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OpticalSources
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ConsiderationswithOpticalSources
y Physicaldimensionstosuitthefiber
y Narrowradiationpattern(beamwidth)
y Linearity(outputlightpowerproportionaltodrivingcurrent)
y Abilitytobedirectlymodulatedbyvaryingdrivingcurrent
y Fastresponsetime(wideband)
y Adequateoutputpowerintothefiber
y Narrowspectralwidth(orlinewidth)
y Stabilityandefficiency
y Drivingcircuitissues
y Reliabilityandcost
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ReviewofSemiconductorPhysics
k B = 1.38 1023 JK -1
a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band. The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation
of electrons across the band gap
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nTypeSemiconductor
a)
b)
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pTypeSemiconductor
a)
b)
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Intrinsic&ExtrinsicMaterials
y Intrinsicmaterial:Aperfectmaterialwithnoimpurities.
n = p = ni exp(
Eg
2 k BT
n & p & ni are the electron, hole & intrinsic concentrat ions respective ly.
pn = ni
y Majoritycarriers:electronsinntypeorholesinptype.
y Minoritycarriers:holesinntypeorelectronsinptype.
y Theoperationofsemiconductordevicesisessentiallybasedontheinjection
andextraction ofminoritycarriers.
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Thepn Junction
Electron diffusion across a pn junction
creates a barrier potential (electric field)
in the depletion region.
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Reversebiasedpn Junction
Areversebiaswidensthedepletionregion,butallowsminoritycarriersto
movefreelywiththeappliedfield.
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Forwardbiasedpn Junction
Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority carriers
to diffuse across the junction.
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DirectandindirectBandGapSemiconductors
y Inadirectbandgapsemiconductor,theminimumoftheconduction
bandandthemaximumofthevalencebandareadjacenttoeachother
andelectronandtheholepairscandirectlyrecombine.
y Inthecaseofanindirectsemiconductoranadditionalmomentumof
theelectronisneededtorecombinewithaholeinthevalenceband.
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SemiconductorLightSources
y APN junction (that consistsofdirectbandgapsemiconductor
achieveacoherent,highlydirectional opticalbeamwithnarrow
linewidth.
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LEDvs.laserspectralwidth
Laser output is many times
higher than LED output; they
would not show on same scale
Single-frequency laser
(<0.04 nm)
Standard laser
(1-3 nm wide)
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LightEmission
y BasicLEDoperation: Whenanelectronjumpsfromahigherenergy
state(Ec)toalowerenergystate(Ev)thedifferenceinenergyEc Ev
isreleasedeither
y asaphotonofenergyE=h (radiativerecombination)
y asheat(non radiativerecombination)
CharacteristicsofLEDs:
y
y
y
y
y
y
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Lowspeed(<100200Mb/s)datarates;
Easytocouplewithmultimodefiber;
Mediumopticalpowerintensofmicrowatts;
Requirelesscomplexdrivecircuitry
Nothermaloropticalstabilizationcircuitsneeded;
Fabricatedlessexpensivelywithhigheryields.
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SEMICONDUCTORLIGHTEMITTINGDIODES
y SemiconductorLEDsemitincoherentlight.
y SpontaneousemissionoflightinsemiconductorLEDsproduceslightwaves
thatlackafixedphaserelationship.Lightwavesthatlackafixedphase
relationshipare referredtoasincoherentlight.
y TheuseofLEDsinsinglemodesystemsisseverelylimitedbecausetheyemit
unfocusedincoherentlight.
y EvenLEDsdevelopedforsinglemodesystemsareunabletolaunch sufficient
opticalpowerintosinglemodefibersformanyapplications.
y LEDsarethepreferredopticalsourceformultimodesystemsbecausetheycan
launchsufficientpoweratalowercostthansemiconductorLASER Diodes.
