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A History of Chinese Civilization Second Edition translated by J. R. Foster and Charles Hartman 8 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2 wba ener enna ee yi a ow en {Sb 0-32-00) pap 2F [0 SLE Contents to Pats st of Maps at of Tae Esto Figures ‘Preface tothe New Eton ‘Aknowledgements ‘Trantor’ Pretce Iotrodecton Las and peoples Theta Chinese Nov-Han minorities Modes o if and eres “The sedentary peoples with a highly developed apicuare, 14 The nomad ivestck abs of he Seppe sone, 15 The moose ouples of he Himalayan comple ant ‘a borerlnds, 16 +The med eles of Sah China and South-Eat Asa 17 » Th neta clare and the madre ‘tthe Comal Asan oats, 1b Te main ote ofthe Eurasian cogent 19 Outing of he Roc evltion of the Chinese world “Anigulys 22 The fat uned st deine, sa the er the Mongol ozupation, 24» The Mae emp, 25 Contemporary Cua. 25 ‘he genera characteris of Chine ciation Wang, 32 Proogse “Theft half ofthe snstenth entry wa charcaried by 3 constant deterioration ofthe soci eins, te may ease of which have hardly et bmn anayed. Tere curr ince an imbalance ithe ate ‘Seance which wen ack tthe en of Che ong eon peo of ‘mad expendtre; the advance of corupton in the ling Sera {he goverment srt ince te tine of Hohe, the emperor Cen: lng favourite; the connaour growth in population vt the mid of {helnetenth centuy the over eteaon ofa epee th a nied popes were sumerour and suid from the sOnge aod Stonge pressure of the clon the unfsvourble balance of trade {tom 160-25 onward nan economi recesson tat wa al he ore ‘cele in that followed a period of property and exports ‘Root 1850 these ao case of tension al dei ded a ‘he most seus social expres thatthe Chinese wot ad ever berennd, The Tal Ping Rebelion (18I-*) andthe ses of ag, that echoed and weet on unl aout 148 conte the oe por tant ft nthe Msn of th latent cary. The sock sine to he ruling eases by ths eat roc and pola ri, the forts essary to overcome and the conierabe les and dracon that accosted were the oo of some imprint changes be ap ‘earane of sew pola persoanel aed inte couse ofthe ws of ‘epresion, he weakening ofthe cetral goverment the desi of the ‘oy. The empie that wat restored afer the gre cl wat was Tooger the sme empl that had exited previously twain his conte of decline and ri tha th ft intrusion the Westen powers into Choa took place, fom 1840 wars. Bat the ‘Bush ata of 14042, which were Bound up with opm sea tree onl To acquit the tue historical sigaiieance ln eospe hey ‘terete ft manifestation of «policy of colonia interventon, the ture ad in of which hanged a he dsl power ofthe Western ‘ation devdoped. The ci war, te sala of reconsvucon, ae (China's ities i contrat Ann atte the Wests new eneies J5'185-40and forced the ues of Chin al the ore et poly of eapromit since hey bey needed fora cpt and engines toh thir itary and dora efor. ut exerel pes ge sharper ‘nd sharper from 1870 onvards, acentatng the contradictions be tween thove who favoured coalition an thore who favoured nse tlgence Drvecn modernise in touch wi te frie td tad tonal ignorant ofthe reais of the age, At the same tine he Prologue 331 tuckwardns ofa China 00 vs and 10 highly poplated to permit ‘adie, rapid anforotion created comparison with the sal ar tons whose fds development was acelin. Japan, which ad profiel fom irae olution Io model onthe Weer coan- fis, curbed the Chinese army and navy i 1894. The Treaty of ‘Shimonosei opened a new paiod nthe Rito of the Cnet ‘ork that oft takeover By Oar. Chapter 25 The Great Recession “The tera cases ofthe dene Worrying sigs of & deetiraton io the sate and la the saci zai ee oa on Cet nd ie jonng ofthe ntenth ery. The fist reat pexsantrevets ofthe ‘Chrng ge bea nthe northwest ann Hon ia 79, the ey ya i Hc i nba of Hana nd Kaho eed ot ‘cy began agin onthe coats of Kwangung end Fabien, became ‘ear atthe eno the eighteenth cea thatthe lous vip of (Cie-ung a ben an age of uancers in whch the publi sees Ia een squandered withou counting te cou The co ane sae ‘ad Te above thei meee, nd corton, evoure byte cel ‘ion of power inthe hand of the emperor and by the peru Moench favour, Ho-e, bad Haowe no bounds rom 173 on wards The goverment, ead by fale eprts, wae bal infor of the tation nthe provinces and ofthe el ogi ofthe lary alas, Whe theft Ching emperors had been party economia (GCap hss i ssl, spent no more onthe sour in thy yee "han the last Ming soveretens spent fn one yea the expen ofthe Mancha artosracyendthe cour rose beyond mestare Inthe sto half of Chere eg. Distaat war, he iar ocousered unpre the revolts by aborigines and Meslems, and the emperors largess cold the process of exauting he esr in te lute as ofthe ehicenth entry. Chewlungs seer, who conned theism sgh edison nes nee ot in resering the suing of Yang cheng (172839), he States eserves amounted o ity mllon hana 180, te eve the y he great cesion 533, table Tal Ping Rbelion, hey ep online millon Nor dd Cen ng sucessr ceed in einatingcoruption and weknes in the ‘Manchu army de Bane which atthe bgt of tier power adie posed Chee sovereignty on such large pat of Ai "The euphoria wich set bv en bold of Chea dsing them jor pat ofthe eighth century doubles Bad barf effets the Seog. ooks ail caused aor of ethan inte pt a ‘there alled the paternal suborarani ofthe Mancha power {o pow more rig ar wel ti th ol and ees demain: Bat {hae was an cre tnre ero ede tote sates eryting appt ‘hat the pail eed admintratve sem, he eclque of produce fd the commercial paces which hd oresponde othe needs of « tess extensive and et hl popaltd empire ha become nada tm empire whic controlled vast erties and whose population ses {othve more than doubled ina cory. The demographic ep whlch In he egheeth eeu had provoked sock a tenarlable expansion ‘seen ove produce the reve effect on Chia econo inte ist Tat ofthe notenth century. The economy ran out of steam whe the population contd to ierease rapid. According to the cess furs, tbe population of Chin Increased by 100 lon betwee 1802 {id 184, he date at ch the Rana ty ansounced tat he [te had over 40 lion inhabitants. Such ass inconetable, Neve hes he sens furs reflec areal the realy Serio ove Poplin of many Chinese provi “var feat santo, agate by the dora a he sate snd the continual increase inthe popuaon, tha Cen ng be ‘oruthed ois succcors Chivching (1796-162) sd Taouang (Us2-50, whore wo reg covered the bl of he inceeh en tury. The peat revolts ipied by the White Lous sect (Pen hin) were wot represed wi 1803, And there was tobe arene of {Mis moveneet afew yar ltr new woules broke out nthe lower ‘Yel River val, a onan in Hope anda Shanta from 111 or verde The lures, who bonged to the Soca of the Cesta ‘Order (Tiendichs) 2 velocarnaton ofthe Waite Lots, founds emmplces at court among high officals dsatisied wih Chieing’s oly of auterty and wed to Avg ln the rand le under Cee Tang A plot orgie in ison with the bel ce i the open st ‘ekg i 181, but coapsed Jon when he imperil palace was abut to be ten by storm. ‘The rebelion nthe proves as ershed «eet er ‘However, slough the Pa enchiso rebelions were sucessfully eal wh de cua cases of the pest agitation were not mina, 534. From decline to akeover ‘These were the land shortage, which pred in spite of earances an the extension of new rps (oui, sect ptato, ground mth > ‘ceae in fal Burdens of every sot the depen ofthe coppet ‘nage in elation tsiber, which begat come ae ace parts ‘ofthe Ameian metal hd dectned, the alin ground ets id up wit the rapde nthe pee of lan, the concentration of land inthe hands (of few rich landowners special in the south), andthe accompanying {tansfornatin of sal farmers nto gull labourers. All he factors ed to permanent testo nthe ound Pesan pation conve throughout he thal of he nose catryaough ai ot prove any Insurrection ts serous tow ‘tick northwestern Cla had epeeaced Inthe ers between [96 {nd 1804 Revol fe recorded in mot al the province, In Ingo tie ist tine those of South China One of th gravest xc ‘edn 183293 the mountains von on ihe border between Husa ‘Sod Rang Theaumonpbere favoured the spread of brinndage od {he development of ere societies, which were ike religous cata tes, her members being bound by oath and regarding each ober ‘oe reatons. Iwas rng het af the seen ena a ‘hese SoketyHoown asthe Tend (Sono of Tem) ants ‘inerour amifations ook roo in South Cina, Meanie conto ofthe aboriginal peoples of the south and of be ‘etter with a Mose majority inthe wet of iking conic a enim precarious and lfc. The Tibetans of Kokonor rebel Saint the Slno-Manchu admiration in 1907, andthe Yao of chow la 133. The Moslems of western Skane by Kea ‘Tur cal ehanp, seceded In 1825, ad the oss Of Kesge and ‘Yertandweie not fcapued unl 18 after a thee year campo, "The unfavourable baa a freign rade oused by the import of opm was 0 ado the fie fan epi aeay heated ‘so rmany weaknouss and hanpered by von athe ling ces ‘Stoning nd piney “Temportof fished product lt countries deprived of nds nt {proc of bing eaonaed marked tring ptt athe sor of be ‘lesion tothe ich maton ofthe lands which today form the Thi ‘Worl, But string pln occsred ony atthe end ofthe nace ‘entry with the devlpman of mast producon. About 100 he Bat India Company, which in 176 had baled a monopoly a tae wih (Cento, imported x mall vanity of cotton goods and some Yorkie 3a The great recesion 35, “tk a0 tmp opi it Chi dre nate emery cine $2000 oa oles ito Cala. But the Eaglsh coh which found taker in nia ‘Et not sel well in China, forthe Chinese cotton Industry was well ‘evloped and suid forall te couary/s eds I was that oly ther endo he nineteenth cena by mas impots of Armecan ‘ton gods. Thos weno from thee of fled produce that he ‘ih company drew mat of profits, but from the smugling of « iu, the high ae of which a retin ot smal volume made the onee to Chinas en adreturut busnes—a highly proftabe The dst on the lance of ade Opium, which was at cuivated on largesse in China wi the beining ofthe tment centr, had been known there ice thee of the Ming paid. Deseribed by Li Sh-chen athe endothe sient ‘etary in is ames treatise on pharmacology, unde a asciion of the Arabic word jum twas imported ino Fuki Inthe seven entry by the Portapucse. Imports which had ech abot two bub- Sed cae yeu by the begining of he