2005 article on mercury in canned tuna
CBC Canada Nov. 5, 2004 article on mercury in canned tuna
http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2004/11/05/mercury_tuna041105.html
San Francisco Chronicle June 19, 2003 article on mercury in canned tuna
http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/06/19/MN257163.DTL
The report goes on to say that one brand of fish oil supplement was spoiled and some fell short of
the amount of EPA or DHA stated on the label with the worst containing only 53% of its claimed
EPA content. Although this product was marketed for use by pets, it was also sold for human use.
Another study12 was done by a group called Environmental Defense. They contacted 75 companies
who produce fish oil supplements commonly found in supermarkets, pharmacies, and health food
stores and asked them three questions.
1. Do you purify your fish oil to reduce or remove environmental contaminants?
2. What methods do you use to purify your fish oil?
3. What standards do you comply with regarding acceptable levels of contaminants?
Environmental Defense also requested information on three contaminants: mercury, PCBs, and
dioxins since these three are found in the majority of consumption advisories for fish caught in the
United States. Although most companies adhered to a strict standard of contaminant removal, some
were less than forthcoming with their information. Therefore, consumers are admonished to be
knowledgeable about the brands they are using and not just with fish oil supplements.
Pharmaceutical grade fish oil is a term used to separate unscrupulous fish oil supplement
manufacturers from those trying to offer a decent product. However, since there are no set standards
for this term, it didnt take long before it was picked up and widely used. To some, pharmaceutical
grade means a concentrated potency of EPA and DHA in their products, while to others it means a
lack of impurities and contaminants.13
Tran goes on to say that most fish oil supplements found in grocery or drug stores apparently do not
even meet the standards of this open-ended definition. According to some manufacturers, it takes
roughly 100 gallons of health-food grade fish oil to produce one gallon of pharmaceutical-grade fish
oil.14 But even this is not set in stone. It just depends on the ethics of any particular manufacturer.
Dr. Barry Sears, who supposedly was the first to coin the term pharmaceutical-grade, has become so
disgusted with it all, that he changed the name of his pharmaceutical-grade product to ultrarefined.15
According to a consumer report by International Fish Oil Standards,16 standards of quality have
been raised to a 5-star rating system that will show better levels of quality and purity. Although this
particular report lists various products that meet their consumer ready standards, nothing was
stated as to whether any or all received the full 5-star rating. To be fair, it is these products that try
to maintain high quality standards.
References
1Nettleton.
1995. Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Health. New York: Chapman and Hall.
Rubira, Matsushita, and Souza. 1995. "Omega-3 fatty acids in freshwater fish
from South Brazil." Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 72(10):1207-10.
3Tornaritis, Peraki, Georgulli, Kafatos, Charalambbakis, Divanack, Kentouri,
Yiannopoulos, Frenaritou, and Argyrides. 1994. "Fatty acid composition and total fat
content of eight species of Mediterranean fish." International Journal of Food Sciences and
Nutrition 45:135-39.
4"Environmental Defence." http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?
subnav=article&contentID=4362
5Saldeen. 2002. "Fish Oil and Health. Positive Health."
http://www.positivehealth.com/permit/Articles/Nutrition/sald19.htm
6"EPA fish processing methods." http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s13-1.pdf
7Adapted from the USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory
2Andrade,
http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
8Molketin and Precht. 1995. "Determination of trans-octadecenoic acids in German
margarines, shortenings, cooking and dietary fats" by Ag. TLC/GC. Ernhrungswiss 34:31417.
9Innis and King. 1999. "Trans-fatty acids in human milk are inversely associated with
concentrations of essential all-cis-6 and n-3 fatty acids in plasma lipids of breast-fed
infants." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70:383-90.
10ConsumerLab.
http://www.consumerlab.com/results/omega3.asp
11Environmental Defence. "How safe are fish oil
supplements?"http://www.environmentaldefense.org/article.cfm?contentid=4362
12Environmental Defence. Fish Oil Supplements: Is The Brand You're Taking Safe?
http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?subnav=fishoil&sort=Rating
13Tran. Mar, 2005. Fish oil supplements: finding the one thats right for you. Better
Nutrition. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FKA/is_3_67/ai_n11832856
14Storer. Pharmaceutical Grade Fish Oil -- Why Is It Different?
15Dr. Barry Sears.
http://www.omega3zone.biz/ultra-refined-fish-oil.htm
16IFOS (International Fish Oil Standards). University of Guelph, Canada.
http://www.nutrasource.ca/ifos_new/index.cfm?section=ifosconsumer>
Light can induce free-radical chain reactions that break down EFAs into aldehydes, ketones,
and other toxic and nontoxic products, as well as destroying their vital properties. Light
destroys the EFAs in oil 1,000 times faster than does oxygen and is the reason that coldpressed oils are sold in dark bottles.