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OPERATINGWAVELENGTH
y Fiberopticcommunicationsystemsoperateinthe
y 850nm,
y 1300nm,and
y 1550nmwavelengthwindows.
y Semiconductorsourcesaredesignedtooperateatwavelengthsthat
minimizeopticalfiberabsorptionandmaximizesystembandwidth
y LEDWavelength:
= hc/E(eV)
( m) =
1.2399
E (eV)
= wavelength in microns
h = Planks constant
C = speed of light
E = Photon energy in eV
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LEDStructures
y Radiance (or brightness) ofLED isameasureoftheopticalpowerradiated
intoaunitsolidangleperunitareaoftheemittingsurface.
y Emissionresponsetime isthetimedelaybetweentheapplicationofa
currentpulseandtheonsetofopticalemission.
y Timedelay isthefactorlimitingthebandwidthwithwhichthesourcecanbe
modulateddirectlybyvaryingtheinjectedcurrent.
y Quantumefficiency isrelatedtothefractionofinjectedelectronholepairs
thatrecombineradiatively.
y Toachievehighradianceandhighquantumefficiency,theLEDsdouble
heterojunctionstructure isused.
y Thedoubleheterojunctionstructure providesameansofconfiningthe
chargecarriersandthestimulatedopticalemissiontotheactiveregionofthe
pn junction.
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LEDStructures
y Carrierconfinementistoachieveahighlevelofradiativerecombination
intheactiveregionofthedevice,whichyieldsahighquantum
efficiency.
y Bandgapdifferencesofadjacentlayersconfinethechargecarriers.
y Opticalconfinementisforpreventingabsorptionoftheemitted
radiationbythematerialsurroundingthepn junction.
y Indexdifferencesofadjoininglayersconfinetheopticalfieldtothe
centralactivelayer.
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Heterojunction
y Heterojunctionistheadvancedjunctiondesigntoreducediffractionlossinthe
opticalcavity.
y ThisisaccomplishedbymodificationoftheLEDmaterialtocontroltheindexof
refractionofthecavityandthewidthofthejunction.
y ThepnjunctionofthebasicGaAsLED/laseriscalledahomojunctionbecause
onlyonetypeofsemiconductormaterialisusedinthejunctionwithdifferent
dopantstoproducethejunctionitself.
y Theindexofrefractionofthematerialdependsupontheimpurityusedandthe
dopinglevel.
y TheHeterojunction regionisactuallylightlydopedwithptypematerialandhas
thehighestindexofrefraction.
y Thentypematerialandthemoreheavilydopedptypematerialbothhavelower
indicesofrefraction.
y Thisproducesalightpipeeffectthathelpstoconfinethelaserlighttotheactive
junctionregion.Inhomojunction,however,thisindexdifference islowandmuch
lightislost.
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GalliumArsenideAluminumGalliumArsenide
Heterojunction
y Structureandindexofrefractionnforvarioustypesofjunctionsingallium
arsenidewithajunctionwidthd.
y (a)isforahomojunction.
y (b)isforagalliumarsenidealuminumgalliumarsenidesingle
heterojunction.
y (c)isforagalliumarsenidealuminumgalliumarsenidedouble
heterojunctionwithimprovedopticalconfinement.
y (d)isforadoubleheterojunctionwithalargeopticalcavityofwidthw.
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Double heterostructureconfiguration
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LightSourceMaterial
y MostofthelightsourcescontainIIIVternary&quaternary
compounds.
y Ga 1 x Al x As byvaryingxitispossibletocontrolthe bandgapenergy
andtherebytheemissionwavelengthovertherangeof800nmto900
nm.Thespectralwidthisaround20to40nm.
emissionwavelengthcanbecontrolledovertherangeof920nmto
1600nm.Thespectralwidthvariesfrom70nmto180nmwhenthe
wavelengthchangesfrom1300nmto1600nm.Thesematerialsare
latticematched
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TypesofLED
ThebasicLEDtypesusedforfiberopticcommunicationsystemsare
SurfaceemittingLED(SLED),
y EdgeemittingLED(ELED),and
y
y LEDperformancedifferenceshelplinkdesignersdecidewhichdeviceis
appropriatefortheintendedapplication.
y Forshortdistance(0to3km),lowdataratefiberopticsystems,SLEDs
andELEDsarethepreferredopticalsource.
y Typically,SLEDsoperateefficientlyforbitratesupto250megabitsper
second(Mb/s).BecauseSLEDsemitlightoverawidearea(widefar
fieldangle),theyarealmostexclusivelyusedinmultimodesystems.