fowing crt, wee off ‘Sy forbidden a 1729, Tt vel was extended tothe whale epi a 1731, Bot opium growing made progress rm he ed ofthe eget eur onward, after he coupon of Inia y the Beith The East India Company scaled ft terol ght i Bega in 157 ‘tended then co Biba in 1765. In 1778 Kealaed poseson of the ‘monopoly is musing opi oto China snd developed the clr: fin of he poppy tin Bengal then tri central By 180 {our to fe thousand cases of opm (cach conning 6 iograns ofthe cru) were beg imported very Year ito Canton, and iors ‘rere oiereace rail inspite of l the vetoes eed ty the Chose ovement. Sich vetoes were aed i196, 1813, 1814, 199, and asin 186 thatthe East India Company, whose monopoly soon had fo compete wth fe ade (he company was fo be wound up 133), tok the decion Io develop is leave wade senate. sof opium from the Bish possesons in India (Cet from then from Mala), and to amc leer ent fom Tukey, were 10 condmue to grow rapidly ffom about 1820 onward ad Throughout te courte of the sneaeth sentry. For more than i ‘ears thea ofthis dug as to frm he pencl soure of revenue or {he Brith Indan empl In felons wth Chia. as thas to ‘opium tha Britsh ade with Chine avoided aig ito dei diag “Tere 0 dog that shee was sen incre imports inte yeas prseing the Opium War aod this explains the again ofthe ‘Chinese autores bdo th Peking government. The acta, ape from te ps! an nt evege cased Wythe ui ofthe da {nls devo, who were wil minor local offs, employee of he ‘yermen opium stoping bad serious tom, poli, and econoale ‘onsequeses. In Kwanglung, onthe eve of he cents af the Opts ‘a (859-0, had crested ane sation wich could ony ‘be clarified by draconian menue, oving 1 the network of cllusion hic ha ben woven a every level betwee Botnen, pats nang Tnseogging cae, pals, government employes, and ev seas ‘inet cneny eng Pa pl nen, san Chie Tr or orl popu 28, From deine 0 tkeover ‘of every grade. extended and agrvated corruption. Morcover—and ‘hee h dots what fall ndoced che cera governnet co enc lsmugging war wnt the Chee econo, whlch rnd weak ty the mars of te end ofthe gen ceiury andy ‘denopapte pes I waste import of opium which betwen 1620 hd 2S coud the siden italance in foeen Wade, Tiber Senratc to China fom that tie onvards the balance of payments Towed a dei. "The tle of opium a Chin cold no looper be counterbalanced bythe puta of Chinese produc, evn hough exports of he arb on ned to expand ace the end ofthe egret cnr. The paca ‘rot sported wae, in wich tae had Ween substan ae in {mero Ala snce he Sung and Yan prods. The wpread of ee ‘rnin in Europe fom abot 170 explain te continual growh nes. puts (spel fom 760-10 onard) wich seo 12,70 tonne yen about 7201036000 tonne yar around 160. Thi stan ‘hmerlal end ad eprcsins in Chia: he ten partains war ‘tended, mat Im Kann, Kings and. Awe, Dt abo usin, Chelan, Kiang, and Hunan and he ins became mere fishy Sepa Other products opie a mall place in export Eons, bot mae no less lear progres: purchases f sk ox rom 1200 pal ound bout 1780 60 abou 183, und parchases of te Fie cotton cs aden a Europe taker ee om 338,00 pee {178591 145,00 pee a 1814-20, Howeve, is expansion of Chinese ude id not sie o elit te dei caused ty opium smegsing. ‘tea 1800 and 190 tn allo lan fever had entered Ching _ncwoe 13) and 153 ten lon angle the couty. Tanto th ‘sous sri sucenely imped oa China, thi fight of Chase ‘ver, which war exentialy de to purchases of opium, never sopped ‘rowphou the eteeath centr (the ead of the onary opus ll fomed 30 per ent of port). Dating the Tal Pig War (851-60, trhen mon ofthe wade was concentrated in Sanghi, ity milion Tig eft th por of Canton sone. After elorms nthe aiinistration tibet inde fom 1052 onwards the bode deft was rede, ‘et the prowh of he population and the abenc of pew resource ened Instn pices nd unre ingovermest The sate could ot bp ‘bout aeptng to preven te ela on curren, The fst opium wor “Te ing ccs were aware both of the danger and of he dfs SA pee om hi i em + ‘The grat reesion 39 sin of te central goverment nd the street abot the messes {abe taken, Thee tendencies came the race in Ping. Some a. ‘her wes in favor of acl mente of roihton, ther pence {ort of galzaton of opium imports, ad yet her, aking view tht legal resco could ead to eis wore than the gna one, "Bought tat te aves of my relations would deprive the clan- Sesine rade i ptm of it nt ners In 1836, when ports were inreasng rally, Hob Nabe suggested that, 10 sop the fight of ‘Rony ou of Chan tnd to cease the sate event, a est Should be inpoved on imports of opin and fries shoul be biged ts buy Chines product lt, ceuton goods, tn, pore In return. However, wahe champions of toll rothion whe umpbed tre eastern the person of Ln Tie (1785-150, perhaps ecu tbe {ger was becoming more pein. Despite to Canton 189, Lin ‘Teh caused 20,00 cats of opt 1 be seed and ordered the [ish mechan to decamp whoo ela. In the explo sospbere odaced by tee eee measure the Bish responded with acts of Bley at the mouth of he Chicane Peat Rte) and tenon te fout of Chelan, whee they onupied Taga «Big Wand Inthe {Gs archielags forte north they thretened the pot of Tits ‘Sot Chin la wo sve way. The Bish stacks were resumed In 161 ter the surval of rafrcments the foreigner gain aaced the for of Chsclan, ocupled afresh Halen (Amey), Ning, and Tiga, and threstned Hangchow and te lower Yanpze vai tht ‘rth et sang upriver sft as Nanking To pt op tall iis, (he Chinese goverment agreed to open neptitions, theres was the famous Treaty of Naskng of 12, the elec of which were tobe mach ‘ore serious nthe long run than the Chinese negottors bad probably {erie From the polt of ew the Beis atact obvi el io ‘he storia content of acts of pac commited by frig peo and ef ncusoas by noms wanting vis tobe opened atthe aes © ‘Chine. The atcha ofthe lpanee pets and hose of Caraga bad ‘ened the cout provinces of the lower Yangtae ‘mich mre ‘rool than he Beith aac of 184-2, end some Of the ncuron ftom the teppe had ako bem mach more deveaing. The Engl tops who stacked Centon in 4} mambered ony 200, and he ein {tremens which hey rested he fon yar no enced afew ‘tosmnd men. Inthe last anal tbe ight oncded to the ggrenor: ‘ree ot of proportion to thers neared. The wenkes of China ‘tine of he Fst Oplum War wat net so mach the obsolete nae of ‘arly andthe lack offing spt and dpe of he imperial ‘oops the our pain condion and theta malaise wich ‘atte o erp inthe tebe Tl Ping Reelin. The main aes of 580 From decline to sateover be empie's weakoes were peobably corrupt, the pores of Fniking sini sfring fom aspera of replaons, ‘eve sentalation combined wih nck f coordination, ad the roe ‘nour dances involved (Canton rover 200 meres from Peng Which rested In decsons being taken at Peking ob afer Tong (say. Ihe Ching government end by captling, his war Dect Ita aleny bat sed ied abou te linet falw even ble {he Brishataks Began. The emperor Taodunng hime was badly formed, deve, and mzery with pub money. Hi ema to Can tom ni agreed on is own respons, witout wal fr Pe Ings appcoval othe witha ofthe Chine troop nd the pest (of an indemnity of i millon silver dang to the Bish, Att coo nce by Lin Tae, the champion of ene, Tao kang se ‘quem leaned towards a compromise and then decided in 1841 ‘ume the offensive Th efforts made to et the forge were ot ‘egg: cannon wre cart, arti with awd wee Ble ‘otdance wth «tation tat went back to the Sung ape, and be ‘ove were bocaded a adion, peasant alta were formed In 1841 Inthe Canton are and successly checked the marauding OF the Brio oops But the lis, which could have ben one of hemos fee meas of combating forgn icon athe aetenth cn tary, were unfavourably feparded by the gorerument abd the a sian wh eed they mh ante weapon ae “The Ton of Nuking ede hia fo tine eign edad Great rain the oky Bie iland of Hong Kang, ai an ‘emi of trety-one ion er dlrs and agreed to open tte ‘hats, many fo lnperts of enum, the prs of Amoy,Shanghay ad Ningpo a well as Canton. She grea the sae in osupress ht ‘monopoly of the Cohong (Kunhang), the offielasociaton of th terchants of Canton sn 172. Ths atzoitlon servis naa tthe administration, all ade with foreign courses Gouth- Eat ‘sin tbe Tndan Ozan, Europe), a comidrable part of which wae ‘odin Choe hips The sddtiooal eat of 1 praned the Bs ‘Srecesoral rights Bish mbjecs were exempt from Chis Jedi) and contained hemos favoured nation use (ayaa tage acgled by ober nations war tobe estonia extended to Gre [Brae Coasla Juraicton andthe eatin ofthe fst cones (ewehb) opened the fist beaches, wich were o enable he Westen tions, tabs othe conkat prog of ther aay and econo Dover, err a srongr aed ranger had on Cina wd in moe {od wore her independence ad veg). 36 The great eesion S41 Monetary protien ‘Tecan caused bythe smuggle immediate {ofthe Inport ofthe rth vole of wich nee sloped froning tom Ia othe tn a Sine Jaane aro I ea formate ur fret te vl pe exe ofan tet ote ine enon and cre. “The Ray of sven Et Asa asst Jt bees sue in etal {ower th of seal ara meno ay, tse pet ‘hed Chins ria tt te rputan en G12, sm {ny oto the portant fers the dtr fe Chie ‘onony fom th te when this ony fond ie scones ‘ih gai economia on whch tenn nore and more deperene Whee tenon of golden ohave bn of he cscs Aline eat marine epson om Europe te dis a ie, {edearin ofthis etal nas As cep or aps proba as {eats pcr othe Chinn wold dominance Ciao te tate conomy over he mettle conony “produced the tet ‘hx gld nt ly an important monetary ae hee. reas bese ‘sft abundant nd ble in a, sole paper mows, ‘rer wasedoped in China na men pment nr i cop ‘cla. Ite became pene in tech ad scent cna {dimers rm Amer ree th luo ei cca tt ieargung a Fale inthe son a of he seen omar ‘tout 136 the Mosca ser dll o an, poauead ele gun lin Cnr and South Amen appear a Canon nd Fees, ‘elitr! ne downto ovr dy Howe tthe sane tine tthe aout of wve ices, has beatin wits othe natn each of China bcs esd of ‘hesitenth entry and th end he Spicy eye caer ‘eo comically doped i compar wh tf gd, Whi a he oti Sin ea aa gh ae ‘Seto have had al though pv ring wich Japon hd e ‘Sd te pial exporter of prsiout mel aE Al at ‘See he reiton ofthe rate of glo that snes watt tom Seo 1575 stared ders 193 he od fang wes ied forth cen her fog the real a Chins eae tlc st {bas colds wah he nar ah fallin eof er