8 Fundamental Equation of Fluid Flow

Fundamental Equation of Fluid
Md. Mizanur Rahman

Room: 77, Block A Level 1; School of Engineering and IT
Universiti Malaysia SabahKota Kinabalu,
88400 Sabah, Malaysia
Email: mizanur@ums.edu.my
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW
Introduction: A fluid motion can be completely

analysed by the application of certain fundamental
equation.
(1) The Continuity Equation: The law of conservation
of mass flow
(2) The Energy Equation: The law of conservation of
energy
(3) The Momentum Equation:
conservation of momentum
The
law
of
Energy Possessed by a Fluid body: A fluid body can

possess
Potential Energy: fluid body by virtue of its
position or location in space. Consider W Newton
of a fluid at a height of Z meter above a datum
plane. The potential energy of W Newton of fluid
is equal to WZ Newton meter or Joule. The
potential energy per newton of the fluid is equal
to Z Newton meter/Newton or the potential
energy head is Z meter
3
Energy Possessed by a Fluid body: Pressure Energy:

the pressure at which it is maintained.
Let W Newton is the weight of the fluid particle at

the surface of the tube. The potential energy of the
fluid practical Wh Newton meter or Joule. When
these particle inside the chamber they had only
pressure energy.
4
When the particles leave the chamber then the

pressure energy converted into converted into
potential energy.
So, the pressure energy of W newton on fluid in the
chamber =Wh Newton meter or Joule
But we know that
Where,
is the specific weight of the fluid
Pressure energy of W Newton of fluid in the chamber

Pressure energy per Newton of fluid

Kinematic Energy: Energy possessed by a fluid

body by virtue of it motion
Let consider W newton of a fluid be moving at a
velocity of v meter per second. Then the kinetic
energy of fluid
Kinetic energy per newton the fluid body
This is known as kinetic head.
Total Energy of W Newton of the fluid body

Newton meter
Total energy per newton the fluid body
meter
This is known as total pressure head.
Bernoulli Theorem :In a steady continuous flow of a

frictionless incompressible fluid, the sum of the
potential head, the pressure head and the kinetic head
is the same at all points
2!
2!
Bernoulli Theorem can be rewrite as :

Energy of a fluid per unit weight of the fluid
2!
"
Energy of a fluid per unit mass of the fluid

!
"
Energy of a fluid per unit volume of the fluid

#
"
10
Eulers Equation of Motion :The net force that acts

on a fluid body is called the inertial force. The
inertial force is the resultant of all the forces acting
on a fluid body.
Let consider gravitation force (Fg); Pressure force
(Fp); Viscous force (Fv); Surface tensile force (Ft) and
elastic force (Fe)
So the inertial force
$%
$&
$'
11
The force due to Surface tensile (Ft) and

Compressibility (Fe) are usually very small that can
be ignored. Viscous forces are predominant only at
low velocity. So it can be ignored at high velocity
So the inertial force
$%
12
Kinetic energy correction factor: This equation is

applicable subject to the following assumption
(i) the flow of the fluid is steady
(ii) the flow is frictionless
(iii) No tangential stresses exits
(iv) The fluid is incompressible
(v) The flow is continuous
13
Application of Bernoulli's Equation: When liquid

flow through pipe line, at any section of the pipe line
the velocity is not uniform
(
2!
"
Where is a factor called kinetic energy correction

factor
In the case turbulent flow is nearly equal to unity
and for laminar flow is equal 2
14
Power of the jet :

Let consider a is area and v is the velocity of water jet.
Weight of water discharge per second
Kinetic head
Power of the jet
(m)
)
) *
15
Problem 1: A pipe of diameter 250 mm conveys a

discharge of 2400 liters of water per minute and has
a pressure of 20 kN/m2 at a certain section. Find the
total energy head with respect to a datum 4 meter
below the pipe. (Ans: 6.073m)
Problem 2: Oil of specific gravity 0.8 flows in a
horizontal pipe at a height of 3 m above a datum
plane. At a section of a pipe in diameter is 120 mm
and the pressure intensity is 1.25 bar. If the total
energy head at the section is 25 m, the rate of flow of
oil (Ans:Q= 0.1234m3/s)
16
Problem 3: Calculate the work done in forcing 250