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SurfaceEmittingLEDs
y ThesurfaceemittingLEDisalsoknownastheBurrusLEDinhonorofC.A.
Burrus,itsdeveloper.
y InSLEDs,thesizeoftheprimaryactiveregionislimitedtoasmallcirculararea
of20mto50mindiameter.
y TheactiveregionistheportionoftheLEDwherephotonsareemitted.The
primaryactiveregionisbelowthesurfaceofthesemiconductorsubstrate
perpendiculartotheaxisofthefiber.
Awellisetchedintothesubstratetoallowdirectcouplingof theemittedlight
totheopticalfiber.Theetchedwellallowstheopticalfibertocomeintoclose
contactwiththeemittingsurface.
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EdgeemittingLED
y Consistsofanactivejunctionregion,andtwoguidinglayers.The
guidinglayershavearefractiveindexlowerthantheactiveregionbut
higherthanthesurroundingmaterial.
y Tomatchthetypicalfibercorediameters(50100mm),thecontact
stripesfortheedgeemitterare5070mmwide.Lengthsoftheactive
regionsusuallyrangefrom100to150mm.
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y Excessofelectronsandholesinp andntypematerial(referredtoas
minoritycarriers)iscreatedinsemiconductorlightsourcebycarrier
injectionatthedevicecontacts.
y Theexcesscarrierdensitydecaysexponentiallywithtimeaccordingtothe
relation
n =no exp(t/)
whereno istheinitialinjectedexcesselectrondensityandthetime
constant isthecarrierlifetime.
y Thetotalrateatwhichcarriersaregeneratedisthesumofthe externally
suppliedandthethermallygeneratedrates.
y ExternallysuppliedrateisgivenbyJ/qd,whereJ isthecurrentdensity,q
istheelectroncharge,andd isthethicknessoftherecombinationregion.
Thermalgenerationrateisgivenbyn/ .
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y TherateequationforcarrierrecombinationinanLEDcanbewritten
as
zero,yieldingthesteadystateelectrondensityintheactiveregion
n =J /qd
y Internalquantumefficiency intheactiveregionisthefractionofthe
electronholepairsthatrecombineradiatively.
y IftheradiativerecombinationrateisRr andthenonradiative
recombinationrateisRnr,thentheinternalquantumefficiencyhint
istheratiooftheradiativerecombinationratetothetotal
recombinationrate:
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y Forexponentialdecayofexcesscarriers,theradiativerecombinationlifetime
int =1/[1+(r/nr)]=/r
wherethebulkrecombinationlifetime is
(1/)=(1/r)+(1/nr)
y LEDshavingdouble heterojunctionstructurescanhavequantumefficiencies
of6080%.Thishighefficiencyisachievedbecausethethinactiveregionsof
LEDsmitigatetheselfabsorptioneffects,whichreducesthenonradiative
recombinationrate.
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y ForcurrentI injectedintoLED,therecombinationrateis
Rr +Rnr =I/q
thenwegetthephotongeneratingrateas
Rr =int(I/q).
y Sinceeachphotonhasanenergyh, theopticalpowergeneratedinternally
totheLEDis
Pint =(intI/q).h
y Example:
AdoubleheterojunctionInGaAsPLEDemittingatapeakwavelengthof1310
nmhasradiativeandnonradiativerecombinationtimesof30and100ns,
respectively.Thedrivecurrentis40mA.
y thebulkrecombinationlifetimeis =r.nr/(r+nr)=30x100/(30+100)ns=23.1ns
y theinternalquantumefficiencyisint = /r =23.1/30=0.77
y Pint =int.(hcI/q)
(6.6256x1034J.s)(3x108m/s)(0.040A)
=0.77x =2.92mW.
(1.602x1019C)(1.31x106m)
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y Externalquantumefficiencyext istheratioofthephotonsemitted
fromtheLEDtothenumberofinternallygeneratedphotons.
y AsshowninFig.,onlythatfractionoflightfallingwithinaconedefined
y Here,n1 istherefractiveindexofthesemiconductormaterialandn2 is
therefractiveindexoftheoutsidematerial.