Oxygen causes EFAs to become rancid, resulting in a scratchy, bitter, or fishy taste and
smell. Rancid fats are linked to increased rates of cancer, heart disease, atherosclerosis, and
various other health problems.
Heat destroys EFAs by twisting the molecule into an unnatural shape, thereby producing
harmful free radicals and other toxic substances.
Metals, for example, nickel and aluminum are catalysts in the hydrogenation process.
Time is a destroying factor. As soon as a fish dies, its components begin to deteriorate
immediately. The same holds true for oil seeds and grains. This deterioration accelerates
during storage and processing, even when stabilizers are added. The major sign of
deterioration is rancidity, as evidenced by a fishy or off-taste that leaves a scratchy feeling
in the back of your throat. One exception may be chia seed, which does not lose its naturally
occurring antioxidants (chlorogenic and caffeic acids). It appears this is the reason that the
ancients were able to keep the seeds for long periods of time without spoilage.3, 4
With this in mind, when fish is cooked or canned, almost all of the nutritional benefit is lost and
may even turn around to be more harmful. In fact, EFAs in fish oils are destroyed five times more
rapidly than the seed oil component, ALA; and ALA is five times more sensitive than LA.5 Adding
insult to injury, while the much sought-after long-chain (preformed) EPA and DHA are destroyed by
cooking, toxins are not.6 Therefore, because of toxins and parasites, eating fish raw should never be
an option. 7
Destruction through oxidation is a crucial factor when dealing with EPA and DHA supplements.
While ALA is a fairly stable compound, the converted forms are not, thereby dramatically
increasing the formation of free radicals. There is a close relationship between peroxidation (a free
radical attack on cells) and cardiovascular diseases as well as such other diseases as cancer,
cataracts, immune system decline, and brain dysfunction.
Studies have shown that the risk of CHD (coronary heart disease) is indeed reduced by the effects
of EPA and DHA but only if there is sufficient oxidative protection to minimize both the lipid
peroxidation and the disruption of the cells antioxidant system.8,9 This is why many manufacturers
of fish oil supplements supposedly include the antioxidant, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) not only
to prevent oxidation but also to maintain EPA/DHA stability after it is consumed.
However, this small amount of vitamin E does not offer sufficient protection.10 The vitamin E used
is usually the cheaper synthetic form and added only to increase shelf life. It has nothing to do with
the health of the recipient. Potency of synthetic vitamin E is well recognized as being half that of
the natural.11, 12
Vitamin E supplementation is very important if comsuming fish or taking fish oil; which will be
References
1Erasmus.
http://udoerasmus.com/firstscreen.htm
2Erasmus. Fats that Heal, Fats that Kill: The complete guide to fats, oils, cholesterol and
human health. Alive Books, 1993.
3Ayerza and Coates. Chia: Rediscovering a Forgotten Crop of the Aztecs. U of Arizona
Press, 2005.
4Taga, Miller, and Pratt. 1984. "Chia seeds as a source of natural lipid antioxidants."
Journal of the american Oil Chemists Society 61:928-31.
5Erasmus.
http://www.udoerasmus.com/articles/udo/fish_oil.htm
6Environmental Defense.
http://www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?subnav=shouldiworry
7USDA Food Safety Concerns.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ear/FLRECSAF.html
8Song, Fujimoto, and Miyazawa. 2000. "Polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids susceptible to
peroxidation are increased in plasma and tissue lipids of rats fed docosahexaenoic acidcontaining oils." Journal of Nutrition 130:3028-33.
9Engstrom, Alving, Wallin, and Saldeen. 1996. "Stable fish oil has a better effect on
cholesterol and joint stiffness than ordinary fish oil." (Sweden) Hygeia 105:373.
10Nutrition Health Review, Spring 1991. "Fish oil poses problems, researchers charge Agricultural Research Human Nutrition Center on Aging at Tufts University; Food and Drug
Administration unconvinced of health benefits."
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0876/is_n58/ai_10843695
11USDA. 2004. "Nutrient Database for Standard Reference."
http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
12PDR Health. "Vitamin E"
. http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/vit_0266.shtml
References
1Song
and Miyazawa. 2001. "Enhanced level of n-3 fatty acid in membrane phospholipids
induces lipid peroxidations in rats fed dietary docosahexaenoic acid oil." Atherosclerosis
155:9-18.