litres of water into a boiler in which the pressure is
1200 kN/m2 . If this work is done in 5 minute, what
power is expanded (Ans: 1kW)
Hints: Work done =
kNm; Power expended
=Work done/sec
Problem 4: A jet of water 25 mm in diameter has a
velocity of 20 m/s. Find the power of the jet
17
Problem 5: Water flow at 75 liters per second in a pipe

whose diameter at sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 300 mm and 150
mm respectively. Which are height 5 m and 3 m above the
datum. If the pressure at section 11 is 450 kPa, find the
pressure at section 2-2. Neglect loss of energy.
1
2
1
5
2
3
18
Problem 5: Water flow at 75 liters per second in a pipe

whose diameter at sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 300 mm and 150
mm respectively. Which are height 5 m and 3 m above the
datum. If the pressure at section 11 is 450 kPa, find the
pressure at section 2-2. Neglect loss of energy.
,
4,
.
,
2
,
1
5
2
3
2!
2!
461.18 3
19

Problem 6: A pipe is varying section has areas 900 mm2 2500
mm2 and 600 mm2 at point 1, 2 and 3. The height of these points
above a datum plane are 0.9 m , 0.6 m and 0.2 m respectively. The
pipe is connected at its upper end to tank in which the free water
surface is above 2 m above the datum plane. Ignoring losses find
the discharge through the system, the kinetic energy heads and the
pressure heads at each of the above three points . Assume that the
discharge at outlet is to the atmosphere
20
2 m above datum
0.9
0.2
2!
Hence the discharge is to the atmosphere

,
0.6 m above datum
2!
2!
6
0.9 m above datum
0.6
,6
Discharge = 3.57 litres/sec
0.2 m above datum
21
Problem 7:The top and bottom diameters of a 2 m long

vertically tapering pipe are 100 mm and 50 mm
respectively. Water flows down the pipe at 30 liters per
second. Find the pressure difference between the two
ends of the pipe
22
789:;<8= >:
0.008
0.002
;
D
3.82
2!
2!
3.82
15.3
2
2!
2!
9.16 + 9.81 3 6
15.3
D
0
903
23
Problem 8:Figure shows a pipe discharge water from a

tank. The 150 mm diameter pipe is fitted with a 75 mm
diameter nozzle at outlet. Find the discharge. Find also
the pressure heads at the point marks 1,2,3 and 4.
Ignore loss of energy heads.
A
3m
E3.07 3
32.50 3
E3.07 3
46.00 3
5m
B
24

H
= velocity at nozzle
velocity at pipe
J
5
2!
5m
4
3m
2!
0
H
0
9.90
0
.
2!
2!
0.044
6
25
Problem 9:Figure shows a vertical tapered pipe

conveying water at 60 l/s. If the flow is up the pipe, find
the deflection y of the differential mercury manometer
ignore loss of energy
120
60
y
E
200
F
All Dimensions in mm
26
0.031
0.0113
1.91
2!
2!
2!
7.64
0.186
120
2
60
y
E
2.975
200
D
2!
27
120
E
3.4
2
60
y
E
200
28
Pressure head at E = Pressure head at F

Pressure head at E
Pressure head at $
K
E0.6
L
L
EM
2.8
12.6
NM
0.222
K
L
K
L
EM
NM
222
29
Practice Problem 1: Water is flowing though a pipe line at a rate

of 0.04 m3/s. The pipe line is 10 cm in diameter and it is at an
elevation of 80 m at section A. At section B it is an elevation of
110 m and has diameter of 20 cm. The pressure of water at A is 40
kN/m2 and energy loss in pipe between section A and B is 0.3 m of
water. Analyze pressure at B if the flow is from A to B.
Practice Problem 2: At a certain location A of a pipe carrying an
oil of density 850 kg/m3, the diameter is 80 cm, the pressure is
180kN/m2 and the average velocity is 5 m/s. At another section B
which is 3 m higher than A the diameter is 50 m and the pressure
is 100 kN/m2. Conclude the direction of flow.
30
Practice Problem 3: Water is flowing vertically upward through a

pipeline having diameter 1 m and 0.5 m at the base and top
respectively. The pressure at the lower end is 450 mm of Hg,
while the pressure at the upper end is 20 kN/m2. If the loss of head
is 20% of difference in velocity head , compute the discharge. The
difference in elevation is 4 m.
31
Application of Bernoulli's Equation Measurement of Flow