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y Theexternalquantumefficiencycanbecalculatedfromtheexpression
ext
1
=
4
T ( ) ( 2 sin ) d
0
whereT()istheFresneltransmissivity.
y T()canbesimplifiedwiththeexpressionfornormalincidence
ext =1/n(n+1)2.
y ItfollowsthattheopticalpoweremittedfromtheLEDis
P =extPint =Pint/n(n+1)2.
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QuantumEfficiencyandLEDPower
y Example:
y Assumingatypicalvalueof n=3.5fortherefractiveindexofan
LEDmaterial,thenwecangetext =1.41%.
y Thisshowsthatonlyasmallfractionoftheinternallygenerated
opticalpowerisemittedfromthedevice.
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ModulationofLED
y ThefrequencyresponseofanLEDisdeterminedby
1).Thedopinglevelintheactiveregion,
2).Theinjectedcarrierlifetimei intherecombinationregion,
3).TheparasiticcapacitanceoftheLED.
y Ifthedrivecurrentismodulatedatafrequency,theopticaloutput
powerofthedevicewillvaryas
P()=Po[1+(i)2]1/2 ,
wherePo isthepoweremittedatzeromodulationfrequency.
y SinceP()= I2()R,theratiooftheoutputelectricalpoweratthe
frequency tothepoweratzeromodulationis
Ratioelec =10.log[P()/P(0)]
=10.log[I2()/I2(0)]
whereI()istheelectricalcurrentinthedetectioncircuitry.
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ModulationofLED
y Theelectrical3dBpointoccursatthatfrequencypointwherethe
detectedelectricalpowerP()=P(0)/2.Thishappenswhen
I2()/I2(0)=1/2
orI()/I(0)=1/2 =0.707.
y Theoptical3dBbandwidthofanLEDcanbedeterminedfrom
Ratiooptic =10.log[P()/P(0)]
=10.log[I()/I(0)]
y Theoptical3dBpoint
occursatthatfrequency
wheretheratioofthe
currentsisequalto1/2.
y AsshowninFig.,this
correspondstoanelectrical
powerattenuationof6dB.
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LASERDIODES
y Laseractionistheresultofthreekeyprocesses:
1).photonabsorption,
2).spontaneousemission,and
3).stimulatedemission.
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LASERDIODES
y SpontaneousEmissions
9 Whenaphotonofenergyh12 impingesonthesystem,anelectroninstateE1 can
absorbthephotonenergyandbeexcitedtostateE2,asshowninFig.417a.
9 Theelectronwillshortlyreturntothegroundstate,therebyemittingaphoton
9 Thespontaneousemissions areisotropicandofrandomphase,andthusappear
asanarrowbandgaussianoutput.
y StimulatedEmissions
9 AsshowninFig.,ifaphotonofenergyh12 impingesonthesystemwhilethe
electronisstillinitsexcitedstate,theelectronisimmediatelystimulatedto
droptothegroundstateandgiveoffaphotonofenergyh12.
9 Theemittedphotoninthestimulatedemission isinphasewiththeincident
photon.Stimulatedemissionwillexceedabsorptionifthepopulationofthe
excitedstatesisgreaterthanthatofthegroundstate.Thisconditionisknown
aspopulationinversion.
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CharacteristicsofLDs
9 Suitableforsystemsofbandwidth>200MHz;
9 Typicallyhaveresponsetimeslessthan1ns;
9 Havingopticalbandwidthsof2nmorless;
9 Capableofcouplingseveraltensofmilliwattsofluminescentpower;
9 Can couple with optical fibers with small cores and small modefield
diameters.
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FabryPerotResonator
y TheradiationinthelaserdiodeisgeneratedwithinaFabryPerot
resonatorcavity,asshowninFig.
y Thiscavityisapproximately250500mlong,515mwide,and0.10.2
mthick.
y Thesedimensionsarecommonlyreferredtoasthelongitudinal,lateral,
andtransversedimensions ofthecavity,respectively.
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FabryPerotResonator
y IntheLDFabryPerotresonator,apairofflat,partiallyreflecting
mirrorsaredirectedtowardeachothertoenclosethecavity.
y Thelasercavitycanhavemanyresonantfrequencies.
y Thedevicewillemitlightatthoseresonantfrequenciesforwhichthe
gainissufficienttoovercomethelosses.