on te teratone markets fl tnd bythe aopion of he Bld ‘derby the Weta power nthe con lf ee eat ee {yh when the Chae sonony bea to ste fom Wesera ‘Semel competion we a om he andar inp ‘5 From decline takeover the ny yh str 1 hen a wo 1 ce ee faa a cas errand anne nn a eo eg ein se Sabin Sey itaac ers irre opin ost ee a et an ata ceeteny one Fe en en eas ae eons mere a ce Sea ‘nite epiaal ave tan npr cos a eset pena eet eee ee citar cc Snteene a tet run pen cna catia snap bhai ae Sheree arms maces SRS Soars en aes on a oe Sr ae aoe adn ie haneeea afte coe (Chinn othe West “Ta eves ofthe West in Chin are usualy presented in favourable Tigh to soth the ple ofthe Buropean coun and of Aner the ‘stress the sry ges, lod Cina oenerge rom thon ye fala, they avakened er fo scotland indus lian {hd forced ber open bet doors othe et of he weld A routine mat {ality he coupon of the mandarin, he ran Of te emperry th tale ble ofthe Chine tat hey wee a the cent ofthe nie {the persons fs wrached populace are compared unfvouray ‘rth the mint of enterprin, the nin of progres, ene and tek ology, eet, Western unreal, and Christian) ‘Morcover, the intuonof the Were conten Bast Ai had, this par of the word as eawhere, sch pave repercuions tht te trio view ofthe history of the Par East wens to ctange aay {tom the owen that Il osaed: for mos historians, Chee a walt ‘Wester, the fi easaonader of the Beh sling sis fn the Pet 3b The grat reeson 548 ivr mark the begining of an ently sew epoch in the history of China This new pod seems to al the beter nto work sory a "tat becomes an integra pat ofthe history of «West whee eolon ftom antigay down fo our own day i seen a the eye oft) ‘sive Ror. Byte same taken, lhe ene pea history tte Chinese Wold which cannot berated othe hry ofthe Wet ‘ed ose the nts nee and nan. ‘But hs it fal to reognze he allay feito, co ignore the ward le of China nthe pasts elasons ith etal Aa, Inti the lai worl nd South Hae Aa, the continual coma nd sig of merchandise, enigues, and religions aru the Ears co that, bt fr whieh be sary ot Earope lf woul be seray co ‘thea aio mennsdmbsig as nea he pci scr {nd adons of the Chinese wor: Menscng ute dang fm ut te were inte nineteenth centr, and profound a the evlion of ‘hina may have ben, ternal problems have neve ceued to te ‘reponderant linens ofthese sacra thee tedons at ‘Me Chines wrk! bs changed. This accounts for cera ater and ‘erin eatres tha sk the Chinn of ada othe China of ysterdy. ‘Moreover by comparing be two cations the Chines and he Wetera~lobaly, by reducing tory to thr costrosition, we segest «fundamental eament: ine. We sate a teretype fort ‘ets of mcerive changes which have affected both China and the ‘Western won the sry ofthe relations betwee he CHing cme 10d the adutialed ations of Bape and Arr, net ke a ‘unt ot ono th changes ht hve courted is Cina, socket he ‘sreomy, the poial tem, Ileal If, bt aio of thon ex Fertacd for hapa y the Western counties. Th colonia expan th, the development of the Ins, the soongtheing of hla ‘le andes, te evolution ofthe foreign ple wre al marke by ‘Ment stages. The England of the at few ears of te inte ce ‘ay was ald que fret from the England of te First Optom Wer (199-4. is a5 well remember thatthe clearest ech prop. ‘sin Europe andthe Une States ino ocr he second al ‘te intecth centr. Tn 1850 only hee part of the ven ofthe Wotem navies were eamships, propel by padewhecy he seam sy id nor ealy bein deel ntl sew propuion was ated [the mide ofthe nnctecnth century. The ft sip with set ls ‘ze not bu ati 1850, en yeas al the opening ofthe Suez Carl (ie), an important dt nthe ool expansion of the Europes ot os othe false the Far East. Ralvye ony expanded oar fale ater 850, S06 From dct 10 tabeover ‘le 21 Lenght aiuay aeons Wen he use of coal became geeal a Europe and Ame in te sido th eect centr. ony eiety lion tos of were be Ing extracted, ity milion of hem in ret Bri. The al wasio "ete 1340 milo tons in 1913, at the ine when new Sources of ea) ‘ere dicovred. Oia elect, the eral combustion engi ad the lete motor began ter carat he begining the eau “The invention ofthe Beemer covet dates fom 185, tha of he ‘Mari frmace fom 186 and that of the Toma poe rom 17 Ie "Hs he oa producton of ppn was en illo os In 19131 {0 reach svetylgt lon "The ext of Bol cotton goods fel by 80 percent between 180 an 170 hans othe props of machaceton. Bit was ol a theo ofthe nieeeth century tha the combination of banking capital andi Gs capital made posible the spcaclar development of ms Sued production; as then thal, Ueugh the increas rp ‘roms of technology the coon and altar power of he ut ‘Sse tations of Europe and Ameria, 200810 be Jolned by Japan ‘became really fearsome for China. THs ad not been the case ity ex ‘ale: Fly ts petaps worth emenberng, ace we ed rep ‘Chinn 3s an exe rural county, that in 180 les than wenty ps ‘Sat ofthe inhabitants of Earope ted in towns and tt cn hoa {wen cies had popalstions of more than 10,0 ‘Tere heat tat Egland poted forthe Cio theft haf of ie intent centr) was nt sary so mach ltr on ar anemic ‘ne the ports of opium helped fo eemine he enon of a ‘ire whose fiance and poles sytem bad continously eters Sine the end ofthe eghenth entry. And ta Is the etal po, {or thine deine end in he erblesoal explosions a ne Injrtecton of colonia peoples tht were shake teenie bees ‘What change the polical conditions, the ang dee, the conn od focal sytem andthe itll ie of China so prep betwes 10 snd 1670 as ot the ace ofthe Westra powers ba thee Secial and polis ofthe Tal Ping Wet. The almost exci {eal devoted by Westen historians tothe hoof the concen sary pneation yt ons fEjroe and Ant as a ‘the true picture, Bs ‘es Theor en aaron Ci been 858 and 160 wero ae shes intent of tral nd wen peur {ina sats grew fcr a the ee of he cess ey Sa a en hos ethan ne St, the meas, the pce the nono mee toe ‘eg ad ih eftncy ap eon of inp ithe conned ee of tev ot hose ans sal otinural dotonment then epost wee Stsulonofon ncuet frheach es eae st Chapter 30 Political Developments in the First Half of the Twentieth Century ‘The dsapearanc of the old reine Much weakened by the defeat of 194 and by the rents of the Boner ‘avenue, fom 190-3 onwards the Ching povermen ed 10 fe dug sees of storm remsicent of those advoested by Kany ‘Yel nd i en fo 198, These refome nce the reaon of nines between 1903 and 1906, the pblation of the deta ofthe bhdgt fom S08 oavard, the bolton ofthe tredtonl competitions (0905) ad the efor ofthe educational syste, the creation of provin: nl aes (190, an the proclamation of «new code oft (310, {he wok ofthe entet Just Shen Chip (157-110) a gpd by Westen leslaton. The moribund dynasty was eonfoming to te ‘ston of he tine. even played some sr of de for cena. sion, a whi inspired by Hs urgent ned of mone. ‘The Mancha ‘Soray wns aging al td yagi pe son te onl Proftaie nti nthe province Vian Shiba, hove power Moni Peng, was reed 190 of pot scr fhe leo the norte zone (Peon hechi) and appolted miter for {orig fae. At these tne Chang Chih tng governor othe ro "Hu Guan and Hope), was summoned to the cpt and had to eve ‘is middle Yengze empire. Shag Hslan hoa (19-1916), coropt chlservanc and former rote first of Li Hung shag, hea of ha 38 Politics dentopmencs 0 1909 $27 Citung, secured i 1908, thanks to Japanese loans, cont ofthe (Cinesr Steam Navigation Compiny and ofthe Hate ping Company (Gan-yang sewer, on-mins of Tab a Hip! and ene mine at hag sang in Kiang the mork of Chang Chih un). The tet ‘Sheng Halan at eapenred in 911 the ead of he 8 Opec tetas fom foreign banks and ofthe purchase and naonlztion of theraeays which mas to provoke a pao end reonlat acon i the provinces and bring abut the allo te das. Thelen wat ‘ondemed to disappear no so muchby is dumsines sed incostency ‘by the economic olape and by ted to pt prenareon the pov inces an ell China tote Toegnerby barowing fom Weten snd Sapa banks. The real of ths wa the powing an feon of bot the ld rutng cases andthe barged ofthe pen pots, ofthe con servatver an the moder. ‘On top of hs bse ete of wens came the secondary effect of ‘aotrManchu and ant-onarcitcarents wich tad. eveped in Wavous ailfeent celeste students and ites who had em ete ae au Cs ope of Su Et Aa tated fn mtry shoe run by for insrucor Japa, taken tet ‘del since 1950 and uch adel sce be ay ver he Rosen ect Tasman 155, played avery portant role hsp of ‘luton, Varios associations in Japan in fot ent he flee oops St plical refuges a supprt wish wasnt alvaysdsitred. The ‘ot inprtat erent of thought among the émigré wae the one hat favoured a const monarchy on the Japanese mode. 1 Imoutiplce, the eve reformer Lisg Chine, who wed lel pet, had a wide adic among the intellectual ie. Les ale ional was the epubcan tendency represented by Sua Wen (8561925), beverinown inthe Wet by Cantonese ae a Sun Yas, Une lang Chiao, Sun Yetsen had nether casa ring not & ‘sor! aod phiowopbical ur of mind. He was aman witout ous ‘tho aso spend mor of hr if bros ekg tupor and wees, ‘Bom ner Macao and brought op In Hovoll, Sun Yate sled forthe Reith of China) adn 1903 in Tokyo (he Tung.meng a nied League) were much more lke aodaton of conspirator an ‘ea pole pres. Thar aces costed of pot and suprise {teks whieh were ali doomed to flere. The mor famost emp at ‘shellon was the one which tock plac in Canton on 27 Api 1911 and ‘aed sven vt (he evento sary), Sun Yatoens (28 China erie ‘epublica idesogy was aly sunmary; his the as theme (the San Init) pute aceat 8 atonal, Hera emorary td so [nize Hat the doctrines were of ile importance ar compared ith t= tio, ea Sun Yataen's spores rend Huang Hig, Humane oonetd withthe scl soe of province anf tach wih ‘evounary ethene arma; Wang Ching we, 1601904 Ha ‘arin 18791936 and Chang ing, 868-1930) ale bevel {hat he tavaton of Chin yn tht ands. "The old regime colaped Without any Teal conibuion trom the erogenous group of republean revelutonarles ecep at of & ‘eluvey segie supporting actor. The evan’ of 111 vas aot ‘Sourent reolton, as people bare cme in order to be abet ‘ertit ina scheme of store evelution furashed by Europ by the Mars hry ofthe five stage of humasty (ave communism, Shvey, ean, capitalism and sodalsn. Iwasa mere ltr a {he breadup of piel pover in China. The sucesso he epblcans tras uneapcd aay revolt Wo-eng (ups on 10 