2Simopoulos. 2002. "Omega-3 fatty acids in wild plants, nuts, and seeds." Asia Pacific
Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
http://www.healthyeatingclub.org/APJCN/Volume11/vol11sup6/abstracts11sup6.htm
3Song, Fujimoto, and Miyazawa. 2002. "Polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids susceptible to
peroxidation are increased in plasma and tissue lipids of rats fed docosahexaenoic acid
DHA-containing oils." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 130:3028-33.
4Thies, Caron, Powel, Yagoob, Newsholme, and Calder. 2001. "Dietary supplementation
with eiosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 years." American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73:539-48.
5"Fish oil poses problems, researchers charge - Agricultural Research Human Nutrition
Center on Aging at Tufts University; Food and Drug Administration unconvinced of health
benefits." Nutrition Health Review, Spring 1991.
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0876/is_n58/ai_10843695
6"Fish Oil." UC Berkeley Wellness Letter, November 2003.
http://www.berkeleywellness.com/html/ds/dsFishOil.php
7Friedberg, Janssen, Heine, and Grobbee. 1998. "Fish oil and glycemic control in
diabetes." Diabetes Care 21(4):494-500.
8Montori, Farmer, Wollan, and Dinneen. 2000. "Fish oil supplementation in type 2
diabetes." Diabetes Care 23(9):1407-15.
9Stone. 2000. "The Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto
Miocardio (GISSI)-Prevenzione Trial on Fish Oil and Vitamin E Supplementation in
Myocardial Infarction Survivors." Current Cardiology Reports 2(5):445-51.
One tablespoon of hempseed oil or 1 ounce of shelled hempseed per day supplies roughly
6.6 grams of omega-6 and 2.2 grams of omega-3s, which is the right amount required for a
2000-calorie diet.11
Why not flaxseed? Flaxseed has an overabundance of omega-3s and is good for a short-term
treatment of an omega-3 deficiency. For long-term health maintenance, however, hemp seed or chia
seed are better alternatives because they are the closest to the ratio the human body demands
which is roughly 3:1 (omega-6 to omega-3). Hemp seed and chia seed have this ratio. Flaxseed has
an opposite ratio of 1:3. In addition, flaxseed cannot be digested unless it is ground up, which
increases the risk of oxidization. This is also true of hemp seed and the reason why both seeds need
to be refrigerated. Chia seed, however, does not have this problem as it contains natural antioxidants
that keep it from spoiling.12
When using plant-based oils, conversion rates increase when other nutrients are present. Although
recommendations vary as to which nutrients, most agree that these are necessary to help increase
the conversion of ALA to its necessary derivatives: zinc, selenium, magnesium, folic acid, and
vitamins B3 (niacin), B6 and C.13, 14
Researchers have compared the effects of supplying ALA of vegetable origin with marine sources
of DHA and EPA. They determined that there was very little differences between the two as far as
effect on humans were concerned.15 However, it has been found that vegetable oils containing SDA
(hempseed, black currant seed, and echium oils) could be more effective in increasing tissue EPA
concentrations than the currently ALA-containing vegetable oils.16, 17
Medium-chain fatty acids from plant-based oils are more easily digested than long-chain fatty acids
from fish, for example. When long-chain fatty acids are eaten, they must be emulsified by bile salts
in the small intestine before they can be absorbed into the body. Short- and medium-chain fatty
acids are absorbed directly through the portal vein to the liver, where they are immediately available
to the body. Medium chain fatty acids also help increase the absorption of such nutrients as the fatsoluble vitamins A, E, D, and K as well as magnesium, calcium, carotenoids, flavonoids, and the
supplemental long-chain fatty acids EPA, DHA, and GLA.18
It seems obvious that adding fish oil to an already bad diet is not the answer for preventing disease.
A good diet, complete with vital nutrients, is the overall answer as well as the more immediate
solution that requires the conversion of parent essential fatty acids into the components the body
requires on a daily basis.
References
1Brenna.
10Willard,
As confirmation, a flurry of controlled studies has determined that consumption of ALA omega-3
fatty acids, rather than fish oil, is associated with the reduced risk of CHD (coronary heart disease).8
to 22 Furthermore, one study went so far as to suggest that the percentage of DHA in erythrocytes
could be used as an indicator of risk for CHD23 since it is DHA and not EPA that raises HDL
cholesterol levels.
One study to watch for is currently being carried out at the St. Boniface General Hospital Research
Centre in Winnipeg, Canada. One of their projects includes the effects of fish oil, flaxseed oil, and
hempseed oil supplementation on plasma lipids, LDL oxidation, inflammatory profile, and platelet
function in healthy humans.24
References
1Rissanen,