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DFB(DistributedFeedBack)Lasers
y Typicaldistributedfeedback(DFB)laser configurationisshowninFig.
ThelasingactionisobtainedfromtheincorporatedBraggreflectorsor
distributedfeedbackcorrugationsalongthelengthofthediode.
y Theopticalradiationwithintheresonancecavityofalaserdiodesetsupa
patternofelectricandmagneticfieldlinescalledthemodesofthecavity.
y Themodesofthecavitycanbeseparatedintotwoindependentsetsof
transverseelectric(TE)andtransversemagnetic(TM)modes.
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y ThelongitudinalmodesarerelatedtothelengthL ofthecavityand
determinetheprincipalstructureofthefrequencyspectrumofthe
emittedopticalradiation.
y SinceL ismuchlargerthanthelasingwavelengthof~1m,many
longitudinalmodescanexist.
y Lateralmodeslieintheplaneofthepn junction.Thesemodesdependon
thesidewallpreparationandthewidthofthecavity,anddeterminethe
shapeofthelateralprofileofthelaserbeam.
y TransversemodesareassociatedwiththeEMfieldandbeamprofilein
thedirectionperpendiculartotheplaneofthepn junction.
y Thesemodeslargelydeterminesuchlasercharacteristicsastheradiation
patternandthethresholdcurrentdensity.
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y Todeterminethelasingconditionsandtheresonantfrequencies, we
expresstheEMwavepropagatinginthelongitudinaldirectionin terms
oftheelectricfieldphasor
E(z,t)=I(z).exp[j(t z)]
whereI(z) istheopticalfieldintensity, istheopticalradianfrequency,
and isthepropagationconstant.
y Thestimulatedemissionrateintoagivenmodeisproportionaltothe
intensityoftheradiationinthatmode.
y Theradiationintensityataphotonenergyh variesexponentiallywith
thedistancez thatittraversesalongthelasingcavityaccordingtothe
relationship
I(z)=I(0).exp{[g(h) ~(h)]z}
whereg isthegaincoefficientintheFabryPerotcavity,~ isthe
effectiveabsorptioncoefficientofthematerialintheopticalpath,and
istheopticalfieldconfinementfactor thefractionofopticalpower
intheactivelayer.
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y Lasingoccurswhenthegainofguidedmodesexceedtheopticalloss
duringoneroundtripthroughthecavity.
radiationarereflectedfromthelaserends.
y R1 andR2 aretheFresnelreflectioncoefficientsfortheopticalreflection
atinterfacebetweenmaterialshavingrefractiveindicesn1 andn2 given
by
R =[(n1n2)/(n1+n2)]2
y Fromthislasingcondition,becomes
I(2L)=I(0)R1R2.exp{2L[g(h) ~(h)]}
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y Atthelasingthreshold,asteadystateoscillationtakesplace,andthe
magnitudeandphaseofthereturnedwavemustbeequaltothoseof
theoriginalwave:
and
I(2L)=I(0)fortheamplitude
exp[j2L]=1 forthephase.
y Thisequationgivesinformationconcerningtheresonantfrequencies
oftheFabryPerotcavity.
y Theconditiontojustreachthelasingthresholdisthepointat which
theopticalgainisequaltothetotallosst inthecavity.
y Hencethisconditionis
gth =t
=~ +(1/2L).ln(1/R1R2)
=~ + end
whereend isthemirrorlossinthelasingcavity
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y Forlasingtooccur,wemusthavethegaing > gth.Thismeansthatthe
pumpingsourcethatmaintainsthepopulationinversionmustbe
sufficientlystrongtosupportorexceedalltheenergyconsuming
mechanismswithinthelasingcavity.
y Therelationshipbetweenopticaloutputpoweranddiodedrivecurrentis
presentedinFig.