October {OIL unleashed avast movement of secession which etd tot pow ‘acs. By the bepining of December south, ceil, and nortvwer Cina ha broken wth Peking as resto an lance betwee the pro ‘nda sels and the mtr. Sum Yatsen retuned fom the ‘Unites Sue an Great Brn ut nine oe cto Preset ote Reps Nanking and took office January 112, Horee, at the Sametime ie offre Yann Shiba the peiency ofthe Republi he ‘as ead o deed the new tegime, ad hs nlf ary reveals he ‘rene wesknes ofthis epee witout any arn forces or revems In he lst ans the Replc wasonlywith the non ofthe Vivous group of pola tugs coatiuation ofthe forme poe Vial bombs get ldo thewembaace of tral suhorty on- Sitated bythe Peking government In fat, although the gay wee ling tha hei provinces shouldbe reeseted ia moa! pal jet wee vrne towards Yan Shite the ol man with Walvaned and wel-oqiped army and ai te only man who could {oir sore attention from foreign counties, The evatio, wich wat Praca bodies, war pimany the eit ofthe raven dap. Pearance of iyasty which oud only malstas is postion by Weeding the provinces ad borrowing fom fregnbaks ‘he esarorship of Yan Shiba ‘ez bythe court in October 111, Yuan Shia profied fom the inarbanes to secure ery wide power of decion whic be played in bargaling wth he extemely weak Nanking government. Two ays af Pole! dewlopmens 0 2 629 after the abdication of Pi (ih emperor Hstnn-ung, aged sis), on 1 February 1912, these megottdon setended: Yuan Sl replaced Sun Verse he head ofthe Repblic ad the goverameat was as. fered o Peng. The aboliin ofthe pinta nttions and the ‘ator of Yan Saba, whch wert foo, were the neat fel of the forces in pla. The repuca coun wc amped ‘South Cina and he Yanga asin nce in et not oly miltary so ‘ora iane, tala cohesion. Toms ofthe provi ety, ‘who belonged tothe ol lng eaies nov in proceso dappeaig of {my flees cometed to the new lees, the epublica Inlet, fd ie constaonal monarchies wha had decded to apport Repub Theale very ene pes of Yan Shiv ew eve stronger asthe months went by. On 22 March 1913 Sang Chien, ‘rpms of the Kuomintang, the new natal, republican pay, ‘Enda conlacel defender of parlamennriattuns, was ante Shang sation. A few month ter Huang Hsing and Son Yat sen tere fore fetus Jean ‘On 10 anuny 1914 Yan Sib dined the parame In Maya ‘onsttiion vag hm practical fll powers was pocaed. On Snary 1916 bere entblite the money for his a parposs.Ob- ‘oul there aso queton of retro the ld regime forint. Hone had duappeare forever withthe changes tm Cine sod) Moreover reponlit tendencies and forcgn Presure—maal from Tapen—nere las song as ever, td ths ary dicaorshp was ut ‘steak and jst as much thestened a the moribund dynasty of he Dears 190-1 It Jly and August 1913 sven prove povetrors of fouth and ceniral China had ebeled spit Yon Shiba efor to ‘end his old 0 he provinces, Supported bythe tle group of cham ons of parltmenty democracy Ghapplaed by Yan Shiba Suborartan metods, this ateep at exon sown in the story books asthe Send Revolt. Te men installed the cental prow Ince by Ylan Shika! when order wat restored Feag Kuochang at Nanking, Tuan CEjul at Ancng (in Anhwe), Li Chun at [Nanetfngver not slow to demonstrat tu thelr owa dese tobe Independen ofthe protestor Condens nde all the oreo favour ‘rumbling of author in that Yan Sibel was sublet to presre from Japan and, Induced fo edt this res, o feo aed 8 Tage pat of ple opinion, On the outbreak ofthe it Word War Sagan sz he rally hes, itary bass, ad eros wich Ger ‘many bd bel nl the in Shantng, nan 1913 the panes ‘ay la Peing preset Yan Shiba! wih a st of tret-one ‘demands which aed at making China into a Japanese protean ‘Yan Shiva was obliged orsogie a fl accompli Tapes (20 China crucified hot on Mongol, Manchuria, and Shantung. He ceded to Japan the ‘only Chinese inal enterprise of ay inprane, he Has Ye ng ‘Compan, togber withthe ls Taracs of Hanyang andthe Kone {in cou ines of Teyeh aod Ping hlang. By the being of 1916, sx mon before death, the date wat ‘enning to encounter resistance from Be mins. Tuan CH} in ‘North China an Feng Kumehang in Nanking wee sendy king ike ‘ira: Tang Coy, govewor of Yuna, suenghened by Japenese ‘spre proses is independence, tout and wet steed, Iwas he Be Toad, dag the couse of whlch en former fics othe nothrn a ‘ee, pcgs of Yuan Shia, Became ndependeat heads amie, “Te peo of the watson ena pic and frig presence ‘Like the movtbund dyauty of 1901-1, Yoan Sib and is se. esos of 1916-28 oul oly hep themselves in power by Borrowing from consortiums of foreign banks. Conta of he sates elt acme (aos dati, dates oneal, profits from the pat office) ensured tat the tanks would get ther money back. But thre oan cul ony be Pane tothe extent that he Chee pola autores seed 1 be Fela nthe eyes of frig mation. I was Jogi ha they sbould Fee Son Yarsen’ weak republican goverment the advance Shi they same sony aereards to Yen Shiba who was ered at "hestrong man of China ring the yas 112-16 The igs om ad ‘en grated a 1913-25 mailon wring, with anal Section of ‘Xion andthe repayment of nearly E68 milion between 113 and 1960. The consortium of Geena, Bish, Pench, Japenese, and Rise sn banks which advanced th sr of £21 millon sering war abe xchange to secure consol of the vevene rom satan of capa poate in Chinese bes twas ery ou ofthe qustion that Sc lets shuld be granted to poe authori which ad threatened, at the one headed by Sun Yate in Canton rom 1925 to 1928 wa 0 te tempt to doy to patente the eran pegs acu in Cha by fret ats “th end of he Fit Wold War was to resscate the vay between ‘te etons which had ved wp the ld enpreinto pers of nace Sto favour the pollical beak: beac he seendaey ofthe ea ‘send warlord by the Anglo Saxon pres~independent maiiary Polite! development to 198 631 overnors with their owa resources andthe own ames Bene [ko complex sme flan beteenvardovs ad the oration of ‘nly clques bse f eachother. These ae, soln by Pests ‘witout sn) mean of subsuence, resembled modern oops i tie ‘Supment (ie Werte nations were able ounlond on China prof be ‘Hose ote at he end of the Fat Wer War) andi ther means ‘of weanport (rilayt and sear), but bunds of bgads in Delt Senaviour Living on the coutryeie a they moved bout hey rered to plage and to every hind of eaedon. The piel weapons ofthe ‘ror wre conning snd bargaining, vith unespeted changes of {eral poly and orion and someties terra! hoe. Dating the hte prod ofthe warlords the itera stuaon of Chia Be ‘oninaly worse. There wat inflaton, tbe growth of tandy, the ‘Suoresnnnion of commerce, soda hig inctes inthe pang of ‘plua sure of revene for seri werd. Tae Chinese esas: try was sorely ted in some teins by exoitation, wa, and plage "Te politi chet oar banged in accordance wil the sing com ‘inane teeneen the warsore ad ther ci ales, Not was the Ia ‘ens ofthe orien power sep Inthe ees allowing the eth of Yan Shib-al, Manchuria, the ze of Japanese force, was the Set of Chang rots (875-1929), head of the eaitry equ ofthe Feapten (Liaoning). Tuan Chvji (465-1936) and sd Shc (Ua00-1925) were dominant acne Cina and Fie, agai ith the Tip of lapan, from whom Tuan Chul obtaned conscerale asi- tance in IBI8 (he Nida Teas). Ts was the yroup Known athe ‘An aoe (Awe Poklen) The Yang valley, he Bh soe, as ‘eld bythe gue own a the Call group Ciao Kun, 1862-938, Sod Wu Pes 872-183), But Gres Brain lio kept neyo South ‘Chinn wht th pon ston could have an tet on he acer ‘St Hong Kong At fr Frans, nich ad nt sbandoned dream of ‘enetraing the Soul Bat, 1 supported Tang Chi-yo (121927), Tapars former cent, in Yona, sly 1920 the Anu clue was defeated bythe Feng and Cb roa nthe water of 1921-22 the Washngon Conference, by aling ‘Thal'oJapense exunsin ia East A, prodised ne derbation ‘the peli foro nd are cone beeen Chang Teo te ‘epresttive of lapanee intern and Wa Pet, the cent of ea ‘inn However, we stot flow a deal te ncaa changes na ‘xremlyinsbie stuaon, complicated by terials between fr ‘Sonoon andthe pear ofthe interes, Te eet fact og {tbe general rlaondp conectng Chines pote Wife nthe Oat Tal ofthe teeth entry wh thers between foreign nations {od the petro hk ecooml, pola, and ata itr 622. China cried ‘From ihe efforts of Syn Yarsen 10 the rumph of Ching Kab she ‘clear that in thee conions he pte movements in the owas, fhe student demonstrations, the sues by Indus workes end lockers, and the Boyes of foreign produ oud have no perepble ‘rlaming tec. For hs reason the eff af hose wo dreamed of ‘ving China from ehaos wee domed to fare, ce hse men Wee Tove to sek shad suppon whch cold not be dieresed nad at $c has grr ae fro Tia Wy ‘Ohad ogo lta ele aan in Japan a August 1913, Sun Yatsen ‘eturned to Sangha Sig te ame of 1916 fe the death of Yan Suva tn uly of the ftowing yar, nursing tbe hope wang ove the miltay lenders of South China, he lnded In Caton, ba, Soon ‘Gsapelne, set out again a 1918 for Shanpal. On 4 May 1819 the ‘choos, de intelgetia and a ag prt ofthe bourpeile became ex tremely rou when they lear’ of te trms of he Trey of Verse, hich gave to Japan al the right and terns aque ln China by ‘Germany. Atta ime Japan eed to the Western power oe hel ‘eat aly aghast the Boibevk regime. Ts movenet, which stared a Peking univers, spread to all the big ce. It was followed by a boycott of Tapanet products and by suka by the seamen, the rallvaymen, the werkers inthe oto mils and oon In Dceber 1920, Sun Yate red to take advantage ofthe events which had occured ve mont cae in South Cina, were mew may lade, Cen (Changing (175-193) had scented in eksing fom Canin te ‘Gang shar, nicht then had been alkgowerfa here. Emerg Centon he eas eet preset of tis loclrepuileon 3 May Tot and tied to tapas apie in conform wih it Senowatcmprations. Bat the hwy of Great Bain and thence Ine open cont with Cin Calune-mingfored 10 leave ve province agi the redatbuti of pail fre that flowed 3c Wathngon ‘Conference worked nga Son Yatsen Back it ‘Shanghal in Jue 192, henwated anew sit in he situation at Canto, and eventual returned thee atthe Weaning ofthe folowing yur At {hat polt he ound anew ally abvoad=the Soviet Union, hie wa ‘etd in weakening he postion of he Westen nations inthe at Est. {the sumer of 1923 Sun Yarsers young btberinine, Chang Chica (Chiang Kabel), 2 slr tne in Japan, wa set 19 Moscow 1 spend period of struction wh the Red