Rate
Venturimeter:
o It is one of the popular device to measure flow rate in pipe
o It consists of a converging conical tube leading to a
cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter
than that of the pipe line, which is followed by a diverging
section and diameter increases again to that of the main pipe
line.
32
o The inlet and outlet diameters are

the same as the diameter of the
pipe.
2
1
#Q
D P
P
#N
o At throat the velocity increase and

pressure decrease
ST
33
o The size of a venturimeter is specified by the pipe and throat

diameter.
Assuming that there is no energy losses. Applying Bernoulli's energy
equation
1
2!
2
2!
2
2!
2!
2!
E
E
#!
D ED
D ED
34
Applying continuity equation

,
,
,
So the Bernoullis energy equation can rewrite simply as

,
,1 E ,2
E
#!
2!
D ED
Volumetric flow rate can be found

.&U
, ,
,1 E ,2
2!
E
#!
D ED
35

, ,
.&U
2!V
,1 E ,2
Where,
E
#!
D ED
The value H can be determined from the U tube differential

manometer. Let consider fluid flowing though pipe line having
density #Q and the density of the manometer fluid is #N . The
pressure intensity at level XX must be same in both limbs
W
#Q ! D E D
V
E
#!
#Q ! D E D E
D ED
#N !
#N
E1
#Q
36
2
1
#Q
D P
P
#N
ST
37

.&U
, ,
,1 E ,2
#N
2!
E1
#Q
Reality some losses take place between 1 and 2. Therefore .&U will be
slightly greater than the actual value. A new co-efficient is
introduced which is known as coefficient of discharge "X . It is a
ratio of actual discharge and theoretical discharge
"X
.
.&U
The value of "X varies from 0.95 tom 0.99

.
"X .&U
"X , ,
,1 E ,2
#N
2!
E1
#Q
38

Note:
When a manometer is connected across two section of
venturimeter actually measures the piezometric pressure
difference not the static pressure difference
The angle of converging duct is greater than the divergent duct
or diffuser to avoid the loss due to separation.
39

Problems 10: A horizontal venturimeter whose inlet and throat
diameters are 400 mm and 150 mm respectively is used to gauge
the flow of water. The differential gauge connected to the inlet
and the throat shows reading of 250 mm of mercury. Find the rate
of flow. Take "X 0.98
Solution:
3
Z
YE1 M
400
7.11;
[\
]^
_`
E^
250
13.6 E 1 + 0.25
0.13
+ àb
;M
3.15
250
V!
f
e
c. ^d hg
40

Problems 11: A vertical venturimeter has its inlet and throat
diameters as 250 mm and 125 mm respectively. A differential
mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat points gives
a reading of 250 mm. Find the discharge through the
venturimeter. Take coefficient of discharge as 0.98.
Hints:
3
4 ;
0.05
[\
; "X
]^
_` E ^
0.98;
+ àb
1EY M
f
e
c. c^ hg
3.15
41

Problems 12: A vertical venturimeter has an area ratio of 5. It
has a throat diameter of 1 cm. Oil specific gravity 0.85 flows
through it. A mercury differential gauge indicates a difference in
height of 20 cm. Find the discharge through the venturimeter.
Take coefficient of discharge as 0.98.
Hints: 3
5 ;
0.00008
; "X
Y E 1 M i Y
Z
[\
]^
_`
YN
Yj
E^
0.98
16
+ àb
42

Problems 13: An oil of relative density 0.8 flows through a
vertical pipe of diameter 24 cm. The flow is measured by a 24 cm
+ 12 cm venturimeter . The throat is 30 cm above the inlet
section. A differential mercury U- tube manometer is connected to
the inlet and throat. The manometer shows a deflection of 12 cm.
Calculate the flow rate through the pipe. Take "X 0.98
Practice Problem 4: A vertical venturimeter has an area ratio of
5. It has throat diameter of 1 cm. When oil of specific gravity 0.8
flows through it, the mercury differential gauge indicates a
difference in height of 12 cm. Find the discharge through the
venturimeter. Take "X as unity. Answer: . 0.00049 6
43