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ModesandThresholdConditions
y Atlowdiodecurrents,onlyspontaneousradiationisemitted.Boththespectralrange
andthelateralbeamwidthofthisemissionarebroadlikethatofanLED.
y Adramaticandsharplydefinedincreaseinthepoweroutputoccursatthelasing
threshold.Asthistransitionpointisapproached,thespectralrangeandthebeamwidth
bothnarrowwithincreasingdrivecurrent.
y Thefinalspectralwidthof~1nmandthefullynarrowedlateral beamwidthofnominally
510 arereachedjustpastthethresholdpoint.
y Thethreshold current Ith isdefinedbyextrapolationofthelasingregionofthecurve,as
showninFig.
y Athighpoweroutputs,theslopeofthecurvedecreasesbecauseofjunctionheating.
y Forlaserstructurewithstrongcarrierconfinement,thethresholdcurrentDensityfor
stimulatedemissioncanbewellapproximatedby:
g th = J th
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LaserDiodeRateEquations
Forapn junctionwithacarrierconfinementregionofdepthd :
y The rateequation governsthenumberofphotons isgivenby
d /dt =Cn +Rsp /ph
=stimulatedemission+spontaneousemission+photonloss.
y The rateequation governsthenumberofelectronsnisgivenby
interactions;
y Rsp istherateofspontaneousemissionintothelasingmode,
y ph isthephotonlifetime,
y sp isthespontaneousrecombinationlifetime,
andJ istheinjectioncurrentdensity.
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LaserDiodeRateEquations
y AssumingRsp negligibleandnotingthatd/dt mustbepositivewhen is
small,wehave
Cn 1/ph > 0
Thisshowsthatn mustexceedathresholdvaluenth for toincrease.
y ThethresholdvaluecanbeexpressedintermsofthethresholdcurrentJth
thelasingthreshold aresolvedwith
0=Cnths +Rsp s/ph
0=J/qd nth/sp Cnths
wheres isthesteadystatephotondensity.
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LaserDiodeRateEquations
y Addingaboveequationsandsolvingfors yieldsthenumberof
photonsperunitvolume:
s =(ph/qd)(JJth) phRsp
y The1st terminthisequationisthenumberofphotonsresultingfrom
stimulatedemission(Thepowerisconcentratedinoneorafewmodes).
y The2nd termintheaboveequationgivesthespontaneouslygenerated
photons.(Thepowerisnotmodeselective).
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Externalquantum efficiency
y Numberofphotonsemittedperradiativeelectronholepairrecombination
abovethreshold,givesustheexternalquantumefficiency.
ext =
i ( g th )
g th
q dP
dP(mW)
=
= 0.8065[ m]
E g dI
dI (mA)
y Notethat:
i 60 % 70 %;
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ResonantFrequencies
y Theconditionexp[j2L]=1holdswhen2L =2m,wheremisan
integer.
m =L/(/2n)=(2Ln/c) ;wherec=.
y Thecavityresonateswhenanintegernumbermofhalfwavelengths
spanstheregionbetweenthemirrors.
y Therelationshipbetweengainandfrequencycanbeassumedtohave
theGaussianform
g()=g(0)exp[(o)2/22]
whereo isthewavelengthatthecenterofthespectrum, isthe
spectralwidthofthegain,andthemaximumgaing(0)isproportional
tothepopulationinversion.
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LaserDiodeRateEquations
y TheoutputspectrumofamultimodelaserfollowstheplotgiveninFig.
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LaserDiodeRateEquations
y Tofindthefrequencyspacing,considersuccessivemodesof
frequenciesm1 andm.wehave
m1=(2Ln/c)m1 andm=(2Ln/c)m
y Subtractingthesetwoequationsyields
(2Ln/c)(m m1)=(2Ln/c)()=1
fromwhichwehavethefrequencyandwavelengthspacingas
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ResonantFrequencies
y Example:
AGaAslaseroperatingat850nmhasa500mlengthanda
refractiveindexn=3.7.Whatarethefrequencyandwavelength
spacings?If,atthehalfpowerpoint, o =2nm,whatisthe
spectralwidth ofthegain?
y Solution:
=81GHz,
=0.2nm.
withg()=0.5g(0) =1.70nm.