Army. Abe sae time 2 Soviet mison (Doodie, # pla! aver, and Cale, 2 rly advise) arived in Canon, Un January 1924 the Neonat tl oltcaldetopments 10 1969633 pany (he Kuomintang) wat reorganized on the Sovet made! and ‘ecaeacenrle, herarical buenos, omnipotent pry eld {0 estnd i onl over etry pat of he stat andthe amy. In May 1924, with the help of Sovet adver the Miliary Academy of ‘Hang p's (Whampoa) was created In the burs of Canton, Iwas © ‘rn he ofc core of + new amy, which was gradual to develop tnd tobe pied under he command of Chiang Kale. te October 1924 an unexpected sit in ie stuation in Peking, whee ie Christian ener Feng Yong (690-1948 ad succeded in nstallg Mel, ‘couraged Sun Yuen to sek once aghn a endrsandg ih the ‘ew mater of North Ching. San Yat en travelled to Peking fo case {tallane and dio hereon 12 March 1925, "ibe Koominang, wich raced in tsnaning ie poston at ‘Canton thanks othe development of ts arn— ch numbered 5000, ‘een and €00 offer tine a he Hang pu Acnden all) a {pt in July 1806 the expedition fo the Noh (pe) of whe Sab ‘Yatae had 0 often Sed In onjnction wih ge orc blong- {ng tothe warlords ofthe six armies commanded by Chang Kabah, five consisted of rergaied troop ofthe warlord; the sth was fomed ofthe be eras ofthe Kuosletang we he expen Dwogresed without get difielty towars the Yangtze valle, with fone he locl amis joining ab iavancd. The win ofthe over ‘ange sea was occupied in February-March 1827. was a hs momet that Chiang Kael took advantage of bis place othe bead of he arts o enue Rim oman postion vi ‘3st the betrogencous coaiion of whlch the Nationalist overeat ‘ons, Sure ofthe rpport of he wello 49 Chee bain men of Shangbal, who mee inked o frig ites, be broke wih he ection ft the Koomin‘ang which had setled at Worn, oa the middle ‘Yantn and on 12 Api 92 rue ani ives food the poplar Inerecon which hed broken ct in Shangha! on tbe approach of he comin ang armies. The fog natlons with interes a China ould from tes on bested ht thee was kof evolution Cina and ‘tere ey to uppot he new rep which Ching Kalahek tae {Nanking 0018 Ape 1927 ‘The Nanking deceaniam, ‘Chiang Kalbe’ success was pry due to remarkable spude for ‘rfiing from ccumstznces, to gia for tacts and tepanng Which made hn the equa of the mos sifu ardor, But the lite ‘ates forts victory were the weakness and ds of hs averse 68 China enced nd the natal play ofthe economic and plicl forces on which Cine’ ten fc depended By procuring trough the rin Cases ‘onto ofthe Shanghal pote and by esting pity the rebelon of thegreat Kinng matropol te el economic npn of Cian Chiang Nive bad seqaied a etl the boneotetaetraly ofthe ig foreign spas eaed in Shngha andthe sympathy of Chinese basins eles, which were et of the confit between wars and ‘worse abot ihe revollonary tendencies which had bef appeat ‘whi the Kuo nian. The ne regen Nain soon auld he Suppo of mos proper-owner, insofar aise capable of enst= {ng the order ndpeneabe tothe conduct of sass. For fs own pr, the Nanking goverment was obliged to coliborte with te power ‘owesing iporant Interests n China wa fred int hs poston {ys nosy to the revolutionaries and by the bods which wally ‘ed the Chiaese busns class wis th foreign compan Ha ‘he arloswhow tid to wn ovr emit witha niyo: ‘edig abo owed much ofl sength othe power ented ‘Stein exabsbed by Sov advises dung the Yeas 1924-2 ‘The one pry system ensted absolute conte ofthe green te ese, the am) and the pola poll: ab eabled Chang Kabah to ep frm old of power. Foreign cout shored thet fees ead o rant tong ree, which they had sed For 99 long the means Indspeneabe ots econo quero. Between 198 ‘nd'9S1 Clan Kabab’ Chins was to win back some ofthe rights ‘hich the Manchu goverment ha been forced fo yi; the numberof Toceita concessions nthe open ports was reduced andthe rece from the cst, the salt, and the pos fc eve to the Nana ovement, The generalime” thor had tapos! regular ‘sarc, of whch tbe marie customs formed nearly hal. ‘Usifcioe made rap popes. By 1925 tbe Nanas armies bad cccpied Peing, which ras demote from i ats of cpl ted ‘echtsened Peg, we he maser of the art-eatern proves, ‘Gian Huse ag, Barto is father ang Toon, jned Chang Ka ‘Shek 950 Ching Kal chek had to renner seth, wh as {emporary shake ie Norh China by coalition by the omer wae ier St en Han any he Cin poe, Fe Ys Foundation and carci ofthe Nationalist regime By the bepanng ofthe Nanking period (1927-37) Ching Kase wat thas the most powerful of hema leaders. He Bad th advantages n ota! devetopments to 148 628 overt val of slid pltcal organization aon party sytem based tn he Soviet made ft sommes bre fancalfounaion, Whi be stove fo comate by contoing banking cle, and of the Drege ent ohm by the ofa recogton ofl fori counie. ‘Bor fr that very rasa the Nanking rep ire fom that ofthe trond it was much more clon tid than Ws pedeesrs had Dest the commer mide thc taro expat tits own ada {age~and lio much more open, of ecsiy, to Wester infers, ‘Most of is offi abd agents hal been i contact with foreigners oF thd ten eat abroad. Insite of is own intentions, vasa ‘Snanaton ofthe Western middle cases of he open ort nd this ey fact cpa why, In ait of declared alm of encouraging {lotr was tke pratally no interest athe age fate of the rant ‘Dut the Nanking rene lo owed ts particular colouration to he ‘umstane of nme came ito extence nthe prod wen the Sori wat wtneing the prog of alan Pasi, German Nationa $Sstalim, and Japancie mtr, whe th paramestary democracies ttre bythe teat American econo depression ad the USS. tres tog under the bureseaie pce sytem ected by Stal ‘oem owe to revoloery movemcts and great are of ‘toners, Chang Ka sbek trove toate the metho of pope ‘anda and 0 Givens a Confucian’ modified to sut moder {ae Tis wa he New Life Movement (Hsinshenghuo Janu), 8 tort of moral ener bound up withthe cl of Confus ad the ral ton ofthe foande ofthe Chinese Repabl. pli pl, the Bis Shi was nse with he ak of bunting down bral and rel ona “Created by busines mes inked ft othe imperil government and tater to Yann Shea rege td to the goverents omiaed by the warlord, the Chinese banks Had leds cructlpr in acing Inter expeadare For that very reson they Tepeseted a sor of Feat independent powet Wich had acted a Chiang Kabsbe's {vowel thie of cup dot. At ha ne hey Were a pero of ‘avid promt because ofthe aap eal fom fener tothe (Dent sonoma of Shangha, hte ask depts nrented ty 265, fer cent butween 101 and 1932. The number of Bans nthe areal ‘espe bad re rom 201919 to 34 1909 and 067 a 127. {Testo each the figure of 16a 1937. But fro te moment fk ine alain a Nanking the Koon sisted on coe and cove cle labor from the banking sect, grating I, inser othe spor eued fo pnrntr the goverment fouacs aad make 9008 Is 685, China crucified eit, big advantages and wider fies fr speci. The reat, ‘ra kindof ate cpa whieh enabled the National government {obese ofthe support of busin ccs a al ime and to conte ‘aint who showed sgn f acing to Independent The roi Tinancs were soo dominated bya few fami bo owned bg banks ‘oily td the Nanking goverment. These ffs were the Suns (CV Sung: Sung Tzten, «Harvard graduate and Chans Kelas rotors, the uns (14 ung: Kang Hang descendant ‘of Shand! buanest fami) andthe Chest (cea Rac and is brother Cea Lita, men rom the Kingu comarca ml ca) In 194.35 the Keo-miang profited from numerous bung bankrupt es resling tom the maa purchases of silver made by the United ‘Stas in the winter of 1983-34 to tighten its old. Thanks tothe ne toasiznon of sver proclaimed on 3 November 1995, he Choe lola waesabzd, the banknote ited by the National govern tment were acted everywhere and prices stopped ig. Four sale ranks dominated the mone mare at tha Ute; hel mala useton as to lance wa expenses andthe easy efi by sero Bonde wh Invern rte varying Between 20 percent and 4 per en The mala Descartes were fa inthe goverment. Even if they suteed bythe regime, as was the case mally with dhe sew boargatie tat owned the Bani and indenter, the [opened cases aba whole were susie with an oder of hg ha ‘id not quston ter eves Inthe countryside the Naaing gover: ‘nent dd not undertake any fanduestl fefrm of tbe fen ort ‘Sue. The inpoverhed penny thus cntaged be the vic ot ‘hat troughs conatenaion of chaser and effect, ight sam ie 8 Sorta neat curse. The excnve numberof moths fo fed th x tremely sal plo into which the land was dvd (one and one tid Iectars pr fal ts oor ida sp of dxperly ard work, a the Durden of tsaion ensured thatthe smallest equalty of melt became the mene of exlatation thanks to utr and rent Eveyhing dpe o tee the jority ofthe population in abysmal power. ‘The Japanese invasion of Manchuria ond {he delopment of the Red Army ‘The main objectives of Chang Ka hk wee on the on andthe exten: sn and maunenance of ht sont ovr the put td ott the wale “ppurts ofthe seth army, the pole, the finances 0th ‘ter the foundation of power mitary force forthe new rege "a he expenditure of the tema ete othe equipment of he ‘es ant the struggle agua the Independent warlords. Howe, Plies developments 0 19637 ‘ter enemit soon appeared. These were the peasant uso, by ‘Shs Commis, which were formed south of te Yangtze and interon the url soles founded in the sou ofthe province of Klan, teh ron of Jurshn, From 1931 to 198 Chang Kasek was ‘Geet sro cmpigns apt the Soviet Republi of Shi. The ‘th and incr, wh cleyd te benefit of eran aders nd {oregn oan made ose oot the Communit rom the ein. ‘arly th period tere ocerred acral vat a he sory of com erporty Cha evasion abd cecpatin of the othe Prov Ince by fopan in 193132. Compal taken wp by the strap aga: {he Commit bandit, Chang Kalk acceped theo of thee ‘itor as levitabl hey ad long Ben penetrated by Japanese cpt lin ther warlords had often bad eoeLnks wit Japan. Chang Hse ing’ adheon wer infact ule eer. But, above al the Kuo. ‘tang arles, which were cours of formato, could probly ot have Sood up to'a diet confrontation with the wel-raned and wale nipped ors ofthe tvaders. A conc would ave been ft 8 fexine which var only fost begining to conta is poston. However the oospaton of hae eerie larger than race, wth 8 Population of searly forty alin, 0d ports, coa-mins nd the ‘erent ray netwerk nthe whole of East Ata, ws bound tolneene Spans economic engin consis} It gave eran exces see