Practice Problem 5: An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing
through an inclined at 600 to the horizontal and has the inlet and
throat diameter 20 cm and 10 cm respectively. The throat is 0.5 m
above the inlet and the pressure gauges at the entrance and the
throat shows pressure 160 kN/m2 and 85 kN/m2 . If the flow rate
is 0.104 find the coefficient of discharge. Answer: "X 0.963
Practice Problem 6: A vertical venturimeter is fitted with a
circular pipe of diameter 30 cm. Diameter of the throat of the
venturimeter is 15 cm. The loss of head from then entrance to the
throat is 1/6 times the throat velocity head. The difference in
reading of the two limbs of the differential mercury manometer is
50 cm. Determine the quantity of water flowing through the pipe.
Answer: k
N
2.05 .
l
N*
0.1448
l
44
Orificemeter:
o Venturimeter is relatively complex to construction and hence
expensive
o It is a simple device for the measurement of flow
o It consists of a thin circular plate with sharp edge circular
hole drilled in it.
o The orifice plate produces a constriction of the flow.
o The streamlines continue to converge short distance
downstream of the plane of the orifice where the vena
contracta is formed and then expand.
45
46
2!
2
2!
E
#!
2!
D ED
Applying continuity equation

,
,
,
So the Bernoullis energy equation can rewrite simply as

,
,1 E ,2
2!
E
#!
D ED
47

Area of vena contract , is less than that of orifice ,m and
coefficient of contraction "n is defined as
"n
,
,1 E "o ,0
.
"n ,m ,
,1 E "o ,0
2!
,
,
,m
E
#!
D ED
E
#!
D ED
"n ,m
2!
48
Simplify
.
"X ,m ,
,1 E ,0
"X
2!
E
#!
D ED
"n ,1 E ,0
,1 E "o ,0
Pizometric pressure difference can also be expressed in terms of the

manometer reading as
E
#!
D ED
#N
E1
#Q
49
"X ,m ,
,1 E ,0
#N
2!
E1
#Q
Problem 5: An orifice meter with orifice diameter 20 cm is inserted

in a pipe of 30 cm diameter through which water is flowing.
Coefficient of discharge for the orifice meter is 0.62. if the pressure
gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter show
pressure 290 kN/m2 and 195 kN/m2. Find the discharge through pipe
50

Practice Problem 13: A 300 mm + 300 mm venture meter is to be
replaced by an orifice meter. Both the meter are to give the same
differential mercury manometer reading for a discharge of 100 lit/s
and the inlet diameter to remain 300 mm. what should be diameter of
orifice? The coefficient of discharge of venture meter and orifice
meter are 0.98 and 0.6 respectively.
51

Pitot Tube
It is consist of a right angle tube which one end projecting out of the
flow and another end pointing directly along to the direction of flow.
2!
At point 1 the flow same as normal tube flow but at point 2 flow has
been stopped completely. So the velocity at 2 is zero.
52

2!
Applying Bernoullis Energy Equation between point 1 and 2

#!
2!
l&)
2!
l&)&
l&)
#!

l&)&
#!
53

2!
With Consideration loss, the velocity equation become

" 2!
l&)
l&)&
" is known as coefficient of the tube

54
55

Momentum Equation
Net force acting on the fluid mass is equal to the change in
momentum of flow per unit time in that direction. According to
the second law of Newton
$
+
X
But
$
X&
$
This equation is known as momentum equation and can be
rewrite as
$.
56

Momentum Equation
$.
This equation is known as impulse momentum equation and
states that the impulse of a force F acting on a fluid of mass m in
a short interval of time
is equal to the change of momentum
in the direction of force.
57

Momentum Equation
Reynolds Transport Theorem: Transformation (from control
mass to control volume ) is achieved by a general theorem is
known as Reynolds Transport Theorem. It is also known as
Leibniz - Reynolds transport theorem
q
r s# r s#k. ,u
q vx
lpl&'N
vw
This equation can be rewrite as
q
r s# r s#ky . ,u
q vx
lpl&'N
vw
Where,
ky k E kn
58
Conservation of Linear Momentum:

q
k lpl&'N
r s# r #k. ky . ,u
q vx
vw
Left hand side becomes $ulpl&'N by Newtons second law of
motion.
q
u
{ $lpl&'N
r s# r #k. ky . ,u
q vx
vw
59

Force Exerted by a flowing Fluid on a Pipe
k sin
$p
k cos
1
,
$}
,
, are velocity, pressure and cross sectional area at
point 1 and
,
, are at point 2. $}
$p are the
component of force along x and y direction.
According to the momentum equation
The net force acting on fluid in the direction of x = rate of
change of momentum in x direction.
, E , cos E $}

o +
oT M o
!
60

Force Exerted by a flowing Fluid on a Pipe
sin
$p
cos
1
,
$}
#. $T
oT M W WT + T T
oT M W WT
#.
cos E
$} #.
E cos E , cos
,
Similarly momentum in y direction
$p #. E sin E , sin
Resultant force $
$p
$
$}
$p
tan
$}
61