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ModulationofLaserDiodes
ModulationofLDscanberealizedby:
y DirectModulation
varyingthelaserdrivecurrentwiththeinformationstreamto
produceavaryingopticaloutputpower.
y ExternalModulation
neededforhighspeedsystems(>2.5Gb/s)tominimize
undesirablenonlineareffectssuchachirping.
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ModulationofLaserDiodes
y LimitationonLDsModulationRate:
9 Thespontaneouslifetime sp isafunctionofthesemiconductor
bandstructureandthecarrierconcentration.
9 Thestimulatedcarrierlifetimest dependsontheopticaldensity
inthelasingcavityandisontheorderof10ps.
9 Thephotonlifetimeph istheaveragetimethatthephoton
residesinthelasingcavitybeforebeinglosteitherbyabsorption
orbyemissionthroughthefacets
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ModulationofLaserDiodes
y AttheonsetsofacurrentpulseIp,aperiodoftimetd givenby
averagecarrierlifetimeinthecombinationregionwhenthetotal
currentI =Ip +IB isclosetoIth.
y Thedelaytimecanbeeliminatedbydcbiasingthediodeatthelasing
thresholdcurrent.
y Pulsemodulationiscarriedoutbymodulatingthelaserinthe
operatingregionabovethreshold.
y Inthisregion,thecarrierlifetimeisshortenedtothestimulated
emissionlifetime,sothathighmodulationratesarepossible.
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ModulationofLaserDiodes
y Whenusingadirectlymodulatedlaserdiodeforhighspeedtransmission
systems,themodulationfrequencycanbenolargerthanthefrequencyof
therelaxationoscillationsofthelaserfield.
y Therelaxationoscillationdependsonboththespontaneouslifetimeand
thephotonlifetime.
y Foralineardependenceoftheopticalgainoncarrierdensity,the
relaxationoscillationoccursapproximatelyat
f =(1/2).[1/(spph)1/2].[I/Ith 1]1/2
y Sincesp is~1nsandph is~2psfora300mlonglaser,thenwhenthe
injectioncurrentI isabouttwicethethresholdcurrentIth,themaximum
modulationfrequencyisafewGHz.
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ModulationofLaserDiodes
y Exampleofalaserhavingrelaxationoscillationpeakat3GHzis
showninFig.
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LaserNoise
y Modal(speckel)Noise:
Fluctuationsinthedistributionofenergyamongvariousmodes.
y ModepartitionNoise:
Intensityfluctuationsinthelongitudinalmodesofalaserdiode,
mainsourceofnoiseinsinglemodefibersystems.
y ReflectionNoise:
Lightoutputgetsreflectedbackfromthefiberjointsintothelaser,
coupleswithlasingmodes,changingtheirphase,andgeneratenoise
peaks.Isolators&indexmatchingfluidscaneliminatethese
reflections
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LIGHTSOURCELINEARITY
y IntheFig.,theelectricanalogsignals(t) isusedtomodulate
directlyanopticalsourceaboutabiaspointIB.Withnosignal
input,theopticalpoweroutputisPt.
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LIGHTSOURCELINEARITY
y Whenthesignals(t)isapplied,theopticaloutputpowerP(t)is
P(t)=Pt[1+ms(t)]
y Here,m isthemodulationindex definedas
m =I /IB
confinedtothelinearregionofthePIcurve.
y IfI >IB (i.e.,m >100%),thelowerportionofthesignalgetscutoffand
severedistortionwillresult.
y Typical m valuesforanalogapplicationsrangefrom0.25to0.50.
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LIGHTSOURCELINEARITY
y Ifthesignalinputtoanonlineardeviceisasimplecosinewavex(t)=Acost,
theoutputwillbe
spuriouscomponentsatzerofrequency,atthe2nd harmonicfrequency2,at
the3rd harmonicfrequency3,andsoon.
y Theaboveeffectisknownasharmonicdistortion.Theamountofnthorder
distortionisgivenby
nthorderharmonicdistortion=20log(An/A1)
y Todetermineintermodulationdistortion (IMD),themodulatingsignalof
nonlineardeviceistakentobex(t)=A1cos1t +A2cos2t.
wherem,n =0,1,2,3,...
Thissignalincludesalltheharmonicsof1 and2 plus1 + 2,1 + 22,andso
on.
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