tue for ber conquest of Chinn an wat to constln the Nationalist overament to tempore and with before the advance of the Span von of Nort China. Because of terest tat aud to hang over Chiang Kase overnment and becnae of the effect that wast have on Chinese ollie, the ivan of Maer bythe Jepaese troop eserves {bbe regarded asthe moet important even la this petiod of Cine Mary Tedby the very log of hing to conf ts chic of reaction tae, the Neonat ree, by is atacks on Uberals and rook. tion, wf favour the cre of he mos rdil tendencies, For. Fe notenorty that he fre lay ofthe most verse pola and intel {halen wich had crac the anaes prod of he war dors tras suttded fom 1928 onwards by a period in whch the “oninance ofthe Communists the pon oppostion and that of ‘Mansa in intlesteal fe Became moe and more marked. THe f+ Poti ace adopted by the Nalonast government fac ofthe Japanese ivan, tthe parode sap ofthe Red Army andthe ‘enantio win over tothe Communist lege and 600. China ecified, hem retrospectively an npotance which thy wer lr foa poseig tthe ine of he pts foundation and daring he Canton prod 1923-26. sell politcal group founded in 192 bya few ileal, concemed wo ornize and develop wrkingcast action inthe opet ons, the Communist party would never hve tmp fit Badr ‘ane ffl tothe noms imposed on by ka Soviet advisers and to {he ditant deine of Moscon, which ew abusutelynahing abot ‘he fc offen Cina That pei was cominated by opin con ‘ptsandy the ed ea that hare was ony one a ha oud ed {he revluion=the path hat Rusia had take. Able fh the ‘evolu vation of he polar abd ground mit of the ‘eaunty ete the bas of Commu eethodoey. Hens he nee fre ‘rovblomaelians ofthe Communist purty wit the Nadonalst dour {ok ofthe Kuomintang unl the iter rtf nus capitals, ‘pene in Chinn. Tis pobsy ad fed ute nary tothe rsa ‘he Comment party and tothe maar ofthe working asd ‘renin ifingement of Soviet Gectves and in comaaiion wth re ‘Sel erthodoy that a penant evolutionary movement was to evo thera area, asta of the sue uroun ring, confor wit noid Wester radon, whlch had scared lhe eves of power fot ‘he Osober Revlon, wht orate in Chin wes the lon inverts ‘ofthe town bythe count. ‘The pinpl beads ofthe peasant unions and ofthe rural sovis whlch were ormed fom 1927 wade difered ae in gla ad ts. Ing tom the fist leaders of the Chinese Commanit pat. Chen ‘Tutu (879-192), bad std In Japan and France, Li Techno (labs nad teen educated frat tx miitary academy on by the ‘orem ate a nr a Japan; Chou Ell (1987-1970, tesa ‘inno cise, had Wed Japan, France, and German end Ct ‘Te Ut86-1976 had been a aden in Gtingrn an Bern, The only one ‘tho ha never eft China was Mao Taetang (1853-1970), wh came ‘Hom a family of weltedo paras he neighbourhood of Cg shay in Huan, and tad lied throughout hs yout ns native prov Inc. But fr rom tbe arial mosphere ofthe lg ces permsted ‘by Western nls, he Communist moveeat was oak up wih tbe ‘ost athe revoludonsy wadns of the Cine worl. Tesry ‘rarepacd by practic, ad resoang by an lve understanding of {he cle ns betwen the syste of expllation af the county ad {he poe ascendancy ofthe boureail ofthe open ports, an scene ancy wich war Sal indocable from he hed exerted by frig ‘foal To bea he viows cle twas therefore near enue the tung over tbe urban weld of he ara! word, the iti the Ppliceldevetopmens 0 19 641 double presure of foreign apt and the Chines bourse To ave 4 this goal frm econ and indomitable energy were reaued, ‘watever the tctel neces imponed by eramsance might be fot ‘rampl, the scent Was pt on voc ase daring the years of conton- ‘ton (927-37) withthe Nadooallt reine then afterwards ox he ‘utode sug aaest the Japanese invader, The men most sted 10 [Enders ad gradual tbe formed inthe couse ofthe Mgt. Isr tion and indoctoation had 1 go oa eet. Hence thanks 19 ‘ype Chioeseaversion for absrctios aad theo the Pastel character of Commons thinking fn Cnn and is sppaent ‘weaken the eyes of Westerner. From the Japanese arson to te edveat of he Peoples Repel “The auneing of te ig Jpanee invasion from the nother pot Ince in ly 1937 andthe bombing winowt wating of Shana in ‘Aspust mare the opening of he nt prod thedeckne ofthe Na ‘oat ge andthe upsurge of the reitane fo pan ‘The Chungking period “The Kuo-nin-ang goverment withdrew to Haskow atthe ed of 1957, tnd then from Hankow to Changing, ia distant Seechan, beyond the ‘Yangtae gorges, we the Japnere srs Caine al he pone the east and noth ofthe Yalow River, te whole ofthe Yang valley Upto Lake Tungtng tnd llth big towne fo the eat of ane usa Hom Grenechou to Canton ‘The iavson snd the capalgas that folowed ented pani nd exoduser Between thee of 938 atthe td of 1939 te population of Changing. an si provical ty hich brane te conta ara of the pace afore, fse fom 30,0000 overs milion. For he eine the break wa tl ont ‘was suddenly depcved ofits mai sources of evene, be customs dates nd use levied inthe replons now ccepled by Japan. war ct off from the pet economic etropls of Sbanghal and rom he burg {nd international ees which constuted is plicl base and it lente Ts witha in hetero of Chin wast have ery n= portant effects on it evoltion. Its only resources wee the exp {Rputated bythe Chics banks tn the ald fs ited wc foreign coun gave I The mal counties Involved were—1bove ‘lT—fhe Soviet Union, which was tooo the peasant Conumuiasut (642 China erie, i fn vitor (ts ld amounted to 250 millon American dolls be ‘ween 1937 and 1939), the United Staten, Great Brin, and Pras, However, the lpaneae attack on Pea Hasbout, on ? December 1 ‘wa to ent it staal spor from the United Sate frm tat ‘ise cowards. Doubles the American nd of more than two bilo ols wich the Neonat goverment reedved dung the Send ‘Worl War~towbsh mut be added wo illo ore in the years 9 ‘9a rlatvay lie comparison withthe fit ion pasted by ‘he United States othe toa of nations at war ih Geman an bet les, ut thls quantity of mone represented an enormous ootbton toa economy as povert-aicen an that of Nona Chi fn the ‘Changing dys Ad wie esuring the survival ofthe rep, was to have prfounlycorptng effects om ‘The stem dlp a parsticalaatre i the development of & huge butenucary and un ovrtown ay whose personal warts ‘oe pa tive llon mes. I abandoned ult fhe face lations ‘tiation, withthe consequence that prio roe ore and merely hd the Chace doa fein value ata acoraed pee, By 1986 the ‘dolar vas wot ive handed ines fetus on fc ee ofthe epee lnvaion. This monetary alge, together with the extra ld ad a Ugaer American peeseace than eer, with He buss He erat eps, ks means of anspor, and ira tans, favoured peal ton, the use offence for pate eds, and eomepion, Some ofthe former pveped clases, he lowly oficial of he eine, teachers in word al the eo nae by thei poston to earch hems by {ist means~tved in poverty aod Tel more and more df the "This dsatection was engine by the cant sce of he itary cperations and Chiang Kababel's pera howly fo the Communit ‘Partians hing the invader. Ratuced bythe campals of encel: ‘Bent of 53-34 tbe older nd lender ofthe Clase Sov Rep ‘t Kinng hd witha towards the wer In OBOber 1994 tnd ad ‘eathed northern Shen neon the Ci of oust of wears ‘Sceaiwan Puruel bythe Noni amis, ford find tht way ‘rough te mot inhopitabl regions, those who undertook (song ‘Mare’ (cng cheng) af 12,00) lometes—the wet ene of Chios (Comaanian were szrty 10,00 when they ot ny sve of ht ‘ousted reached thie deatnaon.Thore who had ecaped ey soon ‘made Yenan the cee of 1 new soviet base, easing the age ‘unin the Japanci nd continually reculig new supporters rom the pasey Forced in 996 1a combine is effora wth thse ofthe Cosy ‘unit, two years later Chiang Kale launched & hig ffeve “6 pemperpmnniitierran ee % Troe he Fee Ubenon Army hen ot, et 644 Chin crc, again the eoluonary bass in the north-west and twas oly with {ehuance and reetnoe that he aceped the principe of the commen Founder presue from the United States rag the ours fhe So. ‘ond Word War ‘The ci war of 196-1908 However, the capitulation of Japan in August 145 deny changed the ‘whole bai ofthe problem and seed to pve new Bf to Chia Kae ‘es regime. The rxoaquest of ¢comldeaie pat ofthe teres, ‘racuated by the Japanese armies, the return to Nalin, the offical Feeoglon of Natonalst China st ooe of the victors inthe Seond ‘Wert War, viedo partipaeininterational conferences, produced ‘omen ofeupbod It remained only forthe reine, which posed ‘he ppt of all eoutie and age ares ery well equlpped by the United Snes, 10 elf one an fora ofthe ‘Communit bans. ‘So began i 946 on ofthe bigest cv wasn coateporary ory. "The wo oporing sides were ral diferent rom each ce. Bi ‘cms ofthe Canal Rnd which lve onthe county ke paras, pling the countrys and ling to ransom, were confronted bythe tre timer smaller peasant lias, who mingled wth the ‘Stonjnous ual mass, waging © wa of tion, aidan oeakied # Pole developments 10 1849-648 sited of deserter who had coma over from th enemy with weapon nd bagsgs. Daring the offeive of Setember-Onoter [94 the we of {he portast was ongured sate Neonat ae! 40,00 eae ‘udag some ofthe bo woop. The deca Dt ont pace ding {he wine of 944, bn the aren of Huchou (ethos Kinga) re Inared tnd ity thousand men of the Nanas arms weep Ot ‘tation, The Communist oops, who ba already entered Peng and ‘iene, ween Shanphal te hy, ia Caston In October, and It Chungking in November. While tbe Nationalist goverment sought ‘efge in Taiwan, the People’s Republic of China was procaed oo Tonote 1908, thas been sid hat national fetng was be great modve fore ofthe tiny of contemporary Chins. The uh sta this pronoencement is only tue ofthe fast period, tha ofthe soe guint the curing bower, Chine patois fealned an impotent spain, embodied Shoe alin be Youn people ofthe shoals and la he tligentc, 29 Hong es twas deprived of te only meat by which onl be x. eed a peoples army, ndpendent of fog nes, The aliens ‘tthe pesaner and ofthe solders of the Red Army we forged daring Ihe coutef the srg aunt he lpanee avd, nthe err. ‘cupid by Japan Hence Ks strength ks succes, andthe very Wie ‘ampathy which he Hbraon movement encountered. Tere wa 8 pit between the plication ofthe fir try years of the ene nly a the rpaniation of th enantio Klang and of he ‘Yenan period the ul that veprated the dream rom realty, athe sary of