Problem 6: A 450 reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the
inlet and outlet diameter of the bend are 600 mm and 300 mm
respectively. Find the force exerted by water in the bend if the
intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 8.829 N/cm2 and rate of
flow of water is 600 litres/s.
Practice Problem 13: 250 litres/s of water is flowing in a pipe
having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is bent by 1350, find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend. The
pressure of water flowing is 39.24 N/cm2.
62

Moment of Momentum Equation
It is derived from moment of momentum principle that states the
resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of
change of moment of momentum.
Let
Fluid velocity at section 1 is radius of curvature is , Q is the
flow rate and fluid density is #. Fluid velocity and radius of
curvature at section 2 are
.
Moment of fluid in section 1
+
oT M
#. +
Moment of momentum per second at section 1

#. + +
63

Moment of Momentum Equation
Moment of momentum per second at section 2
#. + +
Rate of change of momentum
#. + + E #. + +
#.
E
According to the momentum principle
Resultant torque = rate of change of momentum
#.
E
Application of this equation
Flow problem analysis in turbine and centrifugal pump
Finding torque on sprinkler exerted by water
64
sin
Free Liquid of Jets

Water is coming out from the nozzle at parabolic path to the
atmosphere.
,
cos
Consider a point P on the centerline of jet. Let the velocity of

fluid along x and y directions are u and v. and particle take time t
to reach at point P. Horizontal and vertical distance travel by the
liquid particle
W
oT M o
T W T o T +
cos + EEEE E1
65

Free Liquid of Jets
M
oT M o
T M T o T
1
sin + E !
2
From the equation 1
1
+ E !
2
EEEEE E 2
W
cos
Insert the value of t in equation 2 and simplify
!W
o
M W tan E
2
Maximum Height attain by the Jet
T
Y
2!
66

Time of Flight
Time to reach highest Point
Time to reach highest Point
2 sin
!
sin
!
sin 2
!
Value for for maximum range
2
W W
sin
!
!
W
67
Problem 10: The tank containing oil of specific gravity 0.8

discharges into the atmosphere through a 120 mm diameter
pipe provided with a 30 mm diameter nozzle at outlet. Fine the
discharge from the nozzle if the head of oil in the tank above
the centre line of the pipe is 5 m. The loss of head in the pipe
may be taken as 15 h where v is the velocity in the pipe.
Assume that no loss of head in the nozzle. Find also the
pressure head at the base of the nozzle.
2!
2!
68
Problem 11:Find the height h to which the water jet

will shoot out of the nozzle in the arrangement shown in
Figure . Neglect loss of energy.
C
h
100 mm
1m
200 mm
A
PA = 50KPa
69

8 Fundamental Equation of Fluid Flow

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Fundamental Equation of Fluid

Md. Mizanur Rahman

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Introduction: A fluid motion can be completely

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Energy Possessed by a Fluid body: A fluid body can

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Energy Possessed by a Fluid body: Pressure Energy:

Let W Newton is the weight of the fluid particle at

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

When the particles leave the chamber then the

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

is the specific weight of the fluid

Pressure energy of W Newton of fluid in the chamber

Pressure energy per Newton of fluid

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Kinematic Energy: Energy possessed by a fluid

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Total Energy of W Newton of the fluid body

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Bernoulli Theorem :In a steady continuous flow of a

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Bernoulli Theorem can be rewrite as :

Energy of a fluid per unit mass of the fluid

Energy of a fluid per unit volume of the fluid

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Eulers Equation of Motion :The net force that acts

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

The force due to Surface tensile (Ft) and

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Kinetic energy correction factor: This equation is

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Application of Bernoulli's Equation: When liquid

Where is a factor called kinetic energy correction

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Power of the jet :

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 1: A pipe of diameter 250 mm conveys a

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 3: Calculate the work done in forcing 250

kNm; Power expended

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 5: Water flow at 75 liters per second in a pipe

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 5: Water flow at 75 liters per second in a pipe

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Hence the discharge is to the atmosphere

0.6 m above datum

0.9 m above datum

Discharge = 3.57 litres/sec

0.2 m above datum

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 7:The top and bottom diameters of a 2 m long

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 8:Figure shows a pipe discharge water from a

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

Problem 9:Figure shows a vertical tapered pipe

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID FLOW