alata in search of theories fsvation ari the Jane bie of imported des rom the ssaranos of ight wha had made com ‘ut api with th rl pop, wile eign Chapter 31 Philosophical and Literary Developments ‘hme year in Canton (2 dead, the ezupaton ofthe noth-easters pov {nce Japan, and oon oto peak of he aly bunllatons endured bythe Chines in China el aad abroad. Te intelli of his ‘eld war done ound up wih pala story. “Te intrusion of Western ideas, aeady pecepuble in the fl of plulonphy athe begining ofthe went century, was agreed bythe Gutppearence ofthe ert ofthe od eine and he derdop- tet of an inelgesn facta i Japen, nthe United Stats and rope, andin Chin tim col an nts where the chet twee ferdgnrn More or converted othe Wenera mode oe Iv to the ld Herat who mee in proces of dsappearng. The scoad ‘rid om the couiry, was one of tol dsr and of «ial wave [St Wester vena inthe Chau af the open por. Ts asoiting a ‘eet effervescence ws gradually de doa during he lst pero, ‘tlc coreaponded oh ator of Chang Kale: rman ‘dualism and bd ination ofthe boarpeas Wet weet ge way before the sow but sure progres of Marin. Art nd erate wee Pas nto the ere of the Revolution. ‘The nftuence of Japan and the discover of evolutionary plophy ‘Tendences to sperm chracterned the poll, pilwopic, and erry movement f theft en yar ofthe went etary It ‘the prod whch waned the ttumph of « mare rls ral ‘ot yet rambled, "Thee ws sil ail China To the reformers 648. China erie, very hue and of every ori, Japan, a country closet China bath Uogaphilly and coluraly, then temed ke mode in every field edoation, army, niton, pe morality. The pans ar ‘ence was reinored by the large number of Clase students Bo went to Japan fo compl ther edeation Inthe unr tecla ‘choos, and malar academies Deir number i estated to ave been 15,00 in 1909); by the welome reseed bythe ollie Emig fom ‘asioos diferent Japanese asotions and from the Malf gover: ‘Beat—as cay as 150 he Toe do bunt the Caltral Aiton of East Asha ben created to further Japanese ntience fn the Fat "Eta; and by te entoeo prestige of Japan afte her wry over the ‘Russian army and et n 90. Iwas aly hough Jepenere tana: ‘ons that Chins tents made somata hat ie wh he Weary and phlsopical works ofthe Wes "Te repblanrevoloare and conspirators, who alo found ex ‘purngeent in Japan, epesnied ony magia lao, ‘andatoe current. On the coneary Kwa th forma, the adver ‘faconsttutonal monarchy of te Jpaneetpe, who fad then the ig test audience among the intellectuals andthe young. The spokesman ‘a Lang Chin, who tev self weed pager. A ‘ets Japon snc the fue ofthe ‘undeed Days of Reform "U9 be was rele active there seckng by hers athe pres, i amps, his books, to avai hs compat, analying the aes ‘€ Chinas dele aiming and adapting othe Chinese radon he ‘ow eas of Ms ineeveuontn, erat, the ep of eter, the worship of sclence, and 0 on In bi view was alt of forgo ‘eset of un fo the ere from theft that peopl ad Oba customed to humilatons. Miner, bmn, the epi of ta ‘rane, the lon morality bound sp what of evan aad ‘alc item hat had deappered and bad been overtaken by vets ‘a to be replaced by the spt of competion, of sug, y a ‘ional ad intransigence —in sort al he qules doled bythe ‘ese ations and by Tapes We luo ad ts aden onthe ned fo treafomation in depth ofthe pubic ehoe in a contemprary of Liang Ch-tacy, Yen Pu {G253-52), « Puldenese who, ater ecg «Gana! efocaon, tad Studd at th seboa tached fo the Foochow Artal, where be bd Jett English and acquired atcha nd sete background, De {nga ped of talning in Great Bai, withthe Royal Navy, Yet Fa ‘nd dorered he works of Darwin and Spence, Head io ered ‘inn Beh ew and adit. On he tun to Choate long years ofthe intent centary hema to Decne On of he Phlsophicl and erry developments 619 transtorsof th Baglsh ctlutionary pilsoper. istration of ‘Bolton ond Ether (Ter- yrs by TH, Huse in 894 ad pled im sen fame and had bon oloned by whale wre of ober ‘tandations betwen 1900 and 1910—The Shady of Sole (Cn- ‘sah sey), by H. Spencer, The Weath of Nations (Yani), 89 ‘Adam Sith, On Liber (Chinchichan che), by Joba Star MI and Lipide fot (Fe, by Monte, ‘Writen in the cca language ad In refined el fll of ecy and somtines obscure allusions, Yen F's rans wee accom Died by personal eommetarieThey had considerable itn, ‘Suen the en hat natural selon and the wrappers ‘ic appt not oly tothe eial Hing bt tot aes Ths Interest of Yea Fu and hs conemporaresin Darna crofton and ‘Anglo Saron sociology ha in fact plical mauve Shing hee ‘det forme justin forthe csenaaton of new ethos ped by the Wes: individual, Uber, and democracy had dually to ett into Claes mansers nd ints, was ota question of copig the Wet, bt of angi an ie ‘on, nd thisinteton was peeps the vr form whic remand tradidonal, Yee P's wanton were writen in casa Chore and (650 Chin cod 1900-10 and of Li Paola (Li Po-yaa) (1867-1906), the famous Kuar-ong feng c,h aes as ‘Ses of corp oes of that tine the author of 1 target the The Westen invasion “The plical apd ltlectual climate changed ffom 1918-17 onwards, st was then thatthe it signs began o spent ofthe reat period of ‘worl confusion, ieletal ferment, ad invasion by Western fabio ‘hd eas. The esomenon was to each is climax fom 1919 owas, ‘Teco of change nite were dou any and ‘man cers ae wept tobe flere fhe disappearance of {he dynasty and the olf ledered clases, to the demonsaons of Sepann imeratom (ibe Cxapalion of ie Shantng eto, the ‘ety. one demands, the progres of Japa’ econ held on Chi), 10 the dspposiments cuned bythe pated of purlanenary de ‘Boca ad the atop of Youn Sha, who ede estraton Sd aought to revive the elt of Conf, and tothe growth Inthe ‘tombe of stds edoatd abroad especialy inte Wester couse. ‘Buit sce asf tere was above lla dep break between the penea- ‘Nast his tne. The movement was launched nde byte Youn => ‘ein the school nd byte stadents who had retured from abrond. “The ever moe nuteroue Chinese who bad sued in Japan, Esrope, or the Uned Sates experienced w dep fing of ae with eat ‘lr ove counzy ands aden. Inthe sate of decent which (Chiesa fallen, tadilonl manners and customs be Ieatre and Sr the ert that eaind of tee China~scmed oem Tie an odious carina. Any compromise with the past tad become im Doni, mas necoay to brea nce fr ll wih ll the old Chee dios and inorder to Ht Chia ot oft nate of rosation 0 taken peoples contorted each the wide pose pub "Tbe rt svis of his radial mover wich ab oat he young peopl inthe shoots andthe new, mote o a Westalzed In {eigen ofthe open port =the tro of China wa arly ivaled ‘enue of ts povery an lation were the foundaion of reviews and. erase, Th odo and mow important revew was founded a ‘Shanghai 1913 by Cen Tosi (180-192), ama who ad be Scholarship In Japan and was to become in 1821 one of he founders ‘Of the Chinese Communit party. It bore the significant mame of ‘Heimer an the Pench atl of Le Nowwele ewes Cea ‘Tur fot are was an “Appeal fo You that resound Hke a Aeclrton of war onthe mor want of Cana, whch wee Philosophical and lerary developments 631 emt compared with he damian spit fetes ofthe ‘Wert. Two yar Iter the apfeared te Segpeons for «Lira efor’ of «young Chinese educate inthe Unie States, oot Hu Sih (1091-1962). The arte med ata adel efor fear ese and ‘vocted the abandonment f the cls language Ines where ts ‘ewastradtonl the botion of ccbls and teary allusions andthe ‘he fp, det language pied by the spoken ong (it). ‘From shine onwards ue of he a-ha was to make very id prog: ‘es: Chfen Tosa for his part prayed forthe development of reve ‘onary, living, reise erature "The movement of 4 May 1919, launched by the sunt of Pking when was announced tha he forme Gena possesion in Chin ad ‘ee ranted to apn gave ceive mpube tthe evelopment of the ‘ost adel pola and Iteaytendencles, Followed as ras het dmesttions, by sts and by boyeots which bore wes othe esenment cae y ts Mes infitgenest ofthe iis of Cina, ‘whch hd etred th war apalnt German i 191, the nitive ke ‘by he Peaing students marked the bepinng of & prod of pola Spinto agreed by the teprenive menses taken by he govern ‘mens ofthe warlords, Poa and Hiary cbs mulled, at di ‘more ora ephemeral eviews, Wetec pew ore so mare ‘pce Tremaine became more numero: hte wee content= Sie betwee the bodes of opposing pilxopieal views; ad anew Kod ff nove, bated on European modes, made is appearance and de eloped "This neta arent was ints eps mach more rbd and com- ple than a spec view of I mph ead ws to soppore: cannot be {Kmmed up nes suden patos react lneped by Western eas (ene, denacacy,lnivigualim, national). Afting ow of te lSkeaver ofthe Chose Word, elected the roomed mal. jstment of «youth and un liga wich fe very deeply te ‘Sones ot whieh they nee themes the Vn ‘Que a mach a dese for ation, was the tempo ape rom anion witout youl, was espa withdrawal ne el bd ‘oti romantic whch exe theses a pilosophiel dese Sind teary works. The dives of temperaments and educational rckroundsIoved some contag of ens ibeed trom the {Cine radon, ones formed by frei nflences explain he ae ‘val vations andthe mult of schools and tended. "The very contons in which ths Invasion of Western fslons and ‘es tok place enpin why, once the fever had tbied, 20 very peo found wate were to renal. Many ofthe itll crests ofthe (652 Chins ucfiad ‘riod 1917-28 were compicuows for thie ephemeral and arial ‘Shura. The sacs was ey often do ocean conectons be {ween Chins and Western dion. For example, Kean be pened {hat tee ae cern ais Dtwera the pilsophy of Begin and {he nun of Wang Yang-ming, between the Anglo-Stzon hey ‘ofa fora’ sake and sri ade ple ofthe Chine Hera ‘eewen Tuoi and Darwin nd thee affinies wee undeined By the wer thse 'As inthe it few years of the twentieth century, Anglo Saxon in ‘tetces predominated beaut ofthe Beish foothold tm Clon and ‘wus of the ge munber of dens edad in he Unie Snes. Hi Shit ineduced the pragnatt phowophy of is teacher ohn ‘eve (1859195), who was hums lvted fo Chinn 1919-21. Tbe gl seoreli nd lgiaa Heras Rass abo saped a Chia in 1925-21, French and Geman infuses were le notable. Teal ‘Yoel (966-1540, ho had sade in Bein and Lebel and a Ist? reformed Peking Unters tanaued P. Palas Sim det Eiht spd wrote a Mitry of Chine Ets (Chango hh. ‘hi (1917). His efora refereed thowe ofthe scolar and Msoran ‘Wang Kuo", who at the epmnng of the etary had ben one of the fist to nodoce Chinee readers to Niche and Schoprbauers ‘ulosophy of wi, with Ms says on Chinen (Chngan wench) (G90) shoud be noe that there was also an asus careat of Though, which Linked up with the epltarian concepts of the secret Socits had revealed ela very early nage among the Chinese Stdent i Pre wth he creation of eve, Le Sle nuvene (sb ‘hlkeh) (1907-9), one ofthe oundes of which was stodeat of Wo}Ry 1 Moatpelle,L Sten, bora in 882, te wandatr of Kropekn. ‘Te weer Pula, wh came to Pal 192, ag to be converted i aa Young tant the anarchist movemes, adopting ais nom he pume the ist ud last yao he anes fh vou wie, ‘Bakunin en Kropokin “The any which bad marke he start of tbe movement of May 1919 was scerded bya petiod of pasonte dcusins, Morals and ‘cates of «prey cel conepion of ct ed. Crcs fhe mercantile, mechanical ciation of the West made themselves beard ab result of the depute vo whieh Euroe fel ai he Fat Work War. The fst ons were formulated by Ling Chto afer returning ffm Europe in 919. They wee taken up and cred fret ‘by Liang Strain. bor in 853, comparaive dy of he an ‘ons ofthe East and he Wet and of tha puloropls (Th en ‘nu oh CH che Ae) n which the author es inthe Cine eadton n Phiosophigal and erry developments 658 ofthe adaption of desires to economi and socal necesita operon {orm of humaniin, as compared the exacerbation of eas Which, ‘soordng to bm, caractraes Wer ciation, snd ss compared ‘the eppote rs which he conde type of indian clon, ‘hoe dtm, be sys sim the snuaon off and tte [ination of dees. Hower, thee nlc ootoveries ton {vera fo more fundumeatalopostion betwen revolutionaries nd pre scaenis, By 1928 Hu Shh, whos nace had teen 5 pe- ondeantsnce 197, ad lst most o his aude, His place was ten by Kuo Moro bom In 1882, one ofthe fst conver o Mari. ‘A paral! procs of evolton cured inthe Olé of Meraue, see wat also make inthe ere 1917-28 by profraon of the "ow dvs tendencies. The gente vest ofthe period mas La Hsin (0881-1930, ce, onroverlalst ud uanslor of Gopal, Planer, anacasty and Jules Vern, ab well of Japanese, Poh, Hun: ‘an and ter weer But hte wee also other wees of met for ‘amp, Yo Sheng (orm a 192), YO Taf (196-199), Mat {Gorin 196), Pacino 1909) and he woman novel Ting (Gor ln 1907}. Tee sombre and ofen melodrama works of these ‘rts exe belo o despa The development of Marais ‘The discovery which elated the oppression sufleed by Cina, a hal Calenaed’coury, tothe capt aye that bad generated n= ‘elim, fOok pice lathe years 1915-20. 1c wa the work of» small {Foup of intelecals ed by Cea Tusa and Li Thao (188-927). ‘The ey othe spel ory ofthe Chee wr see the statics {ite Gpan Wr wa proved y wg ntpeaon oe ory ‘ofan transcode raf seed to Kak up wth oe ofthe cone Sant in Chinese hnking The ory ofthe fire sags, which though 654 China ceed seventcenth-entury Chinese pilosophrs, whos influence had never ensed to ake icf. The abolon of private proper, pu nto facice by te Ta Png in te mile of he natn etsy, cote ‘pone to nea the deepest epratons of the Canes Tendon apd ned up wit ertin oer ‘ast talons. Mara ‘har scons tobe ln barmoay vith certain eden of Clase hough. Forts pr, communi ndeated pss fection and fried {he model fora revolonary erganzaton slat Yo ht ofthe tee fociedes of China, The Soviet Unlow's ep seemed to cot these Dope "Te fact remains that Cina communism ad to aap el 0 vey sped! condions—those of & huge rural county, deed it ‘ronomic independence andthe vei of tribe expan, tos oft Sentcolonaed Ciba where the nd prokaaiat was 00 Weak and too wrth to pla ay deve role and those of warmed cole. ‘tic was to goon continuous from 1927 unt the final vicory of 1949~ agua he Nationalist armie before and afer the Japanese ave Son, st aunt the fore of the cccupying power. If Cnet com. ‘moni looks pay peasantry, and par, tanks to ace willy an allace with thir natural eis. Two Years Sher ibe eatin of Tecan In 1827 by the waco goverament of Peking, Cea Tort, lead hed responsible forthe poly imposed ‘chim agalnt his wily the Kremla, wat be expeled from te party. ‘The rt ntelectas had o take way forthe obsere ites Of he ‘rates, and dl peace hat bebe forthe tears of OF ‘odor dct, veyaing west favor the Communists from the avst of Chiang Kaisiek onvardsthe Kuomintang police's pensction of the be ‘rls te iat ofthe Nationalist goverment I fae ofthe Japanese fnvmion the gale agit the reitance movement embodied ty the CCommatiss, ad the ever more silly advancey coupon sed ‘decrepit of Chiang Kael eine. Ae the ers went y, more and ‘more Chine nelle wee converte o Maram, Murti publ ‘Hos mulped between 1935 and 145; the authors mest i demand ‘tre Mara, Ege, Lain and Blues. Literatu shed the ffloencet tthe Bourgeow West: nospetion, doubt, andthe Yomane xa ton ofthe nial were no longer fshlonable It tended to become n Philosophical and lierary developments 655 ‘weapon inthe service ofthe revolution and was encouraged oak ths bath by susgerion fron Yenus For example n 942 Mao Tong ‘etind the evlonary functions of leary and ari eatin and ‘roped tht wir should drew the Ipraton, when the opps {ny aoe, rm hos spect ofthe ancien Chinese adons Which ‘cold be adaped to th aed f the presen Suge Wisnoteworhy than spt ofthe rags of the age anda pif the ‘etemely precious condions of fe Chins lars and puted thet researches andthe effort to develop etic eurtion fn Chin. The vying contacts bawen Chins and Wester aon hte inks eabied wth European and American sets played tome pat inthe ureing resitance fred by dtr arsing i ‘et of ceo and detain, but it was above all the pais. ‘other sits nd colar ht Clan was Indeed forthe preserva ‘on of ber sete aions. Tn te fl ofthe Metre! (hor, epigraphy, archeology) and iological sconces, in wbich China had shove heel tobe partlaiy vanced abd ad pone sro sete ton sn the Seven- and esa etry, ome important covers were ge ‘rw impuie torevarh. Thee cove wee the icone, from {gap cated, ft urpion on bone endorse tig fom {he ed of the cond millenia nthe excevains from 1987 on- srucea Aryan a Hoots onthe te of he st epi ofthe Yin (or ‘Shang (ourteth to devetn ears mc); the covery in 100 ofthe "eh oar of paper manus ofthe fih to tenth cenaries A. ea ‘Tumhuang in ween Karte belgg tog fom 196 onward of the notr tn wood aod bamboo of he Han ag it thereon of Tan- tang tof Chaya in western Mongol (st century mc. and fat eatury a) and the pening othe Ming and ing archives eat to sinacth entra) in te Imperial Pale at Peking Al the dasvere, which were tobe fllowed Wy many oes fle 1952, cone {aed enoigh material oro raealy all tral views abou the ‘on dian par of the Rinse word, about eplaphy and a ‘hacology nd the hor of Heraure eliglon, ant "The solar who eoluborted a working on these new documents and who nove fo id i be extremely ch eine of Chinese cin tion corain negated trons whch presented analogies wi Western Iran (popular Biertur, the theatre, sop, log, Budi ‘metapiti, a) came from every ee of society and belonged 12 56, China erie ery plical persuasion, bu he most eminent among then were can: ‘ected wth th Ceking shoo, the he othe col of ea aes (Cro-hent- Ase) of the eighth century. Rosnd about 1900 i ‘cool yas represented by Ya YOeh (621-1907), eisoren, mano et tes and spells the Chinese lorpbert ofthe four and hed Centres, who me hed prada fr Jaan, by San 1ang (G84 1500 eo the ft spit athe neriplon ofthe eof ‘the second alleaniam, a biographer In earch of Chinese works ‘reserved la Japa, eit of the work of the pilonopber Most aad ‘Promoter of medars schol a Chetan The lx abd most fous eprsetatve of he school of al stan thera half of he wer ‘ith entry was Chang Ping (1869-1530)- A nave of Hangs, the fiend and esate of Sun Yate and Huang Hing the ts of them werereuded athe Taree Parcs ofthe Revolution (o-ming samun)—e bad been the cl of YO Yeh Bey strated bythe ‘efoming Kas of Kang Yuorl, he soon moved over tothe a ‘onachst opps at he ne of Way in Japa, hare be atved In 1099 and where be made the acqulsance of Sen Yate. ‘Lo Chem (186-194 and Wang Kuo-we (187-1927 ean be inked it sae Cheking school. Precrupled aa young man wth que. tions of agronomy, wh he regarded a fendamentl, Lo Chee had ‘ea in Shangha afer Shimonosel an Aston forthe Sty of {he Ciilations of East Asia Tonge ie she, wich had practi sins and fo whch he bad invited dapanee profesor. After beconng Diectr of he ite of Aaronony at Peng In 1908, bet Chin at ‘het ofthe 1911 Revlon aod fock refuge Japan fom 1912 © 1913. Tor tothe former emperor slant, the young Psat . Sebopenhaer, and Nace. Mach affected y the fal ofthe dynasty n 191, he took refuge nope, Ske hit fend Lo ‘Chee Hethen ave up Wester poopy and etred tothe dh tin feels, publishing works onthe sory of he hear a ‘Sang and YOan tne (913,00 the Claes, nthe Moran abo he Insrpons on one of he Choa age We ar alu Inde fim or Phloophigal and tterary developments 657 studies ofthe Han documents found tTur-hang and CB 36, the An ‘yang tncpions and the Tulany manusrps. Another histor ‘tho made an important coatebatlon by his hsorograhia method fo ‘he renewal tht Une of wana! ut boot he tet Mary of (Cina was Ku Chie-tang (or in 199), he fend of Chang Paging soda Shh. "Tess wel Known but probably sl more remarkable wi the develop ‘ment of techng aad rach nthe Bd of he exact scene Ts a doe tothe efforts of lenis rane partyin Cnn an party abd (oni in the Untied Stes eter 1927), trove total duces ad {o esl schools and laborstoir, Thanks Yo these men Chloe ‘cine reached inverndonl andar seve department, Men ie Ting Wenctiang(V.K. Tha. 1857-1980, he eminent sel who founded the Chisee Geolgéal Soxey in 192 and the Chine along Sci 99h Ye fh cry of eine Man), the mathematicians Chen Hung hen (Sng sben Cer, bor it 1911) and Chou Wallan (Chow Wein, born in 911), oe ofthe ‘looters of algebra eomety, the bach Hen W (195-1959), {nd te pps Yen Caves Oy Tee, born a 190 and Wo Tae (Gorn in 807 the teacher of Tsuneo Lex, who won the Nabe rie fer pss made a coutbutonrecoplzed by sete al over the ‘wold osetifi progres. Some of therm, ach ote owe poyicat (Gren San-ang Gorn in 1910), a icp of Free and te ait ‘Cri today play crcl part in the orpnzation of search anda he raltarysteagtenng ofthe Peoples Repabe